University  of  California  •  Berkeley 


THE 
NEW   SOUTH. 


A   DESCRIPTION  OF  THE   SOUTHERN   STATES,   NOTING   EACH   STATE    SEPARATELY* 

AND   GIVING   THEIR   DISTINCTIVE   FEATURES   AND    MOST 

SALIENT   CHARACTERISTICS. 


BY    M.    B.    HILLY ARD. 

\\ 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  CO. 
BALTIMORE,  MD. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1887, 

BY  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  CO. 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Press  of 

Record  Printing  Ho^^sft 
Baltimore,  Md. 


14- 
1  i 


PREFACE. 


This  book  represents,  in  a  measure,  aspirations  long  cherished  by  the  author 
to  do  something  of  service  for  the  South — his  adopted,  loved  home. 

The  name  "New  South"  is  one  as  much  my  own  as  it  is  that  of  any  one,  as 
it  was  used  by  me  in  a  pamphlet  published  some  eight  years  ago  of  much  more 
limited  scope  than  this  work.  So  much  as  to  my  right  to  use  a  title  quite  hack- 
neyed of  late. 

It  is  a  friendly  criticism  of  this  book,  that  so  little  of  it  \&  my  own,  and  so 
much  that  of  others;  but  the  intention  of  the  book  was  to  convict  and  persuade, 
and  not  merely  to  furnish  a  vehicle  for  my  thoughts.  The  labor  l>as  lain  much  in 
research  and  selection.  There  are  some  great  results  certain  to  be  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  the  subject-matter  of  others. 

It  will  be  observed  that  much  of  the  material  is  taken  from  the  reports  of  the 
last  (tenth)  census  of  the  United  States.  There  are  two  facts  about  this  report. 
It  is  a  work  of  experts,  is  thorough,  and  commends  itself  to  the  scientific.  Fol- 
lowing it,  one  is  sure  to  be  correct,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  have  for  the  topic  the  best 
judgment  of  the  day.  In  the  next  place,  the  United  States  Government  has  set 
the  seal  of  its  approbation  upon  its  pages.  This  makes  it,  to  the  last  degree, 
authoritative  and  current  with  the  world.  No  higher  sanctions  are  to  be  expected. 
Foreign  peoples  can  desire  nothing  more.  The  people,  outside  the  South,  of  the 
United  States  cannot  consider  the  views  as  sectional  and  biased  in  favor  of  the 
South.  As  to  the  use  of  material  gathered  from  the  books  issued  by  some  of  the 
Southern  States,  there  is  this  advantage:  I  cannot  be  said  to  have  misstated 
matters  as  to  anything  or  section  I  have  noticed. 

In  quoting  I  have  constantly  felt  embarrassed  by  the  difficulty  in  selecting 
how  little  to  insert.  Doubtless  my  sense  of  proportion  at  times  (and  may  be 
often)  has  been  at  fault.  There  is  more  said  about  one  locality  than  ought  to  be, 
and  too  little  or  nothing  about  another.  This  last  state  of  affairs  (which  inheres 
in  the  magnitude  of  the  subject)  has  been  a  source  of  pain  all  the  way  through 
the  preparation  of  the  book.  But  there  was  nothing  sinister  about  this,  and  it 
must  pass  with  the  above  explanation. 

Another  difficulty  has  been  in  the  necessity  for  compression.  The  material 
lias  swollen  far  beyond  any  expectation ;  the  use  of  it  beyond  the  original  design. 
In  my  appreciation  of  the  style  and  subject-matter  of  those  I  have  quoted,  I  have 
often  been  beguiled  beyond  limits  compatible  with  a  just  allotment  of  space. 
Some  States  have  not  had  the  same  space  as  is  given  to  others.  I  have  often 
failed,  through  lack  of  space,  to  quote  from  authors  who  have  given  much  to  the 
world,  of  value  about  one  and  another  Southern  State. 

In  the  handling  of  the  geological  features  of  some  of  the  States,  I  have  fol- 
lowed, or  at  least  tried  to  follow,  the  work  of  eminent  geologists. 

Throughout  the  book,  wherever  has  been  found  any  subject-matter  which 
could  be  used,  I  have  preferred  to  give  it,  rather  than  to  write  of  the  topic  myself. 
But  there  can  really  be  no  good  excuse  for  a  bad  book ;  and  I  can  only  hope  that 


4  PREFACE. 

my  good  intentions  may  make  this  not  utterly  contemned  by  the  critics,  if  any 
one  should  condescend  to  notice  it. 

To  be  sure,  I  would  fain  plead  many  excuses ;  but  what  has  the  world  to  do 
with  that  ?  I  have  dared  to  print  a  book.  It  has  no  excuse  for  being  but  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  something. 

Certainly  no  one  will  be  apt  to  find  in  it  as  many  defects  as  I.  As  I  have 
gone  along,  the  disproportion  between  my  conception  and  execution  has  caused 
many  regrets.  But,  in  one  sense,  I  owe  no  apology  or  excuse  for  this  business. 
My  intention  has  been  to  do  "  the  State  some  service."  It  is  my  hope  that  I  have 
done  it.  This  aspiration  for  usefulness  sanctions  and  even  dignifies  the  work. 

This  book  had  much  of  its  suggestion  in  my  own  wants.  Having  studied  the 
South  for  a  number  of  years,  and  having  traveled  over  much  of  it,  I  was  con- 
stantly reminded  how  little  I  knew  of  it.  Often  wishing  to  know  of  one  and 
another  thing  in  the  South,  I  found  that  I  had  to  hunt  it  up.  This  was  suggestive. 
I  thought  that  if  I,  who  was  somewhat  conversant  with  the  South,  had  to  study 
in  order  to  discover  thus  and  so,  how  must  it  be  with  those  who  had  never  studied 
the  South  at  all?  Who  had  never  even  thought  of  it  as  a  field  for  capital  or  enter- 
prise, a  home,  a  resort  for  health  ?  Then  I  was  struck  with  the  fact  that  there 
was  no  one  book  (according  to  my  information)  treating  of  the  South  as  a  whole. 
Here,  it  seemed,  was  an  opportunity  to  serve  the  South,  and  meet  what  I  regard 
as  the  great  need  of  the  time— accurate,  unbiased  information  about  the  whole 
South. 

Any  one  appreciating  the  largeness  of  the  aim,  the  pressing  needs  of  the 
occasion,  can  see  how  poorly  the  work  has  been  performed.  But  I  have  given 
the  cue  to  book-makers,  and  think  I  have  said  something  that  the  world  wishes 
to  know. 

The  South  is  now  exciting  more  interest  than  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe 
as  to  its  mineral  resources.  It  has  other  claims  upon  the  world's  attention,  and  I 
have  tried  to  portray  some  of  them.  The  aim  of  this  book  is  to  show  what  the 
South  is,  how  she  has  progressed,  and  to  conjecture  somewhat  what  she  may  be. 

The  introduction  is  mostly  my  own.  Most  of  the  matter  about  the  States  is 
a  compilation.  I  have  always  tried  to  give  due  credit  to  all  from  whom  I  have 
quoted ;  always  aimed  to  give  their  sense ;  have  never  garbled. 

It  is  my  offering  of  love  to  the  South. 


INTRODUCTION. 


At  the  close  of  the  late  civil  war  the  South  was  crushed  as  hardly  any  country 
in  the  world's  history  ever  was.  In  all  other  wars,  no  matter  what  devastations 
«nsued,  the  labor  element  was  not  paralyzed.  With  the  return  of  peace,  rudi- 
mentary and  fundamental  industries  resumed  their  swray.  The  farmer  returned 
to  his  plow;  the  artisan  to  his  trade.  At  the  South,  the  enfranchised  negro,  in. 
the  wild  ferment  of  his  spirits,  and  the  most  emotional  of  races,  uneducated, 
utterly  improvident,  with  no  conception  of  the  meaning  of  his  intoxicating  boon, 
reveled  in  coarse  and  giddy  idleness.  Slavery  had  meant  to  him  work  and  sub- 
jection to  the  will  of  another.  Freedom  must  mean  idleness  and  the  pursuit  of 
his  whims !  Honce,  the  fields  were  largely  deserted ;  and  the  negro,  naturally 
very  gregarious,  crowded  to  the  cities  and  towns.  Agriculture,  the  true  power 
and  beneficence  of  which  is  never  so  well  demonstrated  as  after  the  close  of 
greatly  devastating  wars,  did  not  allure  back  to  the  fields  its  old  denizens.  This 
disinclination  to  the  field  was  intensified  in  the  negro  by  the  creation  of  the 
Freedman's  Bureau,  an  institution  inaugurated  by  the  Federal  Government  for 
the  support  of  the  indigent.  To  this  the  negroes  flocked  in  great  numbers,  and 
finding  a  support  there,  declined  for  some  time  to  work. 

The  close  of  the  war  found  the  white  man  generally  not  only  not  inured  to 
field  labor,  but  ignorant  of  it.  During  the  existence  of  slavery  the  professions 
were  the  walks  of  the  young  men,  or  lives  of  extravagant  ease  or  luxurious 
idleness.  Those  who  were  not  busy  in  their  professions  or  had  none,  led  such  a 
holiday  life  as  would  be  difficult  to  furnish  an  adequate  description  of.  Some 
traveled;  some  spent  their  time  between  the  library  and  the  parlor;  many  led  a 
life  of  revelry — fun,  frolic,  dissipation;  they  were  great  riders  and  fine  shots; 
they  had  their  kennels  and  their  thoroughbred  horses.  The  softer  aspects  of  this 
gay  and  sumptuous  life  could  furnish  some  beautiful  matter  for  the  poet  and 
novelist. 

The  wrar  came.  The  young  men  and  the  old  flocked  to  it  as  to  a  festival.  It 
was  a  sort  of  carnival  of  patriotism.  Many  fell  in  battle ;  many  came  wounded 
or  dismembered  home.  Had  these  known  how  to  work,  they  could  not.  They 
knew  nothing  of  agriculture.  The  negro  was  hard  to  persuade  to  the  fields,  and 
many  would  not  go.  Another  difficulty  was  that  the  war  had  swept  away  the 
horses  and  mules.  These  had  to  be  supplied  and  bought  on  credit  at  extravagant 
prices.  Breadstuffs  were  exceedingly  high,  and  must  be  bought  on  credit. 
Another  phase  was,  that,  under  slavery,  the  credit  of  planters  was  very  high, 
and  they  very  generally  had  expended  the  value  of  the  year's  crop  before  it  was 
made.  This  indebtedness  caught  them  behindhand  with  merchants  at  the  incep- 
tion of  the  war.  Generally,  the  merchants,  from  patriotic  motives,  forbore 
pressing  their  claims. 

At  the  close  of  the  war  the  soldiers  found  themselves,  very  generally,  heavily 
in  debt  to  merchants ;  fences  in  ruin  ;  implements  of  agriculture  gone,  useless  or 
only  semi-serviceable;  mules  and  horses  killed,  half  starved  or  gone;  labor  disor- 


INTRODUCTION. 

ganized,  with  the  rank  must  of  freedom  fermenting  in  the  blood  and  turning  the 
brain  of  former  slaves. 

Cotton  was  high  in  price.  Almost  every  one  turned  to  making  cotton  on. 
high-priced  hay,  pork,  mules,  corn,  etc.  Cotton  fell  so  enormously  in  price  that 
it  brought  utter  ruin  to  many,  and  loaded  the  South  with  a  burden  of  indebted- 
ness to  the  merchants  that  is  still  weighing  her  down.  Had  there  been  little  or 
no  cotton  raised  that  awful  year,  the  South  would  long  ago  have  been  on  her  feet; 
but  the  old  indebtedness  of  ante  bellum  days,  and  the  added  indebtedness  of  the 
great  losses  by  cotton-raising,  tightened  the  manacles  upon  the  Southern  planter, 
and  many  are  yet  in  the  bonds. 

The  merchant,  virtually  owning  the  land  of  the  planter,  has  been  enabled  to 
dictate  his  methods.  The  planter  must  raise  cotton,  and  buy  pork,  corn,  hay,  etc. 
These  breadstuff's  the  planter  has  been  compelled  to  pay  high  prices  for  to  the 
merchants  who  have  liens  upon  the  land. 

Between  the  fatuity  of  the  planter  in  raising  cotton  and  buying  pork,  corn, 
hay,  etc.,  voluntarily,  and  the  enforced  raising  of  cotton  and  buying  of  breadstuff's 
in  the  manner  above  stated,  lie  the  explanation  of  the  depressed  condition  of  the 
South  so  long  after  the  war.  Along  with  these  reasons,  and  subordinate  to  them, 
are  questions  of  lien  law,  modes  of  wages,  etc.,  which  cannot  here  be  elaborated. 

It  is  said  above  that  the  abolition  of  slavery,  in  connection  with  other  condi- 
tions consequent  upon  the  war,  paralyzed  the  South;  but  in  parts  of  the  South 
there  were  notable  exceptions  to  the  effects  of  the  abolition  of  slavery.  These 
exceptions  were  with  the  poor  white  men  who  either  owned  no  slaves  or  very 
few.  These  people  were  generally  poor,  uneducated  and  industrious.  They 
worked  in  the  field  and  taught  their  children  to  work.  If  they  owned  a  few 
slaves,  they  went  to  the  field  and  worked  with  them.  They  owned  small  farms, 
and  generally  lived  rather  remote  from  centres  of  trade.  They  raised  their  own 
corn  and  pork,  "made"  some  oatsjfLnd  wheat,  made  their  own  molasses.  They 
kept  a  few  cattle.  The  wife  and  daughters  made  some  butter,  raised  poultry,  and, 
in  many  instances,  spun  and  wove  the  wool  clipped  from  the  sheep  raised  at  home. 
The  home  was  "homely,"  and  made  of  logs,  perhaps.  Father  and  sons  were  good 
shots;  and  the  wild  turkey,  the  deer,  squirrel  and  bear  frequently  fell  beneath 
their  rifle.  These  people  were  self-supporting.  If  they  raised  a  little  cotton, 
instead  of  paying  the  merchants  bills  for  advances  to  them,  the  money  from  its 
sale,  after  buying  some  coffee  and  clothing,  went  back  to  the  home,  to  be  put  in 
the  family  bank,  (the  home-knit  stocking,)  or  to  be  buried  in  the  garden  or  forest. 

The  lives  of  these  people  had  two  great  lessons  for  the  world  and  the  South. 
They  were  living  refutations  of  the  old  dogma  that  white  people  could  not  stand 
labor  in  the  field.  .Despite  bad  houses,  indifferent  food,  too  free  use  of  tobacco  by 
both  sexes,  large  potations  of  black  coffee,  and  great  disregard  of  weather  in  v:ork 
or  play,  no  people  could  well  be  more  healthy  than  they.  The  children  were 
chubby,  rosy,  robust,  and  with  constitutions  like  a  wild  cat.  The  women  were 
fecund  beyond  belief.  The  staple  argument  in  defense  of  slavery  was  that  the 
negro  was  a  necessity  to  the  South,  because  no  one  but  the  negro  could  stand  the 
hot  suns  in  the  field.  Here,  now,  was  this  white  man,  with  his  children,  working 
from  sunrise  to  sunset.  He  w^s'"there  in  the  mountains  of  Virginia,  North  and 
South  Carolina,  Georgia;  in  thd'liills  of  Alabama;  the  pine  woods  of  Mississippi,. 
Florida,  Louisiana,  and  the  other  States  above  named.  He  was  too  poor  to  own 
rich  lands.  Strange  that  the  world  has  not  learned  that  there  were  tens  of 
thousands  of  white  workers  in  the  field  before  the  war  who  did  just  as  good  and 
rather  better  work  than  the  slave,  and  at  the  same  work  ! 

Somewhat  before  and  much' since  the  war,  this  poor  white  man  had  another 
great  lesson  for  the  world— that  the  South  need  not  go  to  the  West  for  bread- 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

stuffs.  "What  could  be  bought  of  the  latter  at  the  far-off  town  that  he  did  not 
raise  at  home?  His  hogs  did  not  even  cost  him  corn,  as  they  do  West.  They 
ranged  in  the  woods  all  the  year,  and  in  winter  were  fat  on  the  mast  of  oak, 
beech,  chestnut,  hickory,  etc.  He  did  not  even  have  to  fence  them  in;  they  ranged 
on  his  neighbor.  If  he  wished  to  improve  his  lard,  he  fed  them  on  corn  a  few 
weeks  before  killing  them.  That's  how  much  his  pork  cost.  As  to  corn,  he  had 
it  early  and  late.  He  planted,  in  some  parts  of  the  country  in  question,  in  Feb- 
ruary, and  he  could  plant  in  June  and  make  a  crop.  He  ate  "  roasting  ears  "  long 
alter  the  cold  weather  had  set  in  North  and  West.  Everybody  raised  com.  Even 
many  of  the  richest  planters  would  scorn  to  buy  corn.  In  many  places  it  was  not 
worth  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel,  and,  indeed,  there  was  no  market  for  it.  It  was 
a  drug.  Why  then  should  Western  farmers  still  believe  that  because  the  South 
has  been  long  (since  the  war)  buying  their  corn  at  high  prices,  she  cannot  raise 
it?*  As  to  wheat,  barley,  rye  and  oats,  almost  every  farmer  had  a  patch  of  one 
or  more  of  these.  The  wheat  was  to  be  ground  into  flour  at  the  mill  near  by. 
The  rye  or  barley  was  for  winter  pasture  for  his  calves  and  milch  cows.  The 
patch  had  been  "cow-penned"  for  a  year  or  so  before  breaking  up,  so  as  to  enrich 
it.  Some  of  the  rye  would  be  kept  to  be  parched  and  mixed  with  the  coffee.  The 
oats  might  "  rust,"  but  anyhow  they  were  to  be  tried.  (They  have  an  oat  now  that 
don't  rust,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best  and  heaviest  known— the  "red  rust-proof.") 
Near  by  was  his  patch  of  cane.  From  that  he  would  make  his  molasses  (deli- 
cious, too,  aud  pure,)  and  his  brown  sugar.  The  latter  would  do  good  service  in 
preserving  the  plums  that  grew  wild  in  such  profusion,  and  for  the  same  service 
to  the  apples  and  delicious  seedling  peaches,  strawberries  and  blackberries  wild 
on  the  farm. 

These  are  a  few  features  of  a  poor  picture  of  tens  of  thousands  of  families jn 
the  Southern  States  before  and  after  the  war.  I  have  gone  about  in  travel  con- 
siderably, and  I  never  saw  a  man  who  raised  his  own  corn  and  pork  that  was  not 
doing  well.  Rich  he  might  not  be ;  but  he  wras  almost  always  out  of  debt,  and  a 
little  ahead.  I  have  seen  people  in  my  rambles  who  never  bought  a  bushel  of  corn 
or  wheat  or  a  pound  of  flour  or  bacon ;  they  always  raised  these.  These  men 
were  mostly  the  poor  men  we  have  been  speaking  of.  To  most  of  them  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  meant  no  loss,  for  they  never  owned  a  slave.  It  did  mean  rather 
better  social  conditions  for  them,  for  it  gave  them  contacts  and  associations  they  . 
never  had  before.  They  have  become  to  be  more  respected  and  much  endeared 
now,  in  the  new  and  greater  labor-respecting  spirit  of  the  South.  The  best  work 
these  men  have  done  for  the  South  is  not  only  in  preserving  the  sacred  fire  of 
industry,  but  by  the  lessons  almost  unconsciously  learned  by  the  South  from  their 
teachings  of  self-support.  Year  by  year  the  South  has  seen  these  patient,  indus- 
trious fellows,  with  no  aspirations  of  getting  rich  in  a  year  or  two,  gradually 
adding  to  their  acres;  raising  all  they  consume;  selling  a  surplus  of  cotton  or 
sugar  or  tobacco,  and  laying  by  the  money.  The  rich  men  or  the  large  land- 
owners have  caught  the  hint,  and  they,  too,  are  raising  their  own  supplies.  The 
merchants,  in  many  instances,  are  encouraging  this;  and  so,  a.  new  system  is 
growing  up.  I  repeat  it,  that  I  think  the  spirit  of  home  production ;  the  enlarg- 
ing habit  of  self-support,  ever  widening  and  deepening  in  the  South,  owe  their 
inception  and  restoration  and  most  forcible  commendation  to  these  poor  whites. 
To  demonstrate  this  position,  it  could  be  shown  how  the  counties  in  the  States 
where  this  class  lived,  raised,  through  all  the  latter  years,  the  large  proportion  of 
breadstuffs.  But,  howsoever  these  things  be,  the  fact  is  undeniable  that  the  South, 


*The  seat  of  corn  production  was  formerly  in  the  South.  *  *  *  In  1849,  fifteen  Southern  States 
produced  59  per  cent,  of  the  crop. — Report  of  the  Statistician,  page  584,  in  Agricultural  Report  for 
1881  and  1882. 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

year  by  year,  is  increasing  the  quantity  of  her  breadstuffs.  This  will  be  shown ; 
and  the  facts  will  surprise  others,  as  they  have  me,  notwithstanding  some  con- 
versancy  with  Southern  progress.  Let  us,  however,  not  go  on  with  this  topic 
until  we  look,  in  a  very  general  and  cursory  way,  at  some  aspects  of  life  after  the 
war  that  should  not  be  forgotten. 

It  were  a  conscious  and  almost  criminal  dereliction  to  pass  by,  without  a 
word  of  comment  and  reprobation,  some  of  the  enormities  that  disgraced  that 
regime  and  afflicted  the  South.  "Law,"  instead  of  being  "beneficence  acting 
according  to  rule,"  was  enthroned  corruption,  caprice,  vindictiveness  or  igno- 
rance— one  or  more.  Some  judges,  ignorant  of  everything  like  law,  and  informed 
only  to  subserve  the  ends  of  their  appointment  or  their  own  aggrandizement, 
were  installed.  Not  only  could — 

"  Offense's  gilded  hand  shove  by  justice," — 

but  "  the  wicked  prize  "  could  "  buy  out  the  law."  Ex  parte  processes  issued  out- 
side legal  forums  and  in  infamous  privacies,  marked  some  proceedings.  Decisions 
were  delivered  that  overthrew  established  law,  and  still  continue,  as  the  comment 
upon  their  authors,  upon  the  records. 

No  better  service  could  be  performed  to  future  ages  than  a  collection  of  the 
judicial  decisions  of  that  time — decisions  often  the  dictates  of  the  grossest  igno- 
rance; oftener,  perhaps,  of  corruption.  Their  authors  should  be  forever  pilloried 
in  public  contempt  by  the  publication  of  a  collectania  juridica,  and  so  be  rescued 
from  their  perishable  infamy  and  made  immortal. 

Many  of  the  creatures  in  the  halls  of  legislation  wrere  past  belief  and  descrip- 
tion. A  troop  of  gibbering  apes  tricked  in  the  paraphernalia  of  power,  and 
playing  at  kings,  would  be  a  mild  mockery  of  state,  compared  to  the  grotesque 
and  groveling  saturnalia  of  that  wild  and  hideous  rabble  in  those  dark  and  direful 
days.  No  legislation  could  be  procured  without  bribery,  except  such  as  inured  to 
the  corrupt  or  vindictive  purposes  of  dominant  partisanship.  Enormous  taxes 
were  laid,  not  for  the  furtherance  of  material  development,  but  with  predetermi- 
nations to  constitute  a  fund  of  corruption  and  plunder.  Legislatures  were  over- 
thrown by  a  hostile  soldiery  at  the  bidding  of  mercenary,  partisan  governors — an 
anachronism  of  usurpation.  Thieves,  peculators  and  murderers  were  impaneled 
as  grand  jurors  by  corrupt  sheriffs,  to  protect  themselves  from  indictment.  Pro- 
fessional bribe-takers  in  platoons  of  lazy,  ignorant  men,  hung  about  the  courts  of 
justice — tried  and  trusty  mercenaries — a  thoroughly  drilled  band  to  decide  upon 
the  lives  and  fortunes  of  the  people.  Perjury  was  a  pastime,  and  bribeiy  their 
"  bread  and  meat."  These  wretches  reveled  in  their  infamy — capable  of  any 
degradation;  glad  to  fulfill  the  behests  of  their  employers,  and  bidding  for  use  by 
ever  enlarging  capabilities  of  diabolism.  The  vast  debts  foisted  upon  the  com- 
monwealths, the  peculations  of  public  officials,  the  perversions  of  power,  the 
prostitutions  of  the  appliances  and  forms  of  law,  the  terrorisms  of  the  national 
military,  the  incredible  and  numerous  infamies  of  that  direful  day,  beggar  invec- 
tive. The  heroic  ages  of  plunder  and  infamy  in  any  civilization  never  furnished 
a  parallel;  and  nothing  but  an  elaborate  and  specific  enumeration  of  the  flagrant 
enormities  will  suffice  to  vindicate  to  the  impartial  reader  our  strictures,  because 
the  age  would  have  seemed  to  forbid  such  capabilities  of  atrocious  rascality. 

In  so  large  a  theme  as  an  attempt  to  depict  Southern  conditions,  progress, 
possibilities,  some  system  is  necessary  to  even  a  semblance  of  portraying  the 
most  salient  features  of  her  development  and  possibilities.  I  shall,  therefore, 
make  my  points  as  distinct  as  possible,  and  show  the  South  under  different 
aspects.  It  will  be  necessary  to  assume  more  or  less,  partly  from  lack  of  space ; 
partly  because,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  it  is  impossible  to  offer  demon- 
stration. As,  for  instance,  if  it  is  claimed  that  the  South  must  become  the  home 


INTRODUCTION. 


of  such  and  such  an  industry  which  does  not  yet  exist,  it  manifestly  is  impossible 
to  demonstrate  it.  But  I  think  these  assumptions  will  commend  themselves  to 
the  common  sense  or  reasoning  of  most  readers.  If,  however,  theyjbe  scouted,  I 
must  leave  them  to  time  for  corroboration.  Certain  assumptions  a  few  years  ago 
of  what  the  South  would  soon  become  were  flouted  as  preposterous.  They  are 
facts  of  terrible  meaning  now  to  those  within  the  sphere  of  her  competitions. 

One  of  the  most  striking  improvements  in  the  South  is  her  progress  in  agri- 
culture. This  is  very  noticeable  in  the  increased  production  of  staples,  but  it  is 
also  very  notable  for  new  agricultural  methods,  use  of  new  appliances,  and  the 
productions  from  the  soil  entirely  unknown  to  her  a  few  years  back.  In  cereals, 
as  the  following  table  will  show,  the  South  has  regained  and  even  surpassed  her 
production  before  the  war.  This  means,  at  least,  keeping  home  the  money  that 
she  has  been  paying  to  the  "West  until  of  late.  It  probably  means  more,  of  which 
something  hereafter,  perhaps.  But  always  let  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
measure  of  the  South's  supply  of  food  for  cattle  is  not  to  be  gauged  by  a  consid- 
eration of  her  product  of  corn  and  hay,  whenever  an  estimate  is  to  be  made  as  to 
what  she  will  need  for  home  consumption,  or  as  to  how  much  she  may  hereafter 
compete  with  the  North  and  West  in  their  own  markets  with  her  production  of 
corn,  oats  and  hay;  for  the  utilization  of  the  hitherto  neglected  cotton  seed  is  a 
powerful  factor  which  it  is  very  difficult  to  estimate;  and  the  fields  of  the  South, 
liereafter  to  be  green  most  of  the  winter,  for  pasture  for  cattle,  through  the  use  of 
clover,  Kentucky  blue-grass,  etc.,  is  an  element  of  competition  with  the  North 
and  West  (by  allowing  the  South  to  sell  corn,  hay  and  oats,)  which  is  absolutely 
imponderable.  But  to  the  facts  giving  some  aspects  of  cereal  production  in  the 
South.  As  illustrating  the  rapid  increase  in  this  direction,  I  have  compiled,  from 
the  official  reports  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Department,  the  statistics  of 
the  grain  crops  produced  in  the  Southern  States  in  1868  and  1885.  The  reports 
of  the  Agricultural  Department  unfortunately  do  not  cover  the  production  of 
rice,  sugar-cane,  fruits,  and  some  other  crops  which  form  a  very  important  feature 
of  Southern  agriculture.  The  yield  of  wheat,  corn  and  oats  in  the  South  in  1868 
and  1885  compare  as  follows,  (the  statistics  of  wheat  being  for  1886)  : 


MARYLAND.  1885. 

Indian  Corn, bus..  15,999,000 

Wheat,  "   ..  7,337,ooo 

Oats,  "  . .  2,475,000 

VIRGINIA. 

Indian  Corn, bus..  31,838,000 

Wheat,  "  ..  6,153,000 

Oats,  "  ..  8,664,000 

NORTH    CAROLINA. 

Indian  Corn, bus..  25,199,000 

Wheat,  "   ..  3,487,000 

Oats,  "  ..  4,483,000 

SOUTH   CAROLINA. 

Indian  Corn, bus. .  13,453,000 
Wheat,              "   ..        838,000 

Oats,  "  ..  3,510,000 

GEORGIA. 

Indian  Corn,  bus . .  32,162,000 

Wheat,  "  ..  1,621,000 

Oats,  "  ..  6,395,000 

FLORIDA. 

Indian  Corn, bus..  3,799,°°° 

Wheat, 

Oats,  "  . .        519,000 

ALABAMA 

Indian  Corn,  bus . .  3*>4°5,°°° 

Wheat,  "  ..  1,072,000 

Oats,  "  ..  4,915,000 


1868. 

12,349,000 
5,706,000 
6,096,000 


,000 
1,914,000 
8,671,000 


23,366,000 
2,971,000 
3,479,000 


9,870,000 
717,000 
629,000 


27,294,000 
1,832,000 
1,132,000 


2,950,000 


31,240,000 
829,000 
567,000 


MISSISSIPPI. 

Indian  Corn,  bus . 

Wheat, 

Oats,  "   . 

LOUISIANA. 

Indian  Corn,  bus. 
Wheat,  "   . 

Oats, 


1885. 

25,765,000 

173,000 

3,962,000 

15,410,000 
420,000 


TEXAS. 

Indian  Corn,  bus. .  84,406,000 
Wheat,  "     .    6,112,000 

Oats,  "   ..  14,211,000 


ARKANSAS. 

Indian  Corn,  bi 

Wheat, 

Oats,  " 


;..  38,309,000 
• .  1,878,000 
••  5,313,000 


TENNESSEE. 

Indian  Corn,  bus..  75, 581,000 
Wheat,  "   ..    8,749,000 

Oats,  "  . .  10,752,000 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Indian  Corn, bus..  15,827,000 
Wheat,  "  ..     3,321,000 

Oats,  "  ..    2,831,000 

KENTUCKY. 

Indian  Corn,  bus . .  90,569,000 
Wheat,  "   . .  12,785,000 

Oats,  "  . .  10,225,000 


1868. 

35,519,000 
242,000 
110,000 


17,397,000 
50,000 
57,000 


21,337,000 
389,000 
861,000 


32,449,000 

i  ,000,000 

439,000 


54,772,000 
6,137,000 
2,881,000 


7,695,000 
2,185,000 
1,755,000 


58,187,000 
2,850,000 
5,906,000 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


Summing  up  these  statistics,  the  production  of  cereals  in  the 
shown  to  be  as  follows,  (wheat  statistics  being  for  1886) : 


Maryland 15,999,000 

Virginia 31,838,000 

North  Carolina 25,199,000 

South  Carolina 13,457,000 

Georgia „ 3,216,000 

Florida 3,799,000 

Alabama 31,405,000 

Mississippi 25,765,000 

Louisiana 15,410,000 

Texas 84,406,003 

Arkansas 38,309,000 

Tennessee 75,581,000 

Kentucky 90,569,000 

West  Virginia 15,827,000 


WHEAT. 
7,337,000 
6,153,000 
3,487,000 
838,000 
1,621,000 


Total,  1885 473,776,000 

J868 354,124,000 

Increase 116,632,000 


1,072,000 
173,000 

6,112,000 
1,878,000 
8,749,000 
12,785,000 
3,321,000 

53,526,000 
31,822,000 

21,704,000 


South  in  1885 


2,475,000 
8,664,000 
4,483,000 
3,510,000 
6,395,000 
519,000 
4,915,000 
3,962,000 
420,000 
14,211,000 
5,313,000 
10,752,000 
10,225,000 
2,831,000 


78,675,000 
32,583,000 

46,092,000 


Thus,  despite  the  many  disadvantages  under  which  Southern  agriculture  has 
labored,  and  which  are  now  beginning  to  give  way,  the  South  increased  its  pro- 
duction of  grain  from  1868  to  1885  by  116,052,000  bushels  of  corn,  21,704,000 
bushels  of  wheat  and  46,092,000  bushels  of  oats,  or  an  aggregate  increase  of  the 
three  of  over  184,448,000  bushels — a  stupendous  gain  that  gives  promise  of  what 
may  be  expected  in  the  future,  now  that  Southern  farmers  are  turning  tlieir 
attention  more  and  more  to  diversified  agriculture,  finding  in  that  much  tetter 
success  than  in  the  all-cotton  system. 

It  is  quite  noteworthy,  as  shown  by  the  preceding  statistics,  how  the  product 
of  the  oat  has  increased  in  the  cotton-raising  States.  This  is  one  reason  why 
corn-raising  has  not  increased  more.  The  oat  crop  is  one  of  the  most  popular 
and  most  easily  produced  in  the  South — being  sown  in  the  fall,  generally,  and 
plowed  in  in  the  roughest  manner.  After  it  is  cut,  the  young  "crab"  (crop)  grass 
(paspalum  sanguinale)  comes  on,  and  gives  fine  pasture  until  frost. 

The  use  of  the  field  pea  in  the  South  has  increased  very  greatly  of  late.  It 
is  equivalent  to  a  considerable  production  of  corn,  as  it  feeds  both  man  and  beast, 
and,  indeed,  is  a  very  rich  food  for  cattle.  Indeed,  the  use  of  the  pea  and  cotton 
seed — the  latter  becoming  pretty  common — gives  to  the  corn  production  very 
much  greater  reach  and  scope  than  wTill  be  estimated  easily.  The  truth  is,  that 
between  the  uses  of  the  oat,  the  pea  and  cotton  seed,  and  increased  corn  produc- 
tion, foreign  hay  and  corn  are  about  banished  from  most  of  the  South. 

Some  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago,  timothy  hay  (rather  indifferent,  too,  sometimes,) 
was  selling  in  country  towns  in  Mississippi  at  from  forty  to  sixty  dollars  per  ton. 
Fine  timothy  hay  raised  near  can  now  be  bought  at  fifteen  dollars  per  ton  in  the 
same  towns.  Johnson  grass  hay,  in  placet,  has  entirely  displaced  all  Northern  hay. 

Western  corn,  only  a  few  years  ago,  (in  1881,)  was  selling  in  places  in  the 
South  at  one  dollar  and  a-half  on  credit,  and  a  dollar  cash.  Thousands  of  car- 
loads were  brought  in.  Now,  and  for  two  years,  corn  has  been  worth  in  the  same 
localities  only  from  thirty-five  to  fifty  cents  per  bushel.  It  may  seem  queer  to- 
say  that  this  is  a  blessing,  but  it  effectually  prevents  the  ingress  of  Western  corn, 
and  enables  the  farmer  to  make  cheap  cotton;  for  everything  south  of  North 
Carolina  seems  subordinated,  as  yet,  to  cotton-raising. 

Mention  was  made  a  little  back  of  the  improvement  in  agricultural  methods- 
South.  Every  one  at  all  conversant  with  Southern  agriculture  has  observed  the 
growth  of  what  is  known  in  parts  of  the  South  as  "intensive  farming."  Mr. 
Furman,  of  Georgia,  worthily  made  a  great  reputation  in  this  regard.  In  the 
article  on  Georgia,  his  method  will  be  given  in  his  own  language.  In  parts  of  the 
South,  lands  have  been  made  to  treble  their  former  product  in  one  and  another 


INTR  OD  UCTION.  1 1 

staple ;  and  cotton,  of  late,  has  been  produced,  by  the  use  of  fertilizers,  in  areas 
theretofore  considered  unavailable  for  this  plant.  Deep  ploughing,  drainage,  sub- 
soiling  and  ditching  are  coming  more  and  more  into  vogue,  and  their  effects  are 
seen  in  improved  health,  improved  lands  and  larger  crops.  New  appliances,  too, 
are  playing  their  part  in  the  new  agriculture  of  the  South.  The  number  of  reapers 
and  mowers,  sulky  cultivators,  riding  plows,  steel  plows,  seeders,  improved  har- 
rows, manure  distributors,  corn  and  cotton  planters,  threshers,  and  other  improved 
farming  utensils,  is  wonderful.  There  are  districts  where,  only  three  or  four  years 
ago,  nothing  but  the  wooden  mould-board  plow  was  found,  and  where  there  were 
no  sulky  cultivators  or  steel  plows,  where  now  hardly  an  old-fashioned  plow  is  to 
be  found.  Even  clover  hullers  are  being  introduced  here  and  there.  The  popu- 
larity of  all  these  new  implements  and  others  not  mentioned  is  the  sure  forerunner 
of  agricultural-implement  factories,  in  Which  the  cheap  iron  and  unequalled 
Southern  hard  woods  are  sure  to  find  a  place.  The  inauguration  of  these  factories 
at  eligible  points  South  offers  one  of  the  most  commanding  opportunities  to 
Northern  enterprise  and  capital. 

The  new  products  from,  or  in  connection  with,  the  soil  at  the  South  within  a 
few  years  will  defy  enumeration.  The  most  painstaking  reflection,  the  most 
elaborate  enumeration,  would  be  sure  to  leave  something  unnoted.  It  will  greatly 
assist  to  a  better  view  if  they  are  divided  into  classifications,  as  stock  raising, 
fruit  raising,  vegetable  raising,  the  cultivation  of  grasses,  and  miscellaneous — the 
latter  to  cover  poultry  raising,  bee  culture,  silk  culture,  jute  culture,  rice  culture 
the  culture  of  the  cane,  tobacco,  mint  culture,  broom  corn,  floriculture,  etc. 

Stock  raising  in  parts  of  the  South  has  long  been  in  vogue.  The  fine  sheep 
and  cuttle  of  Virginia  the  Northern  cities  more  contiguous  to  her  have  long 
known;  and  Kentucky,  in  her  "blue-grass  region,"  has  a  reputation  the  world 
over,  and  has  been  for  many  years  without  a  rival  or  peer  in  raising  short-horn 
cattle  and  thoroughbred  horses.  Thither  the  world  has  long  resorted  for  the  best 
of  these.  Other  parts  of  the  State  have  eclipsed  her  in  mule  raising,  and  some  of 
the  New  England  States  have  certainly  divided  honors  with  her  in  the  production, 
of  the  finest  sheep.  But  the  South,  as  a  whole,  has  never  been  considered,  is  not 
yet  regarded,  as  a  stock-raising  country.  Before  the  war  the  census  showed  some 
very  surprising  facts  about  her  ascendency  in  raising  hogs  and  common  cattle; 
but  this  is  not  to  be  designated  "stock  raising."  What  is  written  is  meant  to 
apply,  in  this  connection,  to  the  raising  of  thoroughbred  stock,  pedigreed  and 
registered.  Within  a  few  years,  and  even  within  five  years,  the  introduction  of 
registered  short-horn  and  Jersey  cattle,  and  their  increase,  has  been  most  marked. 
Tennessee  has  progressed  very  rapidly,  and  other  States  are  falling  into  line.  In 
Jerseys,  there  are  one  or  two  districts  in  the  South  where,  to  the  same  number  of 
breeders,  there  are  to  be  found  nowhere  in  ttie  United  States, -perhaps,  as  many 
registered  animals  owned.  East  Mississippi  and  Mobile,  Alabama,  are  particularly 
conspicuous. 

In  a  recent  trip,  made  with  the  special  purpose  of  seeing  the  breeders  of 
registered  cattle  in  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  I  was  greatly  surprised  at 
the  magnitude  of  the  business  of  breeding  registered  Jerseys.  The  breeders  of 
these  States  are  to  be  numbered  by  scores,  and  their  cattle  by  hundreds.  One 
breeder  has  over  two  hundred  head,  and  numbers  are  to  be  found  who  own 
upwards  of  fifty;  and  some  of  the  best  herds  in  the  country  are  to  be  found 
South.  In  short-horns  the  number  is  far  less,  especially  south  and  east  of  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee;  and  North  and  South  Carolina  are  very  noticeably 
embarked  in  breeding  these  cattle.  But  it  is  quite  certain  that  this  breed  is  a 
success  South,  notwithstanding  the  opinion  of  one  or  more  eminent  stock-raisers 
in  the  South  to  the  contrary.  There  are  several  parties  in  the  South  who  have 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

some  choice  herds  of  registered  short-horns.  It  ought  to  be  taken  as  almost  con- 
clusive, that  one  of  the  most  celebrated  short-horns  in  this  country  or  the  world — 
The  Duke  of  Noxubee — once  owned  by  one  of  the  Hamiltons,  of  Mt.  Sterling, 
Kentucky — which  speaks  volumes  as  to  the  animal's  meiits — was  bred  and  raised 
in  Noxubee  County,  Mississippi,  by  Simeon  Orr,  of  that  county — a  gentleman 
who  bred  and  raised  many  other  short-horns,  and  was  considered  a  very  great 
visionary  by  some  of  the  very,  very,  wise  men  of  his  day  in  the  vicinity.  It  is 
quite  certain  that  this  breed  of  cattle  cannot  live  on  the  quantity  of  food,  and 
make  flesh,  that  a  "  scrub"  can,  and  this  for  a  time  will  militate  against  the  breed ; 
but  it  is  also  quite  certain  that  there  are  lands  in  the  South  capable  of  producing 
such  crops  of  clover,  Kentucky  blue-grass,  etc.,  that  it  taxes  severely  the  credulity 
of  any  one  not  thoroughly  possessed  of  the  credibility  of  the  thing  to  believe. 
On  such  lands,  in  the  future  stock-raising  reign  in  the  South,  as  fine  short-horns 
as  ever  lived  will  be  seen,  and  probably  an  improvement  will  be  made  on  the 
year-long  pasture  on  the  most  nutritious  grasses,  to  which  access  can  be  had  in 
parts  of  the  South.  Herds  of  Holsteins  and  Devons  are  becoming  more  frequent, 
although  as  yet  comparatively  small;  and  thinly  scattered  over  the  South  is  a 
breeder  here  and  there  of  other  thoroughbred  registered  cattle. 

To  show,  for  illustration,  how  the  stock-raising  spirit  is  spreading  in  parts  of 
the  South,  there  are  four  cattle-breeders'  associations  in  Mississippi — Jersey,  Hoi- 
stein,  Short-horn  and  Devon.  In  East  Mississippi  there  is  hardly  any  town, 
however  small,  that  has  not  from  one  to  a  half-dozen  breeders  of  thoroughbred 
registered  cattle  of  some  breed ;  while  all  through  the  country  they  are  scattered 
more  or  less  thickly. 

Because  particular  mention  is  made  of  some  States  in  the  South  as  raising 
certain  breeds  of  registered  cattle,  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  the  other  States 
cannot  or  do  not  raise  registered  cattle.  There  is  probably  not  a  Southern  State 
in  which  there  are  not  one  or  more  herds  of  thoroughbred  registered  Jerseys.  As 
to  grade  cattle,  they  are  numbered  among  the  tens  of  thousands,  of  various  breeds 
in  the  South.  Look  at  the  immense  number  of  high-grade  short-horns  in  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee  and  Virginia,  and  the  large  number  of  grades,  but  not  so  high, 
of  the  same  breed  in  Texas  and  Mississippi,  more  particularly.  See  the  number 
of  grade  Jerseys  in  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Tennessee,  and,  in  less  num- 
bers, in  all  the  Southern  States.  Holsteins,  Devons,  Galloways  and  other  breeds 
have  not  so  strongly  made  their  impression,  being  of  very  recent  introduction. 

Almost  every  breed  of  sheep  has  been  tried  in  the  South,  and,  with  proper 
selection  for  lands,  all  breeds  do  well.  Further  South,  and  on  the  slovenly  atten- 
tion generally  paid  them,  or  the  utter  neglect,  more  common  still,  Merinos  and 
Southdowns  are  best,  and  the  grades  of  both.  One  cannot— at  least,  ought  not 
to — expect  a  Cotswold  or  Leicestershire  to  earn  his  own  living;  nor  ought  such  a 
sheep,  nor,  indeed,  any,  be  put  upon  the  stiff,  sticky,  heavy  soils  of  the  prairies  of 
East  Mississippi,  or  the  prairie  belt  of  Alabama  or  Texas,  in  winter,  without  a 
thorough  Bermuda  sod  under  foot,  and  rolling  land.  Sheep  must  have  a  "  dry 
foot."  The  fecundity  and  health  of  sheep  South  is  a  marvel.  I  cannot  longer 
dwell  here  upon  the  topic.  If  the  reader  wants  to  know  what  the  South  offers  in 
the  way  of  sheep  raising,  and  the  leading  aspects  of  the  outlook  South  in  this 
regard,  let  him  read  Mr.  John  L.  Hays'  bulletin  on  sheep  raising  South.  No 
authority  is  more  eminent  than  Mr.  Hays. 

The  breeding  of  Angora  goats  is  an  industry  full  of  promise  to  the  South. 
There  are  some  exceedingly  choice  animals  of  this  breed  South,  and  some  very 
celebrated  flocks.  The  manufactories  using  their  hair  for  the  fabrics  of  the  loom 
are  increasing;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  Southern  men  are  not  realizing 
the  situation  better,  and  taking  a  firmer  grip  upon  the  business  of  breeding  these 


INTRODUCTION.  18 

animals.     They  really  do  not  cost  a  penny  to  any  Southern  breeder;  and  their 
health  and  fecundity — why  use  words  on  the  goat  ? 

The  South,  for  the  years  since  the  war,  has  paid  immense  sums  of  money  for 
mules.  A  few  years  ago,  as  the  result  of  a  calculation,  it  was  found  that  at  least 
one  hundred  thousand  dollars  had  been  paid  by  one  county,  by  no  means  the 
largest,  in  a  Southern  State,  in  one  year  for  this  animal.  It  is  certainly  not  an 
overstatement  to  say  that  the  South  has  paid  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  for 
mules  since  the  war.  In  many  instances,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  received  a 
goodly  share  of  this  money;  but  some  of  the  States  west  of  the  Ohio  River  have 
got  a  good  deal  of  it.  But  the  South  is  having  a  mind  to  stop  this.  Ten  years  ago 
— even  less — few  jacks  were  to  be  found  South.  Within  five  years,  many  jacks, 
some  of  them  superb  animals,  have  been  imported,  and  parties  are  making  a 
regular  business  of  raising  mules,  having  their  own  jacks  for  their  own  service. 
This  is  a  very  safe  business,  and  has  nothing  but  success  before  it ;  for  the  South 
will  always  need  mules,  and  need  them  more  and  more.  The  average  life  of  a  mule, 
under  the  care  and  control  of  a  negro,  no  one  can  measure ;  but  every  Southern 
man  knows  that,  between  beating,  hard  riding  and  scant  feed,  it  is  very  short. 
Then,  mules  cost  virtually  nothing  to  a  raiser  in  the  more  Southern  States,  if  the 
fields  are  at  all  in  the  shape  they  should  be — that  is,  set  to  clover,  blue-grass  and 
other  grasses.  It  would  be  a  pleasure,  although  a  little  curious,  to  tell  how  free 
from  certain  diseases  and  ailments  home-bred  mules  are,  compared  to  those 
raised  West. 

The  veterinarians  South  claim  that  the  South  is  one  of  the  best  countries  in 
the  world  to  raise  the  best  horses.  They  give  good  reasons — in  longer  season  of 
green  food  or  such  food  the  year  round,  milder  climate,  and  exemption  from  lung 
and  throat  troubles,  etc  ,  etc.  At  any  rate,  every  sporting  man  well  knows  that 
the  breeding  of  trotting  horses  and  thoroughbreds  is  on  the  increase.  While 
Kentucky  holds  the  first  rank,  other  States  are  "  showing  up  "  well ;  and  there  are 
but  few  places  in  the  South  where  there  are  not  to  be  found  some  highly-bred 
Btallions  that  are  at  the  service  of  the  community  at  reasonable  prices ;  and  more 
and  more  are  stables  of  thoroughbreds  springing  up  at  one  and  another  town  and 
city  in  the  South.  Let  any  judge  of  horse  flesh  look  at  the  number  of  fine  car- 
riage horses  South,  and  he  will  see  many  home-bred  as  fine  as  those  imported. 
Still,  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  our  fine  horses  South  are  not  raised  here. 
There  is  the  very  finest  field  for  breeders  to  come  in,  and  keep  home  the  money 
now  going  into  the  Western  and  Eastern  States  for  fine  carriage  horses.  The 
South  is  rapidly  getting  able  to  have  fine  horses ;  and  her  people  are  free  livers, 
and  will  have  the  good  things  of  life  if  they  have  either  the  money  or  credit  to 
procure  them.  There  are  few,  if  any,  of  the  larger  breeds,  and  there  is  an  oppor- 
tunity for  their  introduction.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  very  stiff  lands  in  parts 
of  the  South — as  in  the  prairie  country  of  East  Mississippi — cannot  be  broken  by 
a  riding  plow  (as  a  thorough  Western  farmer  would  want  it  done,)  by  any  three 
horses  such  as  one  could  pick  up  South,  without  considerable  selection.  The 
need  in  that  country  and  other  similar  places  South  is  for  an  animal  the  "get"  of 
the  large  stallions  upon  the  mares  of  the  country. 

Within  ten  years,  hog  raising  in  the  South  has  been  revolutionized.  A 
decade  ago,  one  could  hardly  see  anything  but  the  unmitigated  "  razor-back."  If 
a  thoroughbred  boar  was  to  be  found,  it  was  a  rare  sight.*  The  best  that  could 
be  looked  for  was  a  little  group  of  grades.  But  now  this  is  all  changed.  In 
many  parts  of  the  South  you  will  have  to  get  into  the  "  off  country  "  before  you 
can  find  the  fleet-footed,  long-nosed  animal  found  so  common  everywhere  a  few 


*This  remark  must  not  be  supposed  to  apply  to  some  localities — as  parts  of  Kentucky,  for  instance. 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

years  ago.  In  the  towns,  wherever  we  travel,  we  see  nothing  but  grades  or 
thoroughbreds.  The  Irish  graziers  and  the  Chester  whites  are  very  generally 
discarded.  The  former  is  not  a  good  ranger;  the  latter  does  not  stand  the 
climate  well,  most  particularly  as  a  sty-hog.  This  remark  will  certainly  apply  to 
the  Gulf  States,  and  may  be  no  doubt  applied  to  the  entire  South,  omitting  possi- 
bly Virginia.  The  favorites  are  Poland  Chinas,  Berkshires,  Essexes  and  Jersey 
reds.  The  first  two  are  thoroughly  disseminated  and  tried,  and  there  are  quite  a 
number  of  registered  Berkshires  with  us.  The  Essex  is  a  comparatively  late 
acquisition,  thoroughly  commended,  first-rate,  and  winning  friends  Avhercvcr 
known.  The  Jersey  red  is  a  safe  hog  and  suited  to  the  South,  but  it  is  such  a 
late  acquaintance,  there  is  little  can  be  said  about  it. 

Grass  raising  is  a  corollary  of  stock  raising.  They  are,  as  it  were,  correla- 
tives. We  must  have  grass  to  raise  stock,  if  pur  efforts  as  a  section  are  to  rise  !  o 
the  dignity  of  a  stock-breeding  country ;  and  we  will  have  stock  if  we  raise  grass. 
For  many  years  I  have  been  a  most  watchful  observer  of  the  grasses  South.  In 
many  places  I  have  sown  the  seeds  of  one  species  and  another,  carrying  them  in 
the  pocket,  and  scattering  often  only  a  pinch  here  and  there.  My  views  about 
grasses  will  be  found  under  that  caption  in  the  article  on  Mississippi.  It  is  only 
desired  here  to  give  some  facts  there  not  referred  to. 

Some  three  years  ago  I  was  urging  upon  the  stock-breeders  about  Mobile  the 
policy  of  sowing  orchard,  red  top,  blue,  white  clover  and  other  grasses  on  their 
sandy  lands,  assuring  them  they  would  do  tolerably  well — not,  of  course,  like 
richer,  stiffer  lands,  with  considerable  lime  in  them,  but  far  better  than  nothing. 
These  entreaties  had  no  effect,  so  far  as  was  known;  so  I  bought  a  pound  or  two 
of  lawn  grass  seed  one  day,  and  scattered  them,  under  cover  of  the  night,  in  the 
public  square  in  Mobile,  between  Saint  Francis  and  Dauphine  streets.  Recently 
while  on  a  visit  to  Mobile,  happening  by  there,  I  went  into  the  square  to 
look  for  results.  I  had  not  been  there  since  sowing— gay  three  years  anterior. 
I  found  some  beautiful  "catches"  of  blue-grass  and  orchard,  particularly  the 
former ;  and  last  season  was  very  dry.  There  was  a  little  blue-grass  in  the  lawn 
before ;  but  I  aimed  to  scatter  my  seed  where  there  was  no  grass. 

The  other  was  an  experience  had  on  a  trip  in  November,  1884,  in  visiting  the 
various  prominent  breeders  of  cattle  in  the  Gulf  States ;  in  Georgia,  about  Rome, 
Cohutta,  Atlanta,  Calhoun,  etc.  In  all  these  places  and  others  blue-grass  was 
found  "taking"  the  roadsides  and  farms — in  almost  every  place  coming  in  without 
seeding.  On  some  farms  it  had  been  seeded — as  at  Mr.  Richard  Peters',  and  Mr. 
J.  B.  Wade's,  the  owner  of  Tenella.  On  the  farm  of  Mr.  B.  Woodward,  at 
Cohutta,  Ga.,  it  had  not  been  seeded;  nor  had  it  been  seeded,  probably,  anywhere 
in  all  the  numberless  roadside  places  it  was  seen.  Indeed,  it  is  the  common  grass 
on  all  the  outlying  lots  about  Atlanta,  and  one  can  see  persons  sodding  the  lawns 
with  this  sod  taken  from  the  vacant  lots  around  the  city.  This  surely  ought  to 
settle  the  question  about  blue-grass,  (poa  pratensis.)  It  is  mentioned  here  for  its 
curiousness,  that  in  a  long  fight  between  alfalfa  and  blue-grass  on  Mr.  Richard 
Peters'  farm,  the  blue-grass  is  gradually  winning.  The  fight  has  been  going  on 
many  years.  There  was  seen  in  many  places,  also,  some  superb  orchard  grass ; 
but  this  had  been  seeded,  of  course. 

As  a  matter  of  experience,  valuable  to  all  who  may  think  of  Georgia  as  a 
future  home,  it  may  be  stated  that  Mr.  Wade,  of  Atlanta,  has  no  silo.  His  cattle 
are  on  his  blue-grass,  orchard  grass,  etc.,  summer  and  winter,  and  have  been  all 
these  years.  Of  course,  he  has  hay  for  rainy  and  cold  days. 

Is  it  necessary  to  say  how  the  grasses  here  spoken  of  seem  perfectly  at  home 
in  the  mountains  and  valleys  of  East  and  Central  Tennessee,  of  Western  North 
and  South  Carolina,  of  Virginia,  and  of  Kentucky?  If  the  reader  wants  elabo- 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

rate  proof,  he  is  referred  to  the  article  on  Mississippi,  where  enough  is  given,  it  is 
hoped,  on  the  topic  to  convince  the  most  skeptical,  and  that,  too,  with  relation  to 
a  different  country,  mainly.  What  is  here  given  is  a  short  chapter  out  of  a  new 
experience. 

Fruit  raising  as  a  vocation  was  hardly  known  South  until  after  the  war. 
Before  the  war  many  had  their  orchards  of  one  fruit  and  another ;  but  it  would 
have  been  considered  then  utterly  petty  and  contemptible  to  have  raised  fruit  and 
sold  it — as  beneath  any  gentleman  !  Thirty-five  years  ago  this  was  precisely  the 
view  in  Delaware.  But  immediately  after  the  war,  fruit  raising  began  as  a  busi- 
ness South.  The  influence  wave  broke  across  the  narrow  boundary  of  sea 
between  the  peninsula  on  which  Delaware  and  the  Eastern  Shores  of  Maryland 
and  Virginia  are  situated,  and  Norfolk,  Virginia,  and  deluged  the  latter  locality 
with  a  fruit-raising  sentiment.  Small  fruit  was  "set"  in  large  quantities,  and 
soon  grew  to  large  proportions.  Before  the  war  some  other  fruit  had  been 
planted;  and  one  gentleman  had  secured  both  wealth  and  eminence  from  a  pear 
orchard  of  his  planting  that  had  an  almost  national  reputation.  Delaware  and 
Maryland  soon  felt  the  influence  of  the  competition  of  Norfolk  in  the  decreased 
prices  brought  by  their  fruit.  (The  writer,  then  living  in  Dover,  Delaware,  and 
raising  fruit  largely,  well  remembers  this.)  Very  quickly,  wide-awake  Dela- 
wareans  strove  to  get  ahead  of  Norfolk,  and  moved  further  South — even  as  far 
down  as  Wilmington,  North  Carolina — and  "  set "  strawberries.  So  the  spirit  grew. 

About  the  close  of  the  war,  possibly  in  the  fall  of  1865,  Dr  Clayton  A.  Cow- 
gill,  of  Dover,  Delaware,  moved  on  the  Saint  John's  River,  in  Florida,  and  went 
at  once  largely  into  the  business  of  orange  raising.  It  is  stated  that  while  num- 
berless persons  had  raised  oranges  for  fruit  and  as  a  pastime,  he  was  the  first  who 
did  it  as  a  scheme  for  money-making.  About  the  same  time,  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher 
Stowe  went  down  on  the  Saint  John's  River,  in  Florida,  and  began  writing  those 
letters  in  its  praise  which  set  the  whole  North  in  a  blaze  of  enthusiasm,  and  soon 
drew  thither  the  capital  and  immigration  with  an  ever-swelling  flood  since. 
Except  Mr.  Charles  Nordhoff's  letters  and  book  on  Southern  California,  there  has 
been  no  approximation,  in  the  building  up  of  a  State  by  a  single  pen,  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Mrs.  Stowe's  literary  work  in  behalf  of  Florida.  Who  shall  tell  of  the 
development  of  Florida  in  fruit  culture  ?  Who  can  fix  its  boundaries  ?  Who  can 
depict  the  transformation  scenes  of  the  trackless  pine  woods  into  orange  bowers, 
citron  groves,  pineapple  plantations,  banana  farms,  and  what  not?  Let  the  reader 
turn  to  the  article  011  Florida  for  a  bewildering  list  of  strange  and  tropical  fruits 
there  grown. 

But  while  Florida  is  great,  not  only  on  account  of  the  magnitude  of  her 
business  in  fruit  culture,  and  especially  in  the  magnitude  of  a  fruit  culture  pos- 
sible to  only  a  limited  area  of  the  country,  she  is  by  no  means  the  only  State  far 
South  which  is  conspicuous  by  fruit  culture.  Georgia,  greatly  through  the  influ- 
ence of  her  celebrated  citizen,  Mr.  P.  J.  Berckmans,  is  raising  a  great  deal  of  fruit, 
pears  especially,  and  a  goodly  quantity  of  peaches  and  apples  and  small  fruits, 
and  is  a  leader  among  Southern  States.  Along  the  Jackson  Railroad,  (Southern 
Branch  of  the  Illinois  Central,)  in  the  pine  woods  of  Mississippi,  and  about  and 
above  Canton,  there  is  a  very  considerably  developed  fruit-raising  interest ;  and 
Southwestern  Tennessee  is  well  advanced,  too.  But  it  is  impossible  to  particu- 
larize in  full.  It  may  be  stated  in  brief,  that  there  is  no  Southern  State  in  which 
fruit  raising  is  not  more  or  less  prosecuted  as  a  vocation ;  that  in  some  States  it  is 
a  very  considerable  interest  and  quite  a  source  of  revenue,  and  that  all  fruit  raising 
South  as  a  vocation  or  with  a  view  to  money-making  has  obtained  since  the  war. 
For  further  information  on  fruits,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  Missis- 
sippi, where  the  topic  is  treated  at  some  length. 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

The  growth  of  melon  raising  has  attained  such  dimensions  within  the  last 
year  or  two  as  to  be  astounding,  particularly  in  Georgia ;  and  in  Arkansas  it  is 
quite  a  large  business.  This,  too,  as  a  business,  is  a  new  thing  to  the  South,  and 
when  not  overdone,  proves  lucrative. 

Vegetable  raising  or  "trucking"  is  an  immense  business  South,  and  it 
stretches  from  Norfolk  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  well  down  into  Florida.  A  very 
long  and  interesting  chapter  might  be  written  on  its  growth,  and  figures  might  be 
given  to  prove  its  magnitude.  At  Norfolk,  Va.,  it  takes  a  large  steamer  per  day 
to  transport  what  that  vicinity  sends  to  New  York  City  alone.  All  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  and  in  Florida,  trains  and  steamers  are  well  laden  for  months 
with  early  vegetables.  From  New  Orleans,  La.,  go  great  quantities.  Mississippi, 
along  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  sends  considerable  quantities,  as  does  South- 
western Tennessee.  Mobile,  Ala.,  has  become  the  most  considerable  vegetable 
raising  area  in  the  South,  with,  perhaps,  one  or  two  exceptions.  There  the 
business  amounts  to  millions  of  dollars  per  annum.  Years  ago,  hundreds  of 
car-loads  were  sent  every  season  over  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad  alone.  Ten 
years  ago,  only  two  or  three  were  engaged  in  this  business  about  Mobile,  and 
only  one  gentleman  at  all  considerably— one  who  still  holds  a  most  prominent 
position  there  in  trucking.  Mobile  used  to  import  cabbages,  because  it  was 
supposed  that  they  could  not  be  raised  there.  Now  she  sends  off  every  year  to 
Western  markets  from  one  to  three  hundred  or  more  car-loads  of  early  cabbages. 
What  a  revolution  in  ideas  and  business !  Almost  every  vegetable  possible  to  the 
climate  is  grown.  No  enumeration  can  be  made  of  all  the  more  considerable 
localities  where  "trucking"  is  a  vocation.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  all  this  business 
of  raising  vegetables  for  the  early  market  North  and  West  is  a  new  thing  to  the 
South — as  to  anything  considerable,  the  growth  of  the  last  decade.  Even  a  very 
small  proportion  of  the  vegetables  consumed  at  home  was  ever  raised  South  until 
of  late.  Even  now  there  is  a  large  field  for  raising  late  vegetables  for  home  con- 
sumption South.  Many  erroneous  notions  exist,  and  must  be  combatted.  It 
would  be  entirely  conjectural  to  estimate  the  magnitude  of  the  vegetable  business 
in  the  South,  but  every  one  conversant  with  it  knows  that  it  is  one  of  the  most 
considerable  and  lucrative  of  the  new  enterprises  South;  that  the  returns  for 
sales  are  well  into  the  millions  of  dollars ;  that  many  thousands  of  acres  are 
devoted  to  the  crop,  and  that  thousands  of  gardeners  find  employment  in  it. 

Having  briefly  considered  as  new  industries  South,  stock  raising,  grass  raising, 
the  raising  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  I  pass  to  a  very  cursory  consideration  of  those 
products  enumerated  under  the  title  "  miscellaneous." 

Taking  the  topics  up  in  their  order,  it  may  be  said  of  poultry  that  the  raising 
of  various  breeds  for  sale  is  affording  vocations  to  a  few  people  in  the  various 
Southern  States.  This  aspect  is  new  and  has  been  profitable,  but  is  quickly  over- 
done. It  is  hardly  necessary  to  attempt  an  enumeration  of  the  breeds  raised. 
The  list  is  very  large.  Poultry  raising  South  ought  to  be  and  is  profitable.  The 
cost  is  almost  nothing,  generally — chickens  finding  food  by  ranging.  If  parties 
would  sow,  as  they  ought,  grass,  cost  of  feed  would  be  merely  nominal  the  year 
round  in  most  of  the  South,  as  Northern  grasses  grow  most  of  the  winter,  and  in 
summer  the  Southern  grasses  are  almost  always  green.  Poultry  are  generally 
healthy.  They  need  watching  in  summer,  occasionally,  to  be  relieved  of  the  red 
bug.  Setting  fowls  need  to  be  attended  to  sometimes,  to  be  saved  from  lice,  and 
in  very  hot  weather,  the  eggs  need  an  occasional  sprinkling.  But,  all  told,  all  the 
year  through,  the  South  is  unexcelled  as  a  poultry-raising  country.  Chickens, 
well  South,  will  lay  most  of  the  year,  with  proper  food  or  range.  The  broods 
come  off  early.  Eggs  are  higher  in  price,  on  an  average,  than  North.  The 
expense  is  next  to  nothing  of  raising.  There  will  probably  be  some  day  a 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

Considerable  business  in  raising  early  chickens  for  Northern  markets.  Turkeys 
are  remarkable  lor  health  and  beauty.  Geese,  it  is  manifest,  will  yield  much 
more  profitable  crops  of  feathers  South  than  North.  The  beauty  of  plumage  of 
Southern  fowls  and  birds  is  commonly  remarked  by  all  attentive  observers. 

Bee  culture  is  quite  a  little  business  in  parts  of  the  South.  The  length  of 
season  in  much  of  the  area  gives  much  longer  time  for  increase  in  numbers  and 
collection  of  honey.  In  the  extreme  South  there  is  hardly  any  time  when  some 
plant  or  flower  is  not  in  bloom  from  which  a  bee  can  extract  honey ;  and  in  much 
of  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana  and  Texas,  there  are  few 
bright  days  in  winter  in  which  the  bee  is  not  in  pursuit  of  his  "balmy  spoils ;" 
and  if  he  be  gifted  with  discrimination,  he  must  be  a  happy  reveler ;  for  into  what 
flowers  he  dips !  The  white  clover  (trifolium  repens)  is  indigenous,  or,  at  least, 
spontaneous,  many  places  South,  and  blooms  early  and  during  much  of  the  year, 
and  this  is  a  fine  field  for  honey  gathering.  Honey  seldom  sells  at  less  than 
twenty-five  cents  per  pound  anywhere. 

Silk  culture  is  rather  a  revived,  than  a  new,  industry  South.  Before  the 
Revolutionary  War,  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  had  made  quite  a  growth  in 
the  business,  but  the  war  discontinued  it,  and  cotton  soon  overshadowed  and 
smothered  it  South.  The  Morns  Multicaulis  craze  and  the  fiasco  of  about  forty 
years  ago  disgusted  everybody,  and  silk  culture  has  slept  until  late.  In  the 
articles  on  Mississippi  and  North  Carolina  will  be  found  matter  more  at  large — 
one  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Fasnach — particularly  in  the  article  on  the  latter  State. 
It  is  the  judgment  of  the  best  informed  that  no  part  of  the  world  surpasses,  if  it 
equals,  much  of  the  South.  The  mulberry  suits  the  climate  admirably.  One  or 
more  species  are  indigenous  in  parts  of  the  South.  The  worm  is  very  healthy 
here.  Almost  every  inducement  any  country  can  offer,  the  South  affords.  The 
fallacy  that  the  South  can't  raise  silk  in  competition  with  the  very  cheap  labor  of 
Japan  and  China  is  easily  refuted  by  the  answer  that  Southern  women  and 
children,  who  could  earn  money  from  silk  culture,  can  compete,  because  any 
earnings  are  better  than  nothing.  If  there  were  a  demand  for  their  labor  at 
prices  similar  to  the  worth  of  similar  labor  North,  the  argument  would  be  good ; 
but  these  women  and  children  who  could  earn  money  from  silk  culture  now  earn 
nothing.  There  are  various  organizations  South  which  seek  to  develop  silk  cul- 
ture. One  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  called  the  "  Southern  Silk  Industrial  Association," 
has  been  agitating  the  matter  some  time.  Its  president  is  Mr.  Theophile  Harang; 
secretary,  Miss  Caroline  Hubbard ;  general  manager  and  superintendent,  Mrs. 
Emma  B.  Johnson — the  last  of  whom  has  written  a  book  on  the  subject,  which 
can  be  had  for  fifty  cents.  In  and  about  this  city  last  year  and  this,  considerable 
silk  has  been  reeled  and  dyed  and  many  thousands  of  worms  raised.  There  ought 
to  be  a  large  filature  here  and  silk  manufactories.  The  silk  business  finds  a  most 
congenial  pppulation  here.  At  Corinth,  Mississippi,  Mrs.  Docke  has  a  filature, 
and  purchases  cocoons.  Her  silk  and  cocoons  on  exhibition  in  the  Government 
Building  in  the  World's  Industrial  and  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition,  in  the 
Mississippi  Department,  are  well  worth  seeing.  Every  judge  can  see  that  the  size 
and  quality  of  cocoons  improves  in  this  country,  in  comparison  with  much  of 
Europe. 

Jute  raising  has  passed  the  stage  of  experimentation.  Mr.  C.  Menelas,  of 
Brookhaven,  Miss.,  on  his  farm  there,  has  raised  it  successfully,  and  growers 
elsewhere  in  Mississippi  and  Louisiana  have  tested  it.  The  belief  in  it  is  so 
thorough  that  a  jute  growers'  association  was  organized  a  year  or  two  ago,  with 
Gen'l  S.  D.  Lee  as  president.  The  only  need  is  a  perfect  machine  to  decorticate 
the  fibre.  One  or  more  have  been  tried  and  commended.  But  I  advise  no  one  to 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

raise  the  plant,  except  in  a  small  way,  yet.    In  the  article  on  Mississippi  the 
reader  may  find  something  more  on  jute. 

Rice  culture,  before  the  war,  was  almost  monopolized  by  South  Carolina.  Her 
swamp  lands  were  at  their  best.  Since  the  war  Louisiana  has  raised  considerable 
lowland  rice.  These  two  States  raise  the  most  of  the  rice  of  that  species;  but 
upland  rice  is  to  be  found  in  many  parts  of  the  South,  and  is  giving  great  satis- 
faction. Georgia  is  giving  considerable  attention  to  it.  In  Mississippi,  too,  the 
culture  is  spreading.  We  see  it  along  the  gulf  coast,  too,  in  Alabama.  As  rice  is 
a  staple,  the  South  has  acquired  a  new  good  in  the  production  of  it;  especially  is 
upland  rice  a  new  product. 

The  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane,  although  not  new  as  to  a  part  of  the  South, 
is  new  as  to  much  of  it.  Louisiana  used  to  be  almost  the  exclusive  producer  of  it. 
But  considerable  Louisiana  sugar-cane,  so  called,  is  produced  in  other  Southern 
States.  Very  little  sugar  is  made  from  it,  except  for  home  use ;  but  considerable 
molasses  of  most  delicious  quality  is  produced  in  the  aggregate.  Good  pine  lands 
will  produce,  in  southern  parts  of  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  from  two 
hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  gallons  of  molasses  per  acre.  In  Louisiana, 
some  lands  will  produce  four  thousand  pounds  of  sugar  per  acre,  and  quantities 
of  land,  three  thousand. 

Mint  culture  is  an  entirely  new  business  South.  It  is  a  success.  The  pioneer 
only  needs  some  capital  to  make  it  a  very  lucrative  business.  Tansey  and  hore- 
bound  will  prove  quite  as  successful,  probably ;  and  in  a  few  years  one  may  look 
to  see  farms  "  set "  in  these  herbs  and  others  at  various  places  in  the  South,  and  a 
profitable  business  done,  on  a  limited  scale,  in  distilling  essential  oils  from  them. 

Broom-corn  growing  offers,  in  parts  of  the  South,  good  inducements.  Some 
years  ago  I  thoroughly  inspected  this  matter,  with  reference  to  the  eligibility  of 
the  prairies  of  East  Mississippi,  with  a  celebrated  raiser — Mr.  Bogardus,  of 
Champaign,  111.  He  found  that  the  quality  would  be  as  good  as  the  Kansas 
broom  corn,  and  the  quantity  per  acre  raised  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  place 
of  which  he  knew.  This  industry  and  the  manufacturing  of  brooms  ought  to 
progress  rapidly,  and  some  day  will  have  adequate  consideration  by  those  who 
are  looking  South  for  openings. 

Floriculture  as  a  vocation  is  only  beginning  to  command  attention  from 
adepts  here  and  there.  It  is  difficult  to  see  why  the  South  cannot  sell  a  good 
many  more  tube-roses,  camellias,  roses  and  other  flowers  than  she  does  to  the 
North  and  West.  We  are  not  so  far  off;  and  as  we  can  have  these  flowers  in  the 
open  air  and  on  cheap  lands,  I  hope  to  see  more  of  it.  Near  the  large  cities  in  the 
South  quite  a  business  is  being  done  for  home  supply ;  and  it  is  an  unspeakable 
charm  to  meet  on  all  our  crowded  thoroughfares,  in  winter,  the  colors  and 
perfumes  of  flowers. 

Raising  ramie  is  next  to  nothing  South.  Some  twelve  years  ago  I  first  saw 
it  raised  by  some  gentleman  in  Mississippi  whose  name  has  been  forgotten.  As 
it  is  a  plant  very  little  known,  the  following  information  concerning  it  from  Col. 
Daniel  Dennett,  in  the  New  Orleans  Picayune  of  January  12,  1885,  will  be  of 
interest: 

"  The  New  York  Dry  Goods  Bulletin  and  Textile  Manufacturer  of  December 
20  contains  an  interesting  article  from  the  pen  of  Henry  Sandford  Bergman  on 
'  Practical  Results  of  Ramie  Culture,'  from  which  we  copy  the  following  encour- 
aging paragraphs: 

"  *  For  several  years  the  fanners  in  the  northern  part  of  France  have  raised 
ramie  as  a  better  paying  culture  than  that  of  wine. 

" *  Three  crops  can  be  raised  in  a  year — in  the  middle  of  the  months  of  June, 
August  and  October. 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

" '  The  three  crops  will  amount,  in  a  good  season,  to  90,000  kilograms  per 
acre,  worth  $475 

" '  The  cost  of  roots,  planting  and  labor  amounts  to  about  6,000  francs  per 
-acre  in  the  first  year.  In  the  following  years  no  cost,  except  for  labor,  will  be 
incurred,  as  the  ramie  plant  is  perennial. 

" 4  The  decorticating  and  baling  of  the  fibres  is  generally  done  on  the  spot, 
under  a  shed.  The  stalks  are  sold  for  8  francs  per  100  kilograms.' 

"Mr.  Roetzel,  soon  after  the  war,  brought  ramie  roots  from  Mexico  to  Louis- 
iana, and  planted  and  sold  many  roots.  Mr.  A.  B.  Bacon,  of  the  New  Orleans 
Picayune,  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  enterprise,  and  ventilated  it  freely  in  the 
columns  of  this  journal.  At  that  time  the  belief  was  general  that  ramie  would 
be  more  profitable  on  the  rich  lands  of  Southern  Louisiana  than  either  sugar  or 
cotton.  Ramie  will  grow  in  this  soil  as  well  as  in  the  best  soil  of  France  or 
Algeria.  Nobody  ever  questioned  either  the  value  of  the  fibre  or  the  wonderful 
yield  which  may  be  obtained  from  the  alluvial  lands  of  the  Gulf  States.  The 
machine  to  prepare  the  fibre  for  market  is  all  that  has  been  wanting,  and  we  have 
not  quite  got  hold  of  that  machine  up  to  the  present  time.  T.  Albee  Smith,  I 
think,  has  come  closer  up  to  the  mark  than  any  other;  and  he  has  a  mechanical, 
matter-of-fact  talent  which,  it  appears  to  me,  must  lead  to  ultimate  success.  There 
is  nothing  visionary  about  him;  he  is  cool  and  calculating;  he  searches  for  bottom 
facts;  has  a  thorough  knowledge  of  fibres  in  all  latitudes,  and  has  none  of  the 
lofty  notions  of  Col.  Sellers,  that '  there's  millions  in  it.'  Pie  will  have  a  machine 
at  the  great  Industrial  Exhibition  in  this  city.  He  is  here,  and  will  remain  here, 
to  help  solve  the  question  in  regard  to  the  fibre  interests  of  this  country. 

"Not  many  years  after  ramie  was  brought  to  this  city  from  Mexico,  Dr. 
Knapp  planted  a  large  surface,  and  had  a  field  at  one  time*  of  more  than  fifty 
•acres,  near  New  Orleans,  if  I  remember  correctly.  He  was  very  hopeful  for  many 
years  that  this  would  become  one  of  the  leading  agricultural  interests  of  the  State 
and  of  the  South.  The  yield  per  acre  was  bountiful  and  entirely  satisfactory.  A 
machine  was  all  that  was  needed  to  make  this  industry  very  successful.  After  Dr. 
Knapp's  death,  his  son,  a  dentist  of  this  city,  kept  up  the  cultivation  to  some 
extent,  and  still  cultivates  this  crop,  believing  that  the  much  needed  machine  will 
•soon  make  its  appearance. 

"Mr.  Emile  Lefranc,  of  this  city,  invented  a  ramie  machine  many  years  ago; 
others  in  the  State  invented  machines,  but  none  of  them  have  proved  successful. 
Mr.  Lefranc  afterward  experimented  with  chemicals  in  separating  the  pure  ramie 
fibre  from  all  gummy  and  foreign  matter,  with  considerable  success.  He  now 
lives  in  Philadelphia." 

I  have  been  shown  some  of  the  fabrics  of  the  loom  made  from  this  plant. 
They  are  exceedingly  soft  and  beautiful,  and  such  close  imitations  of  sealskin  as 
to  deceive  almost  any  one  at  a  little  distance. 

IRON  INTERESTS. 

Let  us  look  a  little  now  at  the  South  with  reference  to  some  of  her  minerals, 
of  which  iron  is  among  those  of  the  first  importance.  As  this  book  is  for  the 
trans-Atlantic  reader  as  well  as  the  American,  I  shall  give  some  views  from 
English  authorities  as  to  competition  of  the  United  States  with  Great  Britain.  I 
•quote  from  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  The  Hill  Country  of  Alabama,  U.  S.  A.;  or,  The 
Land  of  Rest."  This  is  a  work  devoted  to  showing  the  resources  of  Alabama, 
but,  incidentally,  it  contains  much  interesting  collateral  matter.  On  page  2,  et 
seq.,  we  find  a  statement  of  the  aims  of  the  work  as  follows : 

"It  is  desired  to  address  some  distinct  prefatory  remarks  to  two  classes  of 
readers,  namely: 

"(a.)    To  those  interested  in  the  iron  and  coal  industries  of  Great  Britain. 

"The  testimony  collected  from  impartial  and  reliable  sources  in  the  first  two 
chapters  of  the  following  pages  proves  beyond  possibility  of  doubt  that  the 
present  period  of  depression  in  these  important  industries  in  Great  Britain  is  not 
due  to  a  mere  monetary  crisis,  but  to  causes  far  more  deeply  seated.  An  actual 
revolution  has  taken  place,  and  the  results  may  be  shortly  stated  as  follows : 

"  1.  The  entire  loss  of  the  American  market  for  both  crude  and  manufac- 
tured iron. 

44  2.  The  growth  of  American  metallurgy,  enabling  it  to  compete  with  Great 
Britain  in  many  of  her  best  markets. 


20  IN  TROD  UCTION. 

"  3.  The  supersession  of  iron  by  steel — the  latter  being  universally  recognized 
as  the  'metal  of  the  future' — and  as  a  necessary  consequence,  disturbance  and 
disorganization  in  the  chief  centres  of  industry  within  Great  Britain  itself. 

"4.  The  enforced  introduction  of  new  processes  and  enlarged  works,  in 
sheer  self-defence,  by  all  old-established  works. 

"  5.  A  struggle  for  existence,  which  has  already  resulted  in  more  than  one- 
third  of  the  English  and  Scotch  furnaces  being  out  of  blast,  with  an  agitation  for 
a  diminished  output  by  the  remainder. 

"6.  An  increasing  export  from  the  Cleveland  district  to  foreign  countries, 
especially  Germany,  thereby  forcing  their  smelting  furnaces  out  of  blast,  and 
constituting  them  makers  of  cheap  finished  iron  in  successful  competition  with 
our  more  expensive  articles  of  manufacture. 

"The  foregoing  drawbacks  are  further  attended  with  a  strife  between  British 
capital  and  labor,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  many  competent  authorities,  can  only 
be  successfully  met  by  the  introduction  of  Chinese  or  Japanese  workmen. 

"  In  such  a  state  of  affairs,  three  things  are  unmistakably  clear : 

"  1st.  That  an  immense  amount  of  capital  and  labor,  both  skilled  and 
unskilled,  has  been  rendered  unproductive  by  reason  of  a  reckless  disregard  of 
the  laws  which  regulate  sound  progress' in  trade  and  healthy  competition. 

"3d.  That  things  have  come  to  such  a  pass,  that  it  is  not  merely  the  ill- 
conditioned  and  badly-managed  works  which  must  succumb  in  favor  of  those 
possessing  superior  advantages,  but  that  even  the  latter,  in  view  of  the  altered 
condition  of  the  trade,  are  threatened  with  a  severe  struggle  for  continued 
existence. 

"  3d.  That  there  is  nothing  left  but  to  submit  to  the  inevitable,  and  acknowl- 
edge the  inexorable  law  of  'the  survival  of  the  fittest.'  Any  attempt  to  prolong 
by  any  temporary  expedient,  such  as  a  general  reduction  of  output,  the  existence 
of  works  unequal  to  the  crisis,  must  end  in  their  entire  extinction,  instead  of 
simple  elimination. 

"  For  capital  and  labor  so  situated  there  can  be  no  alternative  but  to  realize 
while  there  is  a  chance  of  getting  free,  and  to  seek  another  chance  of  successful 
competition  by  occupying  new  fields  of  enterprise  where  the  conditions  of 
employment  are  more  favorable. 

"  The  causes  (above  enumerated)  which  have  led  to  the  present  condition  of 
these  British  industries  point  to  the  United  States  as  the  sphere  where  such  new 
fields  exist;  and  it  is  also  plain,  from  the  weighty  testimony  of  the  eminent 
geologists  and  men  of  science  here  quoted,  that  these  are  to  be  found,  in  a 
measure,  unequalled  even  on  the  American  Continent,  in  that  region  of  Alabama 
to  which  we  desire  to  direct  public  attention." 

The  author  then  proceeds  to  support  his  assertions.  Treating  of  "  The  Rapid 
Development  of  the  Coal  and  Iron  Industries  in  the  United  States,"  he  says: 

"Without  endorsing  entirely  the  opinion  expressed  by  Professor  Boyd 
Dawkins  on  the  18th  of  December  last,  at  the  Manchester  Geological  Society, 
*  that  inasmuch  as  the  United  States  have  by  far  the  largest  supply  of  coal  of  any 
country  in  the  world,  we  must  look  upon  that  country  as  the  centre  to  which  all 
British  industrial  enterprise  must  ultimately  converge,'  we  ask  our  readers  to 
accept  implicitly  the  argument  of  another  eminent  professor,  (Professor  Prichard 
at  the  last  Brighton  Congress,)  that  the  co-existence  of  all  the  essentially  indepen- 
dent existences,  viz:  stores  of  iron  and  coal  and  sulphur  and  silica  ready  for  the 
use  of  man  in  any  particular  region,  such  as  is  here  shown  to  co-exist  in  Alabama, 
is  the  evidence  of  a  pre-established  harmony,  the  result  of  a  prescient  will,  and 
that,  sooner  or  later,  it  is  destined  to  be  the  seat  of  a  large  population  equal  to 
any  which  the  same  existences  have  called  into  being." 

Passing  on,  we  come  to  where  Mr.  Lowthian  Bell  is  quoted : 

"'In  area  of  coal-bearing  strata,  the  United  States,  according  to  present 
information,  rank  far  above  every  other  nation — the  estimated  superficial  contents 
of  its  coal  fields  being  about  200,00  )  square  miles,  against  8,000  in  Great  Britain ; 
the  fuel  contained  in  those  fields  being  quite  as  pure  and  quite  as  suitable  for  iron 
purposes  as  the  average  of  tne  produce  of  our  British  collieries;  whilst  the 
facilities  for  working  bituminous  seams,  owing  to  the  stratification  and  the  inter- 
section of  the  surface  of  the  country  by  valleys,  admitting  of  the  coal  being 
worked  by  adits  or  drifts,  enable  the  seams  to  be  reached  at  very  little  cost — 2,0001. 
in  many  cases  sufficing  for  an  opening  capable  of  affording  300  to  400  tons  per 
day.  I  heard  of  bituminous  obtained  so  easily  that,  delivered  at  the  pit's  mouth,, 
its  cost  did  not  exceed  3s.  per  ton ;  but  looking  over  the  long  series  of  figures  I 


INTR  0  D  UCTION.  21 

collected,  I  feel  that  an  average  of  5s.  will  amply  represent  all  expenses,  including 
say  6d.  per  ton  for  royalty,  of  working  bituminous  coal  in  the  United  States.  No 
one  with  any  acquaintance  with  the  cost  of  coal  in  Great  Britain  will  be  disposed 
to  consider  that  we  enjoy  any  advantage  in  this  important  element,  of  which 
something  like  thirty-five  to  forty  millions  of  tons  are  at  present  required  in  our 
iron  works.'" 

The  above  is  from  Mr.  Bell's  report  as  president  of  group  No.  1,  at  the  Phila- 
delphia (Centennial)  Exhibition  in  1876. 

Omitting  an  interesting  review  of  the  "Iron  and  Steel  Trade  of  America,"  I 
pass  to  where  he  speaks  of  the  United  States  in  "  competition  with  Great  Britain  in 
all  the  markets  of  the  world  for  manufactured  iron."  On  page  16  the  author  says : 

"  In  the  year  1875  Mr.  Lowthian  Bell,  after  his  first  visit  to  the  United 
States,  read  a  paper  before  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  of  Great  Britain,  in  which 
he  described  exhaustively  not  only  the  existing  iron  works  in  the  United  States, 
but  also  the  geographical  position  and  general  nature  of  the  fuel,  ores,  and  other 
materials  required  in  the  manufacture  ol  iron.  Little  as  the  mineral  resources  of 
the  South,  and  especially  of  Alabama,  were  then  known,  they  came  in  for  a  large 
share  of  his  attention,  and  so  much  impressed  was  he  with  their  extraordinary 
extent  and  character  that,  whilst  stating  his  then  conclusion,  'that  it  is  a  physical 
impossibility  that  iron  can  be  made  more  cheaply  in  the  United  States  than  it  can 
in  England,'  he  thought  it  necessary  to  qualify  the  statement  by  the  following 
saving  clause:  *  So  far  I  am  taking  no  account  of  the  comparatively  undeveloped 
resources  of  Tennessee,  Georgia  and  Alabama,  which  will,  as  I  have  already 
indicated,  prove  a  match  for  any  part  of  the  world  in  the  production  of  cheap 
iron.  But  Mr.  Bell  goes  on  further,  *  there  seems  every  reason  for  believing  that  pig 
iron  can  now  be  laid  down  in  the  Southern  States  mentioned  above,  at  little  above 
half  the  cost  of  that  made  in  the  North,'  and  he  subsequently  adds  the  following 
warning  to  the  iron-masters  of  the  Northern  States:  'In  a  political  point  of 
view  no  argument  can  be,  as  I  believe  none  will  be,  advanced  by  the  North 
against  the  development  of  the  iron  resources  of  the  Southern  States,  and  yet  it 
is  by  no  means  impossible  that  some  less  favorably  situated  works  in  the  former 
may  suffer  more  by  the  competition  which,  before  long,  may  spring  up  nearer, 
than  from  any  that  we  in  this  country  (Great  Britain)  are  able  to  offer.'  *  *  * 

"  Mr.  Lowthian  Bell,  having  again  visited  the  United  States  in  May,  1876,  as 
the  British  Judge  in  the  department  of  Minerals,  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  inclu- 
•ding  Machinery,  at  the  Philadelphia  Exhibition,  has  since  made  to  the  British 
Government  a  still  more  elaborate  report  on  the  iron  manufacture  of  the  United 
States,  and  a  comparison  of  it  with  that  of  Great  Britain,  in  which  he  now  makes 
the  following  comparisons  as  to  the  relative  richness  and  purity  of  ores  of  the 
United  States  and  of  Great  Britain :  '  The  average  production  of  iron  in  the 
latter,  will  be  a  trifle  under  35  per  cent.,  whereas,  the  produce  of  the  mines  of  the 
United  States  will  be  about  56  per  cent.,  which  means  that  for  each  ton  of  iron 
made,  there  is  20  per  cent,  less  ore  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  American  iron  master  than 
by  ourselves.  Less  than  12|  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  of  ore  raised  in  Great 
Britain  is  fit  for  the  Bessemer  works,  equal  to  about  17  per  cent,  of  the  annual 
value  of  pig  iron;  whereas,  in  the  United  States  almost  one-third  of  the  produce 
of  its  mines  is  sufficiently  free  from  phosphorus  to  furnish  iron  fit  for  Bessemer 
purposes,'  and  he  further  records  his  unhesitating  opinion  that  the  American 
manufacturers  are  as  fully  alive  as  ourselves  to  the  importance  of  careful  study  of 
the  natural  laws  which  influence  their  various  processes  and  affect  the  quality  of 
the  products,  and  that  every  improvement  which  experience  had  mastered  in  this 
country  was  carefully  noted  by  American  metallurgists,  and  any  defect  in  existing 
arrangements  was  corrected  in  the  magnificent  steel  works  and  rail  mills,  which 
since  then  have  been  constructed  in  the  United  States. 

"The  general  conclusions  which  this  eminent  authority  arrives  at  in  this 
report  to  the  British  Government,  are : 

" '  That  the  powers  of  iron  production  in  the  United  States  are  already  equal 
to  any  possible  requirements  of  the  country  itself. 

" '  That  although  markets  may  be  opened  for  American  iron  in  countries  con- 
tiguous to  the  United  States,  he  does  not  expect  that  the  continent  of  Europe, 
much  less  Great  Britain,  will  ever  be  purchasers  of  the  metal,  in  any  of  its 
unmanufactured  forms,  produced  in  the  interior  of  America,  regard  being  had  to 
present  prices  and  to  the  position  of  the  present  known  sources  of  supply  of  the 
raw  materials  there.' 


22  INTRODUCTION 

"  The  admission  here  made  that  articles  of  iron  and  steel  of  American  manu- 
facture may  probably  find  a  market  in  Europe,  ought  to  satisfy  every  reasonable 
American  iron-master,  but  the  saving  clause  at  the  end  requires  to  be  specially  noted 
as  going  to  the  root  of  the  whole  matter,  which  it  is  the  object  of  these  pages  to 
enforce,  namely,  that  successful  competition,  whether  local  or  international,  can 
only  be  secured  in  these  days  by  every  iron-master,  whether  smelter  or  malleable 
iron  manufacturer,  being  the  owner  of  all  or  some  of  the  raw  materials  so  as  to 
place  himself  beyond  the  reach  of  those  causes  which,  as  Mr.  Bell  demonstrates, 
have  reacted  on  the  value  of  the  raw  material,  and,  in  conjunction  with  the 
increased  demands  of  labor,  have  produced  the  recent  crisis  in  the  United  States 
as  well  as  in  Great  Britain.  These  causes  are  investigated  most  minutely  by  Mr. 
Bell  in  the  body  of  his  report,  and  may  be  shortly  stated  to  be  as  follows : 

" '  Owing  to  the  fact  that  furnace  owners  in  America,  as  a  rule,  did  not  possess 
their  own  collieries  and  mines,  they  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  owners  of  coal  and 
iron  ore.  The  former  being  the  coal  producing  and  coal  transporting  companies, 
raised  coal  to  a  famine  price,  and  the  mines  of  the  latter  proved  wholly  inade- 
quate to  meet  the  increased  demand  from  the  new  furnaces,  which,  under  the 
influence  of  high  prices,  had  conie  into  existence.' " 

I  have  quoted  from  this  English  book,  addressed  to  English  readers.  Its- 
arguments  in  favor  of  an  American  state,  Alabama,  are  taken  from  the  highest 
authorities  among  English  writers  and  scientists.  For  these  reasons  they  are 
used.  They  are  above  suspicion.  They  are  not  the  vaunts  of  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  about  his  country,  but  the  hardly  wrung  concessions  of  patriotic 
Englishmen  as  to  the  United  States.  In  one  sense  it  would  be  more  to  my  pur- 
pose to  quote  later  authorities  as  to  the  status  of  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  and  their  present  antagonisms,  and  the  probabilities  of  future  competitions ; 
but  in  another  sense  my  purpose  is  better  served  by  quoting  what,  in  view  of  the 
marvellous  development  the  United  States,  in  the  regard  in  question  has  made 
within  ten  years,  appear  very  antiquated  views.  The  fact  that  some  of  Mr. 
Bell's  prophecies  have  not  only  been  fulfilled,  but  surpassed,  gives  to  his  unfulfilled 
predictions  an  authority  that  must  command  great  deference.  Another  advantage 
gained  in  quoting  these  old  previews  of  Americanism  is,  that  there  can  be  no 
questionings  in  the  most  conservative  or  even  skeptical  of  trans-Atlantic  readers, 
as  to  what  the  United  States  now  is.  Every  reader,  at  all  informed  as  to  the 
matter  in  question,  knows  that  as  to  what  has  been  fulfilled,  Mr.  Bell's  predic- 
tions are  understatements. 

And  now  the  argument  is,  that  if  the  United  States  is  to  become,  or  has 
become,  such  a  competitor  of  Great  Britain,  mainly  through  the  development  of 
the  coal  and  iron  industries  North,  a,  fortiori  will  the  South  become  her  competitor 
and  that  of  the  world ;  since  she  has,  even  at  this  early  stage  of  her  development, 
become  the  competitor  of  the  North  in  the  production  of  pig  iron  and  its  sale  in 
the  very  markets  of  the  North. 

The  growth  of  the  iron  interests  of  the  South  during  the  last  few  years  has 
been  the  marvel  of  the  age,  attracting  the  attention  of  the  entire  bushv  ss  world. 
History  records  no  such  stupendous  developments  in  t1  e  o'd  world  or  m  the 
North  in  iron  making  as  we  have  seen  m  the  Southern  Suites  since  1880,  or  more 
correctly  siuce  1884.  Prior  to  1884  the  iron  masters  of  the  North  affected  to  de- 
spise the  possibilities  of  iron  making  in  the  South.  Even  when  Soutluru  iron, 
commenced  to  invade  the  markels  of  Plr.lndelpliia,  New  York,  Boston,  Pittsburgh, 
and  other  Eastern  and  Western  cities  that  had  been  monopolized  by  Northern 
iron,  they  claimed  to  be  indifferent,  saying  that  the  "competition"  from  Southern 
iron  was  due  solely  to  the  contraction  of  the  natural  niarki  t  therefor,  aided  by  ex- 
ceptionally low  freight  rates ;  that  both  causes  would  disappear  with  the  revival 
of  trade,  and  tint  the  receipts  were  due  to  the  pressure  on  Southern  makers  to 
dispose  of  surplus  production.  The  South  and  Southwest,  it  was  explained,  were 
scantily  supplied  with  foundries  and  mills;  that  existing  depression  in  trade  had 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

Bhut  down  many  of  those  that  had  been  the  steady  customers  of  Southern  furnaces, 
and  that  the  surplus  output  was  therefore  obliged  to  seek  other  outlets;  that  the 
trade  stagnation  had  its  effect  on  the  railways,  steamboats  (coasting)  and  sailing 
vessels,  and  reduced  their  charges  for  freight ;  that  Southern  pig-iron  makers  were 
thereby  enabled  to  send  iron  North  when  they  would  not  otherwise  be  able  so  to 
do,  but  that  they  could  not  when  consumption  of  products  generally  became  more 
active  and  produced  an  advance  in  freights.  Southern  furnaces,  they  said,  and 
how  often  did  the  writer  hear  this,  were  losing  money  on  every  ton  of  pig  iron 
they  shipped  North.  In  less  than  two  years  there  has  been  a  revolution  in  the 
feelings  of  Northern  iron  men  as  regards  the  iron  interests  of  the  South.  It  has 
been  seen  that  instead  of  fuinace  owners  losing  money,  as  was  claimed,  they  were 
steadily  becoming  richer  and  as  rapidly  as  possible  enlarging  their  productive 
capacity  by  building  new  furnaces.  As  one  company  after  another  commenced 
the  erection  of  additional  furnaces,  and  as  the  shipments  of  pig  iron  North  steadily 
increased,  Northern  iron  makers  were  forced  to  admit  that  they  had  underesti- 
mated the  iron  possibilities  of  the  South.  Mr.  Samuel  Thomas,  of  the  great 
Thomas  Iron  Company,  of  Pennsylvania,  after  thoroughly  investigating  the  ad- 
vantages of  Alabama  for  the  cheap  production  of  iron,  concluded  to  build  furnaces 
near  Birmingham,  and  he  and  his  associates  organized  a  $1,000,000  company  which 
is  now  putting  up  one  furnace,  with  the  plant  so  arranged  that  others  can  be 
added  after  this  is  finished.  This  move  attracted  wide  attention,  for  it  was  the 
strongest  possible  endorsement  of  what  the  press  and  the  people  of  the  South, 
had  so  persistently  claimed.  During  1886  new  companies  organized  to  build 
furnaces  were  formed  so  rapidly  as  to  fairly  bewilder  one  who  attempts  to  keep 
the  run  of  new  enterprises,  and  at  this  writing  there  are  no  indications  of  any* 
let-up  in  the  stupendous  developments  that  eacli  day  brings  forth  in  the  South. 
The  center  of  the  greatest  activity  has  been  in  Alabama  and  Tennessee,  but  in. 
Virginia  plans  are  being  matured  for  gigantic  iron  enterprises  that  promise  to 
make  the  Southwestern  part  of  that  State,  so  rich  in  mineral. resources,  rival  to 
some  extent  the  first  two  States  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel. 

The  vast  developments  that  are  now  being  made  in  the  iron  interests  of  the 
South  will  be  best  appreciated  by  a  summary  of  some  of  the  most  important  enter- 
prises now  under  way.  The  Pratt  Coal  &  Iron  Company,  and  the  Tennessee 
Coal,  Iron  &  Railroad  Company,  which  were  consolidated  in  1886  with  a  capital 
stock  of  $10,000,000,  have  five  farnaces  in  operation,  are  now  building  five  more,, 
and  will  also  erect  steel  works.  Four  of  these  furnaces  and  the  steel  works  will  be 
located  at  the  new  town  of  Ensley,  near  Birmingham,  and  one  will  be  added  to  the 
three  owned  by  this  company  at  South  Pittsburgh.  The  magnitude  of  the  busi- 
ness carried  on  by  this  great  corporation  is  seen  from  a  recent  letter  from  the 
manager  to  the  Manufacturers'  Record,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  with  their  five 
furnaces  they  are  now  turning  out  more  iron  than  the  Thomas  Iron  Company,  of 
Pennsylvania,  with  its  twelve,  and  that  they  are  shipping  iron  to  Canada,  Conneo 
ticut,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Cali- 
fornia, Utah,  Nevada,  Montana,  Texas,  and  all  the  intervening  States  and  Terri- 
tories.  The  Sloss  Furnace  Company,  of  Birmingham,  having  a  capital  stock  of 
$500,000,  lately  sold  oat  their  ent.re  property  for  $2,000,000  to  the  Sloss  Iron  & 
Steel  Company,  which  has  a  capital,  including  bonds,  of  $5,000,000.  This  com- 
pany now  has  two  furnaces,  and  has  contracted  for  the  building  of  two  more,  be- 
sides a  steel  plant.  A  well-known  Pennsylvania  iron  maker,  who  a  few  months 
ago,  as  he  stood  on  one  of  the  mountains  of  iron  at  Birmingham,  was  forced  to  ex- 
claim in  view  of  what  he  saw,  "it  costs  me  in  Pennsylvania  $15  to  $16  to  make  a 
ton  of  iron,  while  I  can  make  it  here  for  $7.50,"  has  lately  headed  a  company  with 
a  capital  of  $1,500,000  to  build  two  furnaces,  coke  ovens,  &c.,  just  where  he  stood 


24  INTRODUCTION. 

•when  making  this  remark.  The  De  Bardeleben  Coal  &  Iron  Company,  with  a 
capital  of  $2,000,000,  is  building  two  furnaces  and  will  probably  erect  a  steel  plant 
at  the  new  town  of  Bessemer.  The  Coalburg  Coal  &  Coke  Company  has  increas- 
ed its  capital  from  $500,000  to  $700,000  for  the  purpose  of  building  a  furnace.  A 
$3,000,000  company  has  decided  to  build  three  furnaces  at  Florence,  Alabama,  and 
develop  other  industries,  while  at  Sheffield  five  furnaces  of  125  tons  capacity  are  un- 
der contract  to  be  built ;  and  at  South  Pittsburgh,  Tennessee,  two  120-ton  furnaces, 
besides  one  included  in  the  five  to  be  built  by  the  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  &  Railroad 
Oompany,  are  to  be  put  up.  Plans  are  being  formed  for  building  a  number  of  fur- 
naces at  Decatur,  Alabama.  The  Williamson  Iron  Company  has  just  built  one  fur- 
nace at  Birmingham.  The  Woodwards,  of  Wheeling,  Alabama,  have  added  another 
to  their  plant,  and  one  has  lately  been  completed  at  Aetna,  Tennessee.  A  $200,000 
Chattanooga  company  will  build  a  100-ton  furnace  ;  one  is  under  construction  at 
Ashland,  Kentucky,  and  one  in  Virginia,  and  two  are  to  be  built  at  Nashville, 
-while  a  number  of  other  companies,  with  capital  ranging  from  $5^0,000  up 
to  $5,000,000  in  one  case,  have  been  organized  in  Southwest  Virginia,  Ten- 
nessee and  Alabama  to  develop  coal  and  iron  ore  property,  build  furnaces, 
<fcc.,  which  have  not  yet  fully  matured  their  plans.  At  Auniston,  Alabama, 
which  has  been  aptly  called  the  "Model  City  of  the  South,"  so  perfect  is 
it  in  all  its  appointments,  gigantic  enterprises  are  taking  shape.  Of  this  beauti- 
ful town  Hon.  Wm.  D.  Kelley,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  his  recent  article  in  the 
Manufacturers'  Record  upon  the  industrial  progress  of  the  South,  as  sern  during 
his  visit  to  Alabama  and  Tennessee,  in  December,  1886,  wrote :  "  I  venture  the 
prediction  that  though  Anniston  has  never  had  a  'boom,'  and  its  planting  and  de- 
velopment have  been  managed  so  quietly  that  its  name  is  hardly  recognized  by  the 
popular  ear,  it  will,  before  two  decades  shall  have  passed,  be  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable centers  of  iron,  steel  and  kindred  industries  to  be  found  in  those  wonder- 
fully endowed  States,  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Tennessee."  Already  this  prediction 
seems  sure  of  fulfillment.  Tiie  Woodstock  Iron  &  Steel  Company,  which  founded 
this  town,  built  its  furnaces  and  factories,  its  magnificent  Anniston  Inn,  widely 
known  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  perfect  hotels  to  be  found  in  the  country, 
its  electric  light  and  water  works,  laid  out  its  streets  and  encouraged  the  develop- 
ment of  many  industries,  has  made  arrangements  for  the  immediate  construction, 
of  two  coke  furnaces  of  1,000  tons  weekly  capacity  each,  which  will  be  the  largest 
in  the  South,  and  the  building  of  a  direct  rail  line  to  Gradsdcn.  Several  other  com- 
panies have  been  organized  to  erect  furnaces  at  the  same  place,  and  at  one  bound 
Anniston  has  sprung  into  the  widest  notoriety,  and  gives  promise  now  of  fully 
rivalling,  within  a  year  or  two,  the  tremendous  industrial  progress  that  has  made 
Birmingham  known  throughout  the  world.  It  is  reported  that  arrangements  are 
being  made  for  the  erection  of  large  locomotive  works  in  Anniston,  and  should 
they  go  into  operation  that  place  will  have  the  distinction  of  being  tho  only  city 
in  the  South,  if  not  in  the  country,  where  a  complete  train,  from  the  locomotive 
to  the  cars,  can  be  turned  out  of  its  shops,  using  only  the  raw  material  produced 
^within  its  limits.  Its  furnaces  make  a  high  grade  of  car-wheel  iron  which  is 
turned  into  wheels  at  the  large  car  wheel  works  there.  The  axles  are  made  at 
the  same  place.  The  cars,  complete,  are  produced  at  the  car  shops  there,  and  now 
it  is  proposed  to  build  locomotives. 

Of  Birmingham  and  its  remarkable  growth  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say 
much,  as  this  town  has  been  more  widely  advertised  through  tho  letters  of  promi- 
nent men  who  have  visited  it  than  any  other  place  in  the  South.  For  several 
years  it  was  looked  upon  as  the  center  of  all  the  developments  in  the  iron  interests 
of  the  South,  and  on  this  account  it  has  attracted  wor'd  wide  attention,  resulting 
in  a  growth  in  population  and  wealth  that  is  indeed  marvellous.  In  addition  to 


INTRODUCTION.  25 

the  many  furnaces  in  operation  in  and  around  the  town,  a  large  number  are  now 
under  construction.  At  Chattanooga  the  progress  in  iron  industries  has  likewise 
been  wonderful,  and  this  city  has  the  credit  of  being  the  first  point  in  the  central 
South  where  Bessemer  steel  was  made.  South  Pittsburgh,  Sheffield  and  other 
towns  that  are  rapidly  springing  up  are  building  furnaces  and  other  iron  works 
with  a  rapidity  that  is  startling. 

The  progress  that  the  South  has  already  made  in  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron 
is  strikingly  shown  in  a  recent  article  in  the  Manufacturers'  Record,  in  which  it 
was  stated  that  iu  1880  the  South  made  397,301  tons  of  pig  iron ;  in  1885  it  made 
712,835  tons— a  gain  of  315,534.  Three  States— Virginia,  Alabama  and  Tennessee— 
that  in  1880  produced  178,006  tons  of  pig  iron,  in  1885  produced  552,419  tons— an 
increase  of  374,413  tons,  or  139,958  tons  more  than  the  net  increase  in  the  United 
States,  the  production  in  the  whole  country  outside  of  these  three  States  being 
234,455  tons  less  in  1885  than  in  1880.  In  1886  the  production  in  the  South  was 
still  larger,  and  in  1888,  when  many  of  the  furnaces  now  under  construction  have 
been  completed,  the  South's  output  of  pig  iron  will,  it  is  estimated,  be  over  1,500,- 
000  tons.  Taking  the  three  Southern  States  that  are  now  the  largest  iron  pro- 
ducers in  that  section,  the  production  for  each  year  from  1880  to  1885,  both  inclu- 
sive, was  as  follows : 

1880.  1881.  1882.  1883.  1884.               1885. 

Virginia 29,934  83,711  87,731  152,907  157.483  163,782 

Alabama 77,190  98,081  112,765  172,465  189,664  227,438 

Tennessee 70*873  87,406  137,602  133,963  *34,597  161,199 

Total 177,997          269,198          358,098          459.335          487,744          553,419 

With  the  increase  in  the  production  of  Southern  iron  the  shipments  North 
have  steadily  enlarged,  notwithstanding  the  rapid  growth  of  diversified  industries 
that  use  pig  iron  as  a  raw  material.  Bradstreet's,  which  has  made  a  study  of  this 
matter  for  several  years,  shows  the  shipments  to  have  been  as  follows : 

, ^83 ,  , 1884 »  , 1885 ,  , 1886 » 

8  *^  fl  <U  *•*  C2  <U  *"*  C  <L>   "^  C3 

II  II  gl  -       II 

•32      Its          <HS      li          £n      §a          ^      §~ 

dl  ds3  dl  d3  d'S  o-:S  &  0W 

fc  8  fc  fc  -8  fc  fcS!£  Z%  fc 

Maryland 4  7,577  4  3,772  i  250  i  1,186 

Virginia 9  32,027  n  72,374  9  71,150  8  81,851 

Georgia 2  i,375  2  5,540  i  508  o         

Alabama 3  2,665  8  10,250  7  22,814  6  25,000 

Tennessee 4  700  7  4,33^  3  4,000  7  22,175 

Kentucky i  4,364  2  3,800  2  336  i  4,000 

West  Virginia 2  10,101  i  2,500  o  ....  2  5,500 

Totals 25      58,809  36      102,566  23         99,058  25       139,712 

The  significance  of  the  gain  of  40,000  tons  in  1886  over  1885  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  it  has  taken  place  in  the  face  of  the  extraordinarily  increased  demand  for 
pig  iron  from  recently  established  foundries  and  mills  in  tbe  South,  as  well  as  from 
those  located  north  of  the  Ohio  and  west  of  the  Mississippi  rivers.  Illustrative  of 
the  growth  in  the  demand  for  pig  iron  from  local  Southern  establishments,  it  is 
noted  that  eight  Southern  furnaces,  which  shipped  42,000  tons  of  iron  north  of  tbe 
Ohio  river  in  1885,  have  but  37,500  tons  in  1886.  Of  these,  Virginia  furnaces  sent 
one-third,  Kentucky  one-third  and  Tennessee  one-quarter  of  the  quantity  men- 
tioned. Of  Eastern  pig  iron  shipments  from  the  South,  those  from  Virginia  in- 
creased from  71,000  to  nearly  82,000  tons,  or  15  J-  per  cent.  The  most  conspicuous 
gain,  however,  was  from  Tennessee.  In  1884  seven  furnaces  shipped  East  some 
4,330  tons,  while  in  1886  the  total  increased  (all  from  Nashville  and  Chattanooga) 
to  22,175  tons,  over  500  per  cent.  Kentucky  is  not  sending  East  as  much  pig  iron, 
.now  as  in  1883,  and  West  Virginia  only  one-half  as  much. 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

One  of  the  most  gratifying  features  of  the  wonderful  growth  of  the  iron  in- 
dustries of  the  South  is  the  wide  diversity  of  new  enterprises  that  are  coming  into 
existence  for  the  production  of  finished  iron  goods.  Machine  shops,  foundries, 
rolling  mills,  stove  works,  agricultural  implement  factories  and  other  industries 
are  being  established  all  through  the  South;  thus  a  home  market  for  Southern  pig 
iron  is  rapidly  being  developed  that  will  require  a  very  large  part  of  the  entire 
production,  even  when  the  new  furnaces  now  under  way  get  into  operation. 
While  the  Southern  people  themselves  are  displaying  the  greatest  energy  in  build- 
ing up  these  new  industries,  the  manufacturers  of  the  North,  now  fully  alive  to 
the  advantages  of  the  South,  are  rapidly  transferring  their  capital  and  en- 
ergy to  this  new  field.  This  drift  towards  the  South  is  well  illustrated  in  the  case 
of  Messrs.  Perry  &  Co.,  the  extensive  stove  makers  of  Albany,  New  York.  Seeing 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  retain  their  Southern  trade  much  longer  at  their  old 
works,  they  have  commenced  the  erection  of  a  stove  foundry  in  South  Pittsburgh, 
where  they  will  give  employment  to  500  or  more  hands.  In  making  an  announce- 
ment of  this  change  they  stated  that  they  had  occasionally  been  buying  iron  from 
the  South  and  shipping  it  back  in  the  shape  of  stoves,  which  involved  an  expense 
of  $20  per  ton  on  stoves  that  could  be  saved  by  building  works  in  the  South.  It  is- 
this  enormous  saving  in  the  cost  of  production  that  is  so  rapidly  transferring 
Northern  capital  to  the  South. 

The  manufacture  of  steel  has  been  commenced  in  the  South  under  very  favor- 
able auspices,  and  the  outlook  for  this  industry  is  very  bright.  It  was  claimed  for 
a  long  time  that  the  South  had  no  ores  suitable  for  making  Besserm  r  steel,  but  an 
experimental  plant  erected  at  Chattanooga  proved  the  falsity  of  this.  This  plant 
is  now  in  successful  operation  in  connection  with  a  nail  mijl.  In  1886  the  Roane 
Iron  Company,  of  Chattanooga,  whose  works  had  been  shut  down  for  some  time, 
decided  to  equip  their  establishment  with  the  best  machinery  for  making  Bessemer 
steel  rails.  This  plant  has  been  nearly  completed,  and  will  probably  be  in  opera- 
tion early  in  March.  At  Richmond  a  Bessemer  steel  plant  is  under  construction,  and 
arrangements  are  beinsc  perfected  for  building  at  least  one,  and  possibly  more,  at 
Ashland,  Ky.  The  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  &  Railroad  Company  will  build  a  steel 
plant,  as  has  already  been  stated,  at  Eusley ;  the  DC  Bardeleben  Coal  &  Iron  Com- 
pany promise  one  at  Bessemer ;  the  Sloss  Iron  &  Steel  Company  write  that  they- 
will  erect  a  steel  plant,  and  last  year,  when  the  Woodstock  Iron  Company  chang- 
ed its  name  to  the  Woodstock  Iron  &  Steel  Company,  it  was  understo  d  that  steel 
works  would  be  built  at  Anniston,  and  it  is  probable  that  this  will  now  be  done. 

The  immense  deposits  of  Bessemer  ore  at  Cranberry,  North  Carolina,  really  it 
may  be  said  the  immense  mountain  of  solid  ore,  furnishes  an  inexhaustible  supply 
of  fine  Bessemer  ore.  It  is  only  within  the  last  year  or  two  that  this  ore  has  been 
mined  on  a  large  scale,  but  with  the  building  of  a  railroad  to  connect  these  mines 
with  the  East  Tennessee,  Virginia  &  Georgia  road  at  Johnston  City,  Tennessee,  it 
became  possible  to  ship  Cranberry  ore.  Since  then  mining  l:as  been  pushed  very 
vigorously.  A  new  road  is  now  in  course  of  construction,  and  when  finished  it 
will  open  this  mountain  of  ore  to  even  more  direct  connection  with  the  outside 
world,  and  will  no  doubt  result  in  more  extensive  developments  of  the  iron  in- 
terests of  that  whole  section,  including  parts  of  Tennessee,  Western  North  Caro- 
lina, Southwest  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  In  Southwest  Virginia,  tributary  to  the 
Norfolk  &  Western  Railroad,  there  are  also  large  deposits  of  Bessemer  ores,  and 
Northern  capitalists  are  preparing  to  locate  a  town  on  the  Cripple  Creek  branch  of 
this  road,  and  to  build  very  extensive  iron  and  steel  works.  The  abundance  and 
cheapness  of  fine  ores,  good  coking  coals  and  limestone,  assure  a  rapid  growth  of 
the  iron  interests  of  that  section,  now  that  this  country  has  been  penetrated  by  a. 
railroad. 


INTR  OD  UCTION.  27 

The  question  of  the  cost  of  making  pig  iron  in  the  South  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed, but  in  a  work  of  this  kind  it  is  hardly  advisable  to  enter  into  any  a:  gument 
as  to  how  cheaply  it  can  be  produced.  It  may,  however,  be  well  to  give  some 
statements  put  forth  by  others.  Mr.  R.  P.  Rothwell,  C.  E.,  M.  E.,  of  New  York, 
editor  of  the  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  a  high  authority  in  metallurgical 
matters,  recently  made  a  personal  investigation  of  the  iron  districts  of  Alabama 
and  Tennessee.  From  a  statement  made  by  him,  the  following,  as  to  the  cost  of 
making  iron  in  parts  of  Alabama,  is  taken : 

"100  of  iron,  at  2  cents  a  unit $2  oo 

Fuel,  i}^  tons 3.50 

«  Limestone 30 

Labor 1.50 

$7-30 
Renewals  and  incidentals i.oo 

Total  cost,  exclusive  of  interest  on  capital  or  profit  on  mining $8.30 

"Though  these  figures  are  not  to  be  applied  to  nny  particular  works,  yet  they 
are  'absolute  figures  of  cost,'  and  nothing  is  'assumed,'  except  the  two  items  of 
renewals  and  incidentals. 

Each  of  the  principal  items  given  above  is  'bettered'  at  one  or  the  other  of 
the  works.  *  *  *  Enough  has  bten  done  to  show  what  can  be  done  con- 
tinuously, and  to  justify  the  statement  that  pig  iron  can  be  made  at  certain  points 
in  the  Birmingham  district  at  a  figure  not  exceeding  $8  a  ton,  every  expense  in- 
cluded, even  to  that  indefinite  and  mysterious  item  that  makes  its  appearance  when 
stock  is  taken  nt  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  cost  of  making  Bessemer  pig  in  the  Birmingham  district  is  dependent 
solely  on  the  distance  from  which  Bessemer  ores  have  to  be  brought.  If  Carters- 
ville,  with  150  miles  haul,  can  supply  the  ore  of  desired  quality,  and  yielding  even 
55  percent,  of  iron,  the  increased  cost  of  transportation  over  native  ores  would 
not  exceed  $1.75  per  toil  of  pig  iron,  and  the  greater  cost  of  mining,  if  any,  would 
be  more  than  balanced  by  the  lower  fuel  and  labor  items;  so  that,  if  we  can  assume 
that  good  Bessemer  ores  can  be  procured  in  quantity  and  in  convenient  location 
within  150  or  even  within  2f  Omiles  of  Birmingham,  it  is  possible  to  make  Bessemer 
pig  there  at  $10.50  a  ton,  and  possibly  even  at  $10. 

These  figures  not  only  assure  the  prosperity  of  the  iron-making  industry  in 
Alabama,  giving  it  beyond  question  the  {Southern  markets,  but  they  are  sufficiently 
far  below  the  cost  at  a  large  number  of  Northern  furnaces  to  enable  Alabama  to 
make  the  prices,  if  need  be,  in  some  of  our  large  Northern  markets." 

Coming  as  these  statements  do  from  such  an  unquestioned  authority,  they 
prove  that  the  wonderful  advantages  of  the  South  for  making  cheap  pig  iron  have 
not  been  exaggerated,  but  rather  that  they  have  been  underestimated.  Very  few, 
even  of  the  strongest  advocates  of  Alabama's  iron  interests,  have  claimed  that 
pig  iron  could  be  made  in  that  State  at  $8  a  ton,  and  yet  the  proof  that  this  can 
be  done  comes  from  a  Northern  source. 

A  writer  in  the  Manufacturers'  Record  of  November  27,  discussing  the  same 
subject,  makes  the  following  quotation  from  a  private  letter  as  to  the  cost  of  iron 
making  in  East  Tennessee : 

"Much  has  been  written  and  said  of  late  as  to  the  probabilities  of  the  South 
taking  the  lead  in  the  production  of  good  and  cheap  iron.  Let  us  look  at  the 
facts,  for  facts  do  not  lie. 

In  East  Tennessee  we  can  put  60  per  cent,  ore,  almost  practically  free  from 
phosphorus,  on  cars  at  50  cents  per  ton,  or  less  in  some  localities.  The  percent- 
age of  phosphorus  in  a  majority  of  the  ores  of  East  Tennessee  does  not  average 
3-110  tenths  of  1  per  cent.,  and  this  will  be  understood  by  those  in  the  trade. 

We  can  contract  for  coke  as  good,  if  not  superior,  to  the  Connellsville,  Penn- 
sylvania, coke  at  $3  per  ton.  On  the  East  Tennessee,  Virginia  &  Georgia  Railroad 
limestone  is  everywhere  to  be  obtained,  which  is  excellent  flux,  at  25  cents  per 
ton.  Here  we  have  the  whole  matter  in  a  nut  shell,  for  the  production  of  pig  iron 
is  not  a  matter  of  speculation,  but  one  of  calculation  only.  Let  me  give  you  simple 
facts  in  rny  estimate  of  production,  and  if  any  one  can  pick  holes  in  such  state- 
ments I  shall  be  glad  to  learn  : 


28  AV  77?  OD  UC  TfON. 

COST  OF    PRODUCTION    OF   PIG    IRON   IN   EAST   TENNESSEE. 

Iron  ore,  say  z  tons,  at  50  cents $1.00 

Coke,  1%  tons,  at  $3 4.16 

Limestone,  so#,  say 25 

Labor,  management  and  office  expenses 2.59 

$8.00 

It  may  be  remarked  that  my  estimate  for  coke  is  below  the  average  in  the 
South.  I  admit  this,  but  in  reply  I  can  only  state  that  I  had  the  management  of 
large  works  in  Cleveland,  Yorkshire,  in  England,  where  we  always  considered  we 
were  doing  badly  if  our  coke  exceeded  27  cwt.,  and  this  with  40  per  cent.  ore.  I 
will,  for  illustration's  sake,  copy  from  ihe  report  of  a  well-known  firm  at  Middles- 
boro,  Yorkshire,  the  following:  'Our  ore  has  cost  us,  by  the  foregoing  statement, 
4s.  3|d.  per  ton,  and  coke  12s.  4cV 

Now,  if  we  take  these  facts  into  consideration,  and. always  remember  that  in 
Cleveland,  England,  they  are  dealing  with  a  40  per  cent,  ore,  whilst  we  are  dealing 
with  a  60  per  cent,  ore,  it  will  strike  the  practical  mind  that  Tennessee  possesses 
great  advantages,  for  which  time  alone  is  required  to  put  before  the  iron  masters 
not  only  of  the  North,  but  of  England.  I  am  intimately  conversant  wth  every 
detail  of  the  manufacture  of  iron  in  this  State,  in  Cleveland,  England,  Yorkshire, 
in  Wales,  G.  B.,  and  in  the  Northern  States,  and  managed  the  largest  works  in 
Canada,  and  I  say,  without  fear  of  contradiction,  that  my  figures  are  a  true  and 
correct  representation  of  the  state  of  affairs." 

In  Southwest  Virginia,  on  the  Cripple  Creek  Branch  of  the  Norfolk  &  "West- 
ern Railroad,  where  extensive  iron  industries  are  to  be  established  by  Philadelphia 
capitalists,  the  writer  is  assured  on  the  best  authority,  that  is,  the  actual  results  of 
a  furnace  in  operation  there,  that  high  grade  ore,  much  of  which  is  suitable  for 
Bessemer  iron  without  any  admixture,  while  the  run  of  the  mines  only  requires  a 
very  small  percentage  of  Cranberry  ore  to  produce  Bessemer  iron,  can  be  put  in 
the  furnace  at  considerably  less  than  $1  a  ton.  Pocahontas  coke  can  be  delivered 
at  $2.50  per  ton,  and  possibly  less,  while  limestone  is  abundant  and  needs  to  be 
carted  only  a  few  hundred  yards. 

In  an  interview  published  in  the  New  York  Tribune  during  the  latter  part 
of  December,  1886,  Gen.  "Willard  Warner,  of  Nashville,  made  the  following  state- 
ments regarding  pig  iron  manufacture  in  the  South  : 

"The  pioneer  in  the  manufacture  of  coke-iron  in  the  South  was  Gen.  J.  W. 
Wilder,  of  Chattanooga,  formerly  of  Indiana,  who  built  the  first  coke  furnace  at 
liockwood,  Tennessee,  in  1867,  and  the  second  in  1872  for  the  Roane  Iron  Com- 
pany. These  furnaces  have  been  successfully  and  profitably  run  ever  since,  the 
Roane  Iron  Company  paying  regular  six  per  cent,  dividends  on  a  capital  of 
$1,000,000.  The  most  important  single  factor  in  the  iron  trade  of  this  section  is 
the  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  &  Railroad  Company,  which  lately  absorbed  the  Pratt 
Coal  &  Iron  Company,  of  Birmingham,  Alabama.  The  capital  of  this  company 
is  $10,00>>,000,  and  it  now  has  in  operation  five  large  furnaces — two  at  Birming- 
ham, Alabama,  two  at  South.  Pittsburgh,  and  one  at  Cowan,  Tennessee,  and  is 
building  four  large  new  furnaces  at  Ensley  City,  near  Birmingham,  and  one  at 
South  Pittsburgh.  It  owns  300,000  acres  of  ore  and  coal  lands  in  Alabama  and 
Tennessee,  including  the  famous  Pratt  and  Suwauee  seams.  This  company  in 
1888  will  make  1 ,200  tons  of  pig  iron  a  day.  Enoch  Ensley  is  president ;  T.  T.  Hill- 
man,  vice-president,  and  Mr.  Shook  here  is  the  general  manager. 

The  Alabama  &  Tennessee  Coal  &  Iron  Company,  of  which  A.  S.  Colyar,  of 
Nashville,  is  president  and  I  am  vice-president,  owns  70,000  acres  of  valuable  coal 
and  iron  lands  in  Alabama,  and  lias  Contracted  for  three  coke  furnaces  at  Sheffield, 
with  a  daily  capacity  for  each  of  125  tons.  Messrs.  Ensley,  Parish,  Shook  and 
their  associates  are  also  building  one  lar^e  furnace  at  Sheffield,  and  the  Sheffield 
Company  the  fifth.  The  South  Pittsburgh  Coal  &  Iron  Company  is  also  preparing 
to  build  two  large  coke  furnaces  at  South  Pittsburgh,  with  a  daily  capacity  of  120 
tons  each. 

Tha- first  furnace  wns  built  at  Birmingham  by  T.  T.  Hillman  in  1879-80.  I 
saw  the  t^te  of  Birmingham  in  1870  as  a  cotton  field,  and  could  have  bought  the 
land  for  $10  an  acre.  Now  the  city  Ins  a  population  of  35,000  and  lots  are  selling 
for  $1,000  a  front  foot.  Col  J.  W.  Sloss  built  two  large  furnaces  at  Birmingham 
in  1881-82 ;  Messrs.  De  Bardeleben  and  Underwood  built  the  Mary  Pratt  furnace 
in  1832,  and  tue  Messrs.  Underwood  the  Wheeling  furnace,  near  Birmingham,  in 


INTR  OD  UCTION.  JL  9* 

1881-82.  The  Eureka  Company,  of  which  J,  D.  Farris,  of  Cincinnati,  is  president*, 
built  the  two  furnaces  at  Oxmoor,  six  miles  from  Birmingham,  in  1876-77. 

Citico  furnace,  Chattanooga,  was  built  by  the  Citico  Furnace  Company,  H.  S. 
Chamberlain,  president,  in  1874.  This  furnace  and  the  two  Rockwood  furnaces 
are  now  making  Bessemer  pig  iron  from  the  Cranberry  ore  on  the  line  of  the  East 
Tennessee,  Virginia  &  Georgia  Railroad.  This  iron  will  be  used  by  the  Roane 
Iron  Company,  at  its  mill  in  Chattanooga,  for  making  Bessemer  steel  rails,  begin- 
ning in  February.  This  will  be  the  inception  of  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails  in 
the  South.  Capt.  H.  S.  Chamberlain  is  also  president  of  this  company. 

There  are  now  building  in  this  region  eighteen  new  furnaces  of  large  size  and 
best  modern  type,  as  follows :  Nine  at  or  near  Birmingham,  five  at  Sheffield,  three 
at  South  Pittsburgh,  and  one  at  Chattanooga.  In  1888  there  will  be  forty-one  coke 
and  seventeen  charcoal  furnaces  in  the  region,  not  counting  some  small  charcoal 
furnaces,  which  may  be  regarded  as  abandoned,  with  a  total  assured  production, 
as  I  have  already  told  you,  of  1,500,000  gross  tons." 

In  this  statement  Gen.  Warner  omits  the  two  large  furnaces  definitely  decided 
upon  for  Anniston,  and  several  others,  for  the  construction  of  which  companies 
have  been  organized,  in  addition  to  a  large  number  of  furnaces  projected  at  other 
places,  such  as  Decatur,  Selma,  Montgomery,  &c. 

It  is  as  certain  that  the  South  is  to  be  the  manufacturing  center  of  this  country 
in  iron  as  it  is  that  she  is  to  be  in  cotton.  The  rapid  increase  in  the  production 
of  pig  iron  is  being  followed  by  a  diversification  of  iron  manufactures,  and  the 
South  has  already  commenced  on  a  large  scale  to  manufacture  its  own  car  wheels, 
stoves,  agricultural  implements,  engines,  sugar  machinery,  iron  ships,  locomotives, 
etc.,  etc.  The  first  effect  of  this  will  be  to  supply  the  South  with  articles  the 
South  needs.  Then  the  manufacturers  will  invade  the  West ;  and  the  East  will 
lose  that  market.  So  many  rivers  pierce  the  South,  giving  such  cheap  highways 
to  the  West,  forever  erecting  a  barrier  against  exhorbitant  railroad  rates ;  s  many 
hard  woods  so  superb,  abundant  and  cheap,  are  found,  to  combine  with  iron  in 
implements;  labor  is  so  cheap  and  free  from  strikes;  mineral  lands  are  so  cheap; 
so  that  iron  manufacturers  can  at  once  own  coal,  iron  and  iron  ore,  forbidding 
combinations  against  manufacturers — these  and  more  surely  foretell  the  great 
future  for  iron  manufacture  in  the  South. 

In  view  of  the  great  progress  that  the  iron  interests  of  the  South  are  now 
making,  it  is  of  interest  to  quote  the  prediction  of  Hon.  Abrain  S.  Hewitt,  of  New 
York,  one  of  the  largest  iron  manufacturers  of  the  North.  Referri ,  o  Alabama, 
he  said : 

"I  think  this  will  be  a  region  of  coke-made  iron  on  a  scale  grander  than  has 
ever  been  witnessed  on  the  habitable  globe." 

Who  will  now  question  this  in  the  light  of  recent  events? 

While  the  iron  interests,  as  I  have  already  said,  and  their  kindred  industries 
have  attracted  the  greatest  share  of  attention,  it  must  not  be  understood  that  other 
lines  of  industrial  growth  are  not  making  good  progress. 

In  the  building  of  lumber  mills  of  all  kinds,  from  the  small  portable  sn  w  mill 
to  the  mill  costing  $50,000  to  $100,000,  the  erection  ol  ice  factories,  flour  mills,  &c., 
there  is  great  activity.  In  fact,  while  the  iron  interests  have  attracted  the 
greatest  attention,  the  growth  of  manufactures  covers  a  wide  range  of  indus- 
tries, including  foundries,  machine  shops,  steel  works,  cotton  and  woolen  mills, 
cotton-seed  oi.1  mills,  cotton  compresses,  fruit  canning  factories,  carriage  and  wagon 
factories,  agricultural  implement  factories,  flour  mills,  grist  mills,  saw  mills,  plan- 
ing mills,  sash,  door  and  blind  factories,  shuttle  factories,  handle  and  spoke  fac- 
tories, barrel  factories,  shingle  mills,  furniture  factories,  tobacco  factories,  brick 
yards,  ice  factories,  fertilizer  factories,  stove  foundries,  wire  fence  factories,  lime 
works,  soap  factories,  tanneries,  glass  works,  gas  works,  whiting  factories,  distil- 
leries, potteries,  electric  light  works,  marble  and  slate  quarrying  companies,  and 
companies  to  mine  coal,  iron  ore,  gold,  silver,  mica,  natural  gas,  oil,  &c.  It  is  a 


30  IN  TR  OD  UC  T10N. 

healthy  growth.  Instead  of  all  interest  being  centered  in  the  establishment  of  a 
few  big  enterprises,  the  South  has  realized  the  importance  of  the  small  factory  and 
workshop,  and  so  we  see  springing  up  everywhere  small  factories,  requiring 
but  a  few  hands  and  a  little  capital,  for  producing  the  many  articles  of  manufacture 
needed  everywhere.  Finding  at  first  a  local  market  for  their  goods,  these  factories 
will  gradually  extend  their  facilities  and  widen  the  scope  of  their  trade,  until  they 
develop  by  a  natural  process  into  extensive  enterprises. 

Included  in  the  list  of  new  enterprises  reported  by  the  Manufacturers'  Record 
in  the  South  during  1886  were:  28  iron  furnaces,  50  ice  factories,  68  foundries  and 
machine  shops,  many  of  them  of  large  size,  1  Bessemer  steel  rail  mill,  26  miscella- 
neous iron  works,  including  iron  pipe  works,  bridge  and  bolt  works,  &c. ;  8  stove 
foundries,  24  gas  works,  34  electric  light  companies,  11  agricultural  implement 
factories,  174  mining  and  quarrying  enterprises,  16  carriage  and  wagon  factories, 
9  cotton  mills,  23  furniture  factories,  42  water  works,  58  tobacco  factories,  92  flour 
mills,  448  lumber  mills,  (not  counting  small  portable  saw  mills),  including  saw  and 
planing  mills,  sash  and  door  factories,  stave,  handle,  shingle,  hub  and  spoke,  shut- 
tle block  factories,  &c.,  in  addition  to  which  there  was  a  large  number  of  miscella- 
neous enterprises. 

COAL. 

The  magnitude  of  the  coal  resources  of  the  South  is  utterly  beyond  computa- 
tion. The  entire  coal  area  of  Great  Britain  covers  only  11,900  square  miles,  while 
West  Virginia  alone  has  16,000  square  miles  of  coal  fields,  Alabama  10,680  square 
miles,  Kentucky  nearly  13,000,  Tennessee  5,100,  Arkansas  over  9,000,  and  Texas 
estimated  at  over  30,000  square  miles.  Moreover,  the  coal  is  easily  and  cheaply 
mined,  and  is  of  the  best  quality.  Some  idea  of  how  absolutely  inexhaustible  are 
the  coal  beds  of  the  South  may  be  gained  from  a  few  statistics  regarding  the  War- 
rior coal  fields,  of  Alabama,  which  is  simply  one  of  the  coal  fields  of  one  State. 
Regarding  the  Warrior  field,  Prof.  Henry  McCalley,  in  his  late  geological  report, 
says  that  it  "contains  about  7,800  square  miles,  and  is  about  two-thirds  as  large  as 
the  entire  coal  territory  of  Great  Britain.  Its  coal  measures  are  over  three  thous- 
and feet  thick,  containing  fifty-three  seams  of  coal,  being  from  a  few  inches  to 
fourteen  feet  thick,  having  a  combined  thickness  of  over  125  feet  of  pure  coal.  It 
is  estimated  that  they  contain  not  less  than  113,119,000,000  tons,  of  which  about 
108,394,000,000  tons  would  be  available  The  coal  is  valued  now  at  about  $150,- 
000,000,000  at  the  mines  of  which  $30,000,000,000  would  be  profit,  being  about  200 
tunes  the  present  total  assessed  value  of  the  property  in  Alabama,  and  would  buy 
every  foot  of  Alabama  territory  at  $900  per  acre  These  coals,  like  those  of  other 
fields  in  Alabama,  are  especially  enhanced  in  value,  owing  to  the  proximity  of 
vast  deposits  of  red  and  brown  iron  ores  and  linn  stooes." 

In  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama  and 
Georgia,  the  coal-mining  interests  are  of  great  extent  and  value,  but  are  very  in- 
significant as  compared  with  what  they  will  be  in  a  few  ye:irs.  In  several  of  these 
States  extensive  coal-mining  operations  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  but  it 
is  in  them  that  the  most  rapid  progress  is  being  made  in  the  opening  of  new  mines, 
and  the  enlargement  of  the  output  of  those  already  at  work.  Maryland,  Alabama 
and  West  Virginia  are  at  present  the  leading  coal-producing  States  in  the  South, 
the  output  in  the  first  two  being  about  2,500,000  tons,  and  in  the  last  about  3,500,- 
000  tons  annually,  with  the  certainty  of  a  large  increase  in  West  Virginia  and  Ala- 
bama during  the  next  few  years,  as  many  new  coal  mines  are  being  opened  and 
worked  on  a  very  large  scale  The  coa'  mined  in  Maryland  and  West  Virginia  is 
largely  shipped  North,  reaching  tidewater  at  Baltimore  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
Railroad,  at  Washington  and  Georgetown  by  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Canal,  and 
At  Newport  News  by  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Railroad.  Newport  News  is  the 


INTRODUCTION.  31 

tidewater  terminus  of  this  road,  and,  during  the  last  few  years,  since  the  road  was 
•extended  to  that  point,  the  coal  shipments  North,  as  well  as  the  supplying  of  coal 
to  ocean  steamers,  have  rapidly  increased.  Virginia  has  not  figured  very  promi- 
nently as  a  coal  producer  until  within  the  last  year  or  two— the  yield  in  that  State 
in  1880  being  less  than  46,000  tons.  Very  extensive  mining  operations  are,  how- 
ever, now  being  carried  on,  mainly  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  Norfolk  & 
Western  Railroad,  which  has  lately  built  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  one  of  the  largest 
coal-shipping  piers  in  the  world,  with  a  view  to  making  that  city  a  great  coaling 
port.  The  coal-mining  interests  of  the  southwestern  part  of  that  State  have  been 
developed  very  rapidly  during  the  last  two  years,  and  in  1886  the  output  of  the 
mines  in  that  section  was  nearly  900,000  tons.  This  coal  is  admirably  adapted  for 
coke  making,  and  a  large  number  of  ovens  are  now  under  construction  there. 
Alabama,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Virginia  and  West  Virginia  have  all  attracted 
great  attention  to  their  vast  wealth  of  coal  since  1880,  and  the  increase  of  coal 
mining  in  these  five  States  has  been  nothing  less  than  wonderful.  Twelve  years  ago 
the  total  coal  product  of  Alabama  was  10,000  tons,  while  in  1885  2,225,000  tons  were 
produced.  The  increase  in  the  South's  coal  production  is  very  clearly  brought 
•out  by  comparing  the  amount  mined  in  1870  and  1880,  as  reported  by  the  United 
States  Census,  with  the  output  of  1882  and  1885,  as  given  by  Frederick  E.  Saward 
in  his  annual  report  entitled  "The  Coal  Trade"  The  figures  are: 

STATES.  1870,  TONS.  l88o,  TONS.  1882,  TONS.  1885,  TONS. 

Maryland...: 2>345>I53  2,228,9i7  '  I>294,316  2,462,485 

Virginia 61,803  45,896  100,000  650,000 

West  Virginia 608,878  1,839,845  2,000,000  3.483,457 

Georgia 154,644  175,000  200,000 

Alabama 11,000  323,972  800,000  2,225,000 

Tennessee 133,418  495,131  850,000  1,440,597 

Kentucky 32>038  946,288  1,300,003  1,700,000 

Arkansas !4,778  50,000  175,000 

Texas 175,000 


Total  3,193,190  6,049,471  6,569,316  12,511,539 

The  rapid  increase  in  ihe  coal  product  of  the  South,  as  shown  by  these  figures, 
"will  enable  the  reader  to  gain  some  idea  of  the  progress  of  this  industry;  but  the 
figures  for  1885  will  be^much  too  small  for  1887,  as  preparations  have  been  made 
by  new  companies  organized  during  1886  for  very  extensive  mining  operations, 
which  will  probably  make  the  yield  of  1887  surprisingly  large. 

The  growth  of  the  coal  and  iron  interests  of  the  South  has  naturally  caused  a 
large  increase  in  coke  making,  and  in  this  line  of  industry  the  progress  has  been 
very  great.  A  comparison  of  the  production  of  coke  in  the  South  in  1830  and 
1885  gives  the  following : 

STATES.  l88o,  TONS.  1885,  TONS. 

Alabama 42,Q35  301,180 

Georgia 70,000  70,669 

Tennessee 91,675  218,842 

West  Virginia 95,72°  260,571 

Virginia 49,139 

.Kentucky 2,704 

Total 299,43Q  903,105 

During  1886  the  increase  over  1885  was  very  large,  but  the  statistics  of  pro- 
duction are  not  yet  available.  In  all  the  coking  sections  of  the  South  new  ovens 
are  being  constructed  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  meet  the  increasing  demand  for  coke. 

It  is  almost  useless  to  attempt  to  make  any  predictions  as  to  the  future  growth 
of  coal  mining  in  the  South,  so  rapid  is  the  progress  now  being  made;  but  it  may 
be  accepted  without  any  hesitancy,  that  the  next  ten  years  will  witness  a  far 
greater  development  of  this  industry  than  the  last  five,  for  the  South  is  really  but 
on  the  threshold  of  its  industrial  era,  and  yet,  in  the  last  five  years,  the  South's 
coal  product  has  about  doubled.  Mr.  Porter  estimates  that  in  ten  years  Alabama 
mines  alone  will  produce  10,000,000  tons,  nearly  as  much  as  the  yield  of  the  entire 
South  in  1885. 


32  INTRODUCTION. 

COTTON. 

That  the  South  is  debtined  to  be  the  center  of  the  cotton  manufacturing  in- 
terests of  this  country  admits  of  no  questioning.  Its  natural  advantages  for  this 
business  are  far  superior  to  those  to  be  found  in  any  other  section.  The  tempo- 
rary depression  in  this  industry  is  rapidly  passing  away  with  the  return  of  pros- 
perity to  the  country.  During  the  great  activity  that  preceded  the  late  depression 
many  cotton  mills  were  erected  in  the  South,  some  of  them  costing  entirely  too 
much  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  their  spindles,  and  some  without  sufficient 
commercial  capital  to  have  carried  them  through  successfully  even  if  business 
had  continue;!  prosperous.  It  was  only  natural  that  such  mills  should  be  seriously 
affected  by  the  decline  in  values  and  the  stagnation  in  trade  that  commenced  just 
as  they  were  about  ready  to  begin  operations.  Taken  as  a  whole,  however,  and 
considering  the  disadvantages  of  many  mills,  owing  to  the  high  cost  of  building, 
lack  of  sufficient  capital  and  inexperienced  management,  the  cotton  manufactur- 
ing interests  of  the  South  stood  the  strain  of  the  long  depression  remarkably  well. 
They  have,  in  fact,  really  emphasized  the  South's  advantages  for  this  industry. 

Mr.  Edward  Atkinson,  of  Boston,  in  his  report  for  the  census  upon  the  cotton 
manufacturing  interests  of  the  country,  after  showing  the  much  greater  advanta- 
ges that  New  England  possessed  for  this  industry  as  compared  with  the  most 
favored  districts  of  England,  wrote: 

"It  may  be  said  that  this  proves  too  much,  and  that  the  cotton  spinners  of 
the  Southern  States  will  have  the  same  relative  advantage  over  New  England. 
Let  this  be  freely  admitted.  We  are  treating  the  question  of  the  future  supremacy 
of  the  United  States  in  the  manufacture  as  well  as  the  growth  of  cotton,  and  if  the 
future  changes  in  population,  wealth  and  condition  of  the  different  sections  of  this 
country  shall  cause  the  increase  of  spindles,  especially  in  the  coarse  fabrics,  to  be 
planted  in  the  healthy  hill  country  of  Northern  Georgia,  Eastern  Tennessee  and 
the  Carolinas,  it  will  simply  be  the  greater  evidence  that  natural  laws  are  para- 
mount. If  Georgia  has  twice  the  advantages  over  Lancashire  that  New  England, 
now  possesses,  it  will  only  be  the  fault  of  the  people  of  Georgia  if  they  do  not  reap 
the  benefit  of  it." 

The  force  of  Mr.  Atkinson's  logic  will  assuredly  be  seen  in  the  not  very  dis- 
tant future.  Not  Georgia,  the  Carolinas  and  Tennessee  only  will  be  the  seat  of 
important  cotton  manufactures;  the  other  Southern  States  will  also  share  in  this 
growth.  As  yet  Texas  has  done  almost  nothing  in  this  direction;  but  what  a 
magnificent  field  for  cotton  manufacturing  !  Producing  about  1,500,000  bales  of 
cotton,  and  already  having  within  her  own  borders  2,50^,000  people,  she  exports 
her  raw  cotton  and  imports  her  dry  goods.  Besides  supplying  her  own  population 
that  is  so  rapidly  being  added  to,  there  is  an  immense  field  in  the  countries  south 
of  her  for  which  she  ought  to  manufacture  large  quantities  of  cotton  goods.  Too 
much,  however,  must  not  be  expected  immediately  of  the  South  in  manufactures. 
Comparatively  speaking,  they  are  new,  and  it  takes  time  to  build  up  great  indus- 
tries with  wide  ramifications. 

To  show  what  has  been  done  in  the  development  of  the  cotton  manufacturing 
interests  of  the  South,  the  following  comparisons,  showing  the  number  of  mills, 
spindles  and  looms  when  the  census  was  taken  in  1880.  and  the  number  at  the 
present  time  is  given : 

NUMBER  OF  COTTON  MILLS  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

State?.  1886.  1880.           Increase. 

Alabama 31  16  15 

Arkansas  3  2                        i 

Florida 2  i                        i 

Georgia 66  40  26 

Kentucky 9  3                        6 

Louisiana 9  2                        7 

Maryland 26  19                        7 

Mississippi 14  8                        6 

North  Carolina....  .    97  49  48 

South  Carolina 34  14  20 

Tennessee 43  16  27 

Texas 5  2                      3 

Virginia 14  8                        6 

Tota.1 -....   353  180  173 


INTRODUCTION.  33 

In  the  number  of  mills  there  has  been  an  increase  of  nearly  100  per  cent.  The 
largest  total  increase,  though  not  the  largest  percentage  of  increase,  was  in  North 
Carolina.  In  that  State  the  general  disposition  has  been  to  build  small  mills  and 
many  of  them,  while  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  popular  favor  has  been  for 
large  mills. 

NUMBER    OF    SPINDLES  AND  LOOMS. 

, 1886. ,  , 1880. , 

No.  of  No.  of  No.  of  No.  of 

Spindles.  Looms.  Spindles.  Looms. 

Alabama 102,866  1,670  55,072  1,060 

Arkansas   3,900  30  2,015  28 

Florida 1,928            816  .... 

( Jeorgia 385,613  8,648  200,974  4>7X3 

Kcntuck  y 29,704  671  9,022  73 

Louisiana 45,644  936  6,097  120 

Maryland    169,950  3,082  125,014  2,325 

Mi  .sissippi 40,728  828  26,172  704 

North  Carolina 257»576  3,118  102,767  1,960 

South  Caroli  .a 224,732  4,579  92,788  1,776 

Tennessee 117,444  1,528  46,268  1,068 

Texas 7,988  152  2,648  71 

Virginia 72.624  J>7°2  44.336  1,324 


Total 1,460,697        27,004  713,989         15,222 

These  figures  show  an  increase  of  over  100  per  cent,  in  the  number  of  spin- 
dles, and  an  increase  but  slightly  less  in  the  number  of  looms.  The  States  that 
show  up  most  prominently  in  this  increase  are  Alabama,  Georgia,  Kentucky, 
Louisiana,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Virginia. 
The  increase  in  each  State  has  been  as  follows : 

Spindles.  Looms. 

Alabama 47,794  610 

Arkans  -s I,885  2 

Florida 1,112  .... 

Georgia 184,639  3,935 

Kentucky ,, 20,682  598 

Louisiana 39,547  816 

Maryland    44>936  757 

Mississippi 14,556  124 

North  Caro'ina 154,809  1,158 

South  Carolina ' 131,944  2,803 

Tennessee   71,176  460 

Texas 5,340  81 

Virginia 28,288  438 

Total 746,708  11,782 

In  the  number  of  spindles  and  looms,  Georgia  has  made  the  largest  increase — 
184,639  of  the  former  and  3,935  of  the  latter— while  North  Carolina  is  second  in 
the  increase  of  spindles,  but  is  exceeded  in  the  number  of  looms  by  South  Caro- 
lina. These  three  States  taken  together  show  a  very  large  gain  : 

Spindles.  Looms. 

Georgia....    184,639  3935 

North  Carolina , 154,809  1,158 

South  Carolina 131,944  2,803 

Total  gain  in  three  States. 471,392  7,896 

It  may  very  truthfully  be  said  that  notwithstanding  the  increase  in  cotton 
mills  in  the  South,  that  section  has  but  a  small  percentage  of  the  total  number  of 
spindles  in  the  country.  While  this  is  true,  yet  everything  must  have  a  beginning. 
It  is  not  so  much  to  the  aggregate  number  of  spindles  as  to  the  percentage  of 
increase  in  the  different  sections  that  we  must  look  to  rightly  appreciate  the  posi- 
tion of  this  industry.  In  1880  there  were  10,653,433  spindles  in  the  United  States, 
of  which  the  South  had  only  713,989,  or  6.7  per  cent.;  while  there  are  now 
13,536,743  spindles,  of  which  the  South  h:is  1,460,697,  or  10.7  per  cent.  From  1880 
to  1886  the  increase  in  the  number  of  spiadles  in  the  South  was  104.5  per  cent., 
while  the  increase  in  the  balance  of  the  country  was  only  21.3  per  cent.  It  is  this 
difference  in  the  rate  of  increase  more  than  the  aggregate  gain  in  the  number  of 
spindles  that  shows  the  progress  of  the  South. 


84  INTRODUCTION. 

It  seems  quite  obvious  that  in  the  future  greater  attention  will  be  given  to  the 
manufacture  of  finer  goods  in  all  mills  hereafter  erected  in  the  South.  The  hire  for 
money  will  be  less  and  less  in  the  South,  and  is  now  from  two  to  four  per  cent, 
less  than  it  was  only  a  few  years  ago.  It  is  a  reasonable  inference  that  some  of 
the  manufacturers  of  machinery  for  textile  fabrics  will  move  South.  Here  are 
cheaper  iron  and  woods.  Here  is  to  be  in  the  future  the  great  field  of  demand  for 
textile  machinery  for  cotton,  and  after  awhile,  no  doubt,  for  wool.  When  the 
South  shell  get  her  cheaper  home-macle  machinery  for  the  purposes  in  question, 
and  her  lower  rate  of  interest  for  the  use  of  money,  having  her  cheaper  labor,  her 
climate,  etc.,  etr.,  it  would  seem  that  she  ouirht  almost  to  monopolize  the  cotton 
manufacturing  of  the  world. 

COTTON  SEED. 

Another  phase  of  development  in  the  Sout'i  s'nce  the  war  is  that  of  manipu- 
lation of  cotton  seed,  mainly  for  its  oil,  but  al^o  as  a  food  for  stock  and  a  ferti- 
lizer. It  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  oversights  of  the  South  that  cotton  seed 
should  have  remained  so  long  undiscovered,  so  to  speak.  They  used  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  nuisance  by  planters,  and  were  dumped  i;ito  the  rivers  and  bayous  to 
be  got  rid  of.  It  is  only  wi'.hin  a  very  lew  years  that  one  coulJ  go  on  any  planta- 
tion where  there  was  a  cotton  gin,  and  not  find  large  piles  of  the  seed  utterly 
unregarded.  Now  there  is  a  demand  for  all  that  can  be  produced.  This  change 
has  been  brought  about  within  three  or  four  years  for  most  of  the  South.  Indeed, 
the  precise  merits  of  the  seed  as  a  food  and  fertilizer  seem  to  have  been  unknown 
to  science  until  very  recently,  according  to  Mr.  John  A.  Myers,  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  who,  in  an  address  some 
time  ago,  said:  "Although  the  cotton  plant  has  been  cultivated  in  this  country 
for  almost  a  century,  it  is  only  within  the  last  four  years  that  the  investigations  of 
scientific  men  have  been  directed  to  it."  According  to  his  statement,  "the  first 
cotton-seed  oil  that  entered  the  market  came  from  Egypt  to  France  in  1852.  Since 
then  there  has  been  a  gradual  increase  in  the  business ;  but  there  was  no  very 
great  amount  of  it  manufactured  in  this  country  until  about  ten  or  fifteen  years 
ago.  It  has  now  become  so  general  that  there  is  a  serious  competition  among  the 
mills  to  secure  as  much  seed  as  possible." 

The  development  of  the  cotton-seed  oil  industry  between  1880  and  1885  was 
something  remarkable.  In  1880  the  South  had  40  cotton-seed  mills,  employing 
$3,504,500,  while  in  1885  the  number  had  increased  to  146,  having  a  capital  of 
$10,792,450.  The  number  of  mills  in  the  South,  and  the  amount  of  capital  invested 
in  1885,  as  compared  with  1880,  was  as  follows : 

, 1885. ,  r-. 1880. , 

No.  of  No.  of 

Mills.  Capital.  Mills.         Capital. 

Alabama 18  $   810,000  2  $82,000 

Arkansas  12  1,501,250  4  275,000 

Florida 3  75,000  . .                 

Georgia 16  915,000  ..                

Louisiana 16  1,840,000  12  *,557>5oo 

Mississippi 21  1,217,000  450,000 

North  Carolina 9  275,000-  . . 

South  Carolina 7  299,700  ..                

Tennessee 17  1,731,500  9  935,000 

Texas 27  2,128,000  4  202,000 

Virginia i  3,000 

Total 146      $10,792,450  40        $3,504,500 

The  preceding  statistics  show  that  in  Florida,  Georgia  and  North  and  South 
Carolina,  this  industry  has  been  created  since  1880,  neither  of  these  States  having 
a  single  cotton-seed  mill  in  that  year.  The  great-  st  increase  has  been  in  Texas, 
where  23  mills  and  $1 ,926,000  have  been  added.  Arkansas  is  second  in  the  increase 
in  capital,  but  Alabama  and  Georgia  are  ahead  of  that  State  in  the  increase  in  the 


INTRODUCTION.  35 

number  of  mills.  The  aggregate  increase  in  the  business  has  been  106  mills  and 
$7,287,950.  Prior  to  this  large  increase  in  the  number  of  mills,  the  manufacture 
of  cotton- seed  oil  yielded  immense  profits,  well-managed  mills,  so  it  is  stated, 
making  as  much  as  50  per  cent,  profits  a  year,  and  often  doing  considerably  better 
than  that.  These  large  profits  naturally  resulted  in  the  building  of  many  mills, 
and  the  production  of  oil  increased  more  rapidly  than  the  consumption,  causing  a 
decline  in  prices. 

At  the  present  time  all  interest  in  this  business  is  centered  in  the  American 
Cotton  Oil  Trust,  an  organization  very  similar  to  the  Standard  Oil  Company. 
The  Trust  has  succeeded  in  obtaining  control  of  a  large  majority  of  the  oil  mills 
of  the  South,  and  there  is  much  speculation  as  to  the  future  of  its  operations. 
Many  of  the  leading  papers  of  the  South  have  taken  very  strong  ground  agains1 
it,  believing  that  it  will  work  serious  injury  to  the  planters.  Having  the  control 
of  most  of  the  mills,  the  Trust  can  dictate  the  prices  of  cotton  seed  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  the  South.  There  has  been  some  talk  of  the  planters  combin- 
ing against  this  organization,  but  it  hardly  seems  probable  that  this  will  be  done. 
For  awhile  it  was  supposed  that  the  Trust  would  secure  possession  of  every  cotton- 
seed mill  in  the  South,  and  thus  being  able  to  regulate  the  price  of  the  seed  as  well 
as  of  the  oil,  would  be  absolutely  master  of  the  situation.  Lately,  however,  there 
has  been  some  disposition  on  the  part  of  one  or  two  strong  mills  to  fight  this  com- 
bination, and  this  has  inspired  others  with  rather  more  confidence. 

Cotton-seed  oil  has  entered  so  largely  into  so  many  articles,  that  it  will  be 
likely  to  enter  more.  It  will,  probably,  largely  supplant  lard  some  day  (when 
better  refined)  at  the  South,  and  possibly  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  People  are 
beginning  to  understand  that  they  have  been  largely  using  it,  while  supposing 
they  were  using  olive  oil — tlj^.  former  being  exported  from  the  United  States  to 
Italy,  and  brought  back  labeled  olive  oil.  So  they  have  learned  its  merits,  and 
can  have  a  chance  to  be  patriotic,  at  less  cost,  by  its  use  under  its  true  name.  As 
a  help  to  its  further  use,  the  following  is  given  from  Prof.  Myers  in  the  address 
above  quoted: 

"There  is  a  great  deal  of  poorly  refined  oil  in  the  market  which  has  seriously 
interfered  with  the  ease  with  which  it  should  find  introduction.  In  refining,  if 
the  oil  has  not  had  the  gummy  and  albuminous  matter  completely  removed  by  the 
process,  the  oil  has  an  extremely  disagreeable  cotton-seed  oil  odor  and  taste.  If 
it  has  not  been  well  washed  or  very  carefully  separated,  it  may  have  a  portion  of 
the  soapy  matters  in  it  which  is  very  disagreeable.  If  the  cook  who  experiments 
with  the  oil  for  the  first  time  strikes  such  a  bad  specimen,  he  is  not  likely  to  try 
another  sample  very  soon.  When  properly  refined,  the  oil  may  be  applied  to 
every  use  to  which  the  non-drying  oils  are  put.  While  the  gluten  and  paraffine 
are  present,  it  mry  be  used  to  adulterate  drying  oils.  When  these  are  removed,  it 
makes  an  excellent  lubricating  oil.  If  the  palmatine  be  removed,  it  can  be  mixed 
with  a  number  of  the  oils;  and  when  bleached,  cannot  readily  be  detected  from 
olive  oil.  We  can  make  an  excellent  quality  of  soap  from  it,  several  specimens  of 
which  lie  upon  the  table  before  you.  By  changing  the  process  a  little,  we  could 
convert  it  into  most  excellent  miner's  oil;  or,  if  you  wish  it  as  lard,  we  will  pro- 
vide it  for  you.  Do  you  desire  it  as  butter?  You  can  have  it.  If  you  desire  to 
obtain  glycerine  from  it,  we  can  make  it  for  you;  and  if  you  wish  it  in  the  form 
of  ointments  and  plasters,  you  can  get  it  by  calling  upon  your  druggist.  Preju- 
dice prevents,  and  will  continue  to  do  so  for  a  long  time,  the  use  of  the  article  in 
the  kitchen;  but  if  you  will  sell  it  dashed  with  lard,  tallow  or  butter,  people  will 
use  it.  Some  manufacturers  have  had  to  christe'i  it  'butter  oil,'  'cookaline,'  etc., 
in  order  to  introduce  it. 

"The  great  lard  suit  in  Chicago  this  year  develops  the  fact  that  much  of  the 
lard  in  the  market  contains  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  cotton-seed  oil.  In 
this  case,  if  I  am  not  much  mistaken,  one  of  the  witnesses  testified  that  he  had 
seen  one  hundred  and  twenty  barrels  of  cotton-seed  oil  and  forty  hogsheads  of 
tallow  made  into  first-class  lard  in  one  day.  Think  of  it,  gentlemen  !  What  a 
demand  there  must  be  for  cotton-seed  oil  in  Chicago,  Indianapolis  and  Cincinnati ! 
Probably  the  greatest  application  that  the  oil  finds  in  the  arts  is  in  manufacturing 
soap.  It  is  now  a  well-known  fact  that  a  very  large  portion  of  our  finest  toilet 


36  INTRODUCTION. 

soaps  are  made  wholly  or  partly  from  cotton-seed  oil.  It  is  best  for  this  purpose 
when  mixed  with  other  oils  or  fats.  It  is  the  cheapest  of  the  oils  that  can  be  had 
for  this  purpose." 

Although  the  use  of  cotton  seed,  either  whole  or  ground,  as  food  for  stock 
may  be  rather  said  to  be  a  discovery  than  a  development,  it  has  all  the  effects  of 
the  latter,  since  its  use  dispenses  with  much  food  once  purchased  West,  and  it 
will  enable  our  farmers  to  throw  into  the  market  so  much  more  of  their  produc- 
tion, (of  what  will  make  food  for  stock,)  instead  of  consuming  it,  as  before.  Here 
is  some  striking  language  from  the  same  source  just  quoted : 

"  There  is  not  an  animal  produced  upon  a  Southern  plantation  that  cannot  be 
fed  and  fattened  upon  the  productions  of  that  plantation,  if  they  be  properly 
prepared.  It  is  simply  the  nonsense  of  fashion  which  leads  the  Southern  farmer 
to  send  to  the  Northwest  for  his  feed.  The  Mississippi  farmer  has  at  his  door 
550,000  tons  of  the  very  best  feedstuff  in  the  world,  worth,  at  the  rates  at  which 
we  calculate  the  food  values  of  different  materials,  $22,880,000.  If  we  compare 
this  with  the  oat  crop  of  Illinois,  which  produces  more  than  any  other  State,  we 
find  that  crop  worth  only  $25,558,000.  We  pay  high  prices  for  grain  brought 
from  the  North,  while  we  ship  away  or  allow  to  waste  a  better  feedstuff,  obtaining 
for  it  less  than  half  of  its  value. 

"  The  farmer  of  the  North  can  well  afford  to  ship  grain  here  and  buy  back 
cotton-seed  meal.  The  values  stand  as  follows:  If  corn  is  worth  per  100  pounds 
$1.11  as  a  feedstuff,  cotton  seed  is  worth  $2.08,  cotton-seed  meal  $2.30,  oats  98 
cents,  cow  peas  $1.33,  good  hay  75  cents.  These  valuations  are  given  in  'Stewart's 
Feeding  Animals,'  which  has  lately  been  published,  and  are  based  upon  the  most 
carefully  made  analyses. 

"  The  feed  value  of  the  cotton-seed  meal  and  cake  is  not  appreciated  by  the 
Southern  farmers  as  it  is  by  those  elsewhere.  Where  competition  is  the  greatest 
and  the  farmers  the  most  intelligent,  or  where  there  is  necessity  for  economic 
feeding,  we  tind  cotton  seed  is  most  highly  prized.  There  we  have  no  complaints 
about  it  killing  stock.  It  is  only  where  the  farmers  are  so  careless  as  to  allow 
their  stock  to  eat  too  much  of  it  without  other  food  that  it  will  kill  the  stock. 
Corn,  wheat  and  oats,  under  the  same  considerations,  would  do  the  same,  prob- 
ably ;  though  as  they  are  not  so  rich,  they  are  not  so  likely  to  do  it  as  the  rich 
cotton  seed  and  its  products  are.  We  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the 
cotton-seed  meal  or  cake  is  one  of  the  best  feedstuff's  that  is  produced  in  any 
climate.  The  meal  is  better  than  the  seed,  but  at  present  prices  the  farmer  cannot 
afford  to  sell  his  seed  and  buy  meal." 

Putting  the  whole  of  the  South  at  only  six  times  as  much,  (for  Mississippi 
now  does  not  produce  one-sixth  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States,)  here  is 
not  less  than  one  hundred  and  forty  million  dollars  as  a  feed  value  in  the  Southern 
cotton  seed  every  year;  and  it  may  be  said  to  cost  nothing  to  make  it,  (given  by 
nature's  bounty,)  because  the  cotton  crop  must  be  made  anyhow,  and  would  cost 
as  much  to  do  so  without  as  with  the  seed.  Let  the  Western  farmer  think  how 
many  bushels  of  corn  and  oats,  how  many  bales  of  hay,  this  large  sum  will  buy ; 
or,  rather  let  him  reflect  how  much  of  these  raised  by  the  Southern  former  can  be 
sold  by  him  in  competition  with  him,  (the  Western  farmer,)  because  he  (the 
Southern  farmer)  has  cotton  seed  as  a  substitute,  largely. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  South  will  learn  more  and  more  to  use  the  cotton 
seed  as  a  fertilizer.  I  know,  from  my  own  investigations,  that  this  has  grown  in 
parts  of  the  South  to  a  wonderful  degree.  Mills  that  a  few  years  ago  sold  all  or 
nearly  all  their  oil  cake  to  Europe,  now  sell  in  the  shape  of  cotton-seed  meal  for 
a  fertilizer,  instead  of  sending  it  to  enrich  the  soil  there.  Professor  Myers  com- 
putes that  cotton  seed  "  simply  as  a  fertilizer  are  worth  (on  the  basis  for  calculating 
the  value  of  commercial  fertilizers)  $16.86  per  ton,  or  28  cents  per  bushel."  A 
good  plan  is  to  feed  to  stock,  and  get  the  fat  as  well  as  the  fertilizer. 

I  shall  close  this  topic  by  a  further  quotation  from  Professor  Myers'  address, 
hoping  that  what  has  been  said  may  commend  this  great  product  of  the  South  to 
greater  appreciation  and  use.  He  says : 


INTE  OD  UCTION.  37 

"The  mills  do  not  receive  more  than  the  one-half  of  the  value  of  their 
products.  For  example,  the  meal  is  worth  $4(>  a  ton  as  a  feedstuff'  and  $42.18  as 
a  fertilizer,  while  they  obtain  only  $20  for  it.  The  only  way  to  cause  the  price  to 
rise  is  to  have  its  value  better  understood,  and  especially  by  the  Southern  tanners, 
who  will  use  more  of  it  for  feed  and  fertilizers,  instead  of  sending  North  for  both. 

"And  now,  in  conclusion,  there  is  no  agricultural  product  known  to  your 
speaker  that  has  a  value  equal  to  this  in  almost  any  place  that  you  can  put  it. 
You  may  take  its  hulls  and  use  them  for  cattle  feed,  for  fertilizers,  for  fuel,  for  car 
axles.  The  kernel  you  may  use  as  a  feedstuff',  a  fertilizer,  or  substance  from  which 
oil  may  be  obtained.  The  oil  is  one  of  the  best  culinary  articles,  is  of  extensive 
use  in  pharmacy,  and  of  almost  unlimited  application  to  the  arts.  It  makes  little 
difference  whether  you  buy  it  as  butter,  as  lard,  as  lubricating  oil  or  olive  oil; 
whether  you  apply  it  as  a  salve,  a  pomade  or  a  soap;  it  is  good,  and  good 
everywhere." 

It  would  be  quite  germane  while  on  this  fertilizer  side  of  cotton  seed  to  say 
something  at  large  on  the  development  of  phosphate  mining  and  fertilizer  manu- 
facturing South,  more  particularly  in  South  Carolina,  and  which  is  the  outgrowth 
of  the  last  few  years.  It  is  a  most  important  topic,  and  one  to  which  the  South 
ought  to  give  great,  and  will  give  increasing,  attention.  The  wealth  of  the  South 
in  marls  is  incalculable,  and  some  day  they  are  destined  to  play  a  most  important 
part  in  the  agricultural  supremacy  of  the  South.  Space  forbids  further  elabora- 
tion, and  I  shall  have  to  refer  the  reader  to  this  topic  in  the  article  on  South 

Carolilia-  RAILROADS.' 

Although  the  mineral  resources  of  the  South  and  her  vast  forests  have 
attracted  much  consideration  and  large  investment,  in  no  regard  has  she  so  much 
enlisted  the  attention  of  the  nation  or  of  Europe  as  in  building  railroads.  This 
is  the  most  commanding  theatre  of  capital,  and  strikes  the  eye  of  the  world  not 
only  for  its  colossal  combinations  of  money,  but  the  prestige  of  its  participants. 
Some  of  the  most  sagacious  and  celebrated  railroad  men  of  this  continent  are 
largely  interested  in  Southern  railroads.  Nor  is  the  participation  in  the  South's 
progress  in  this  respect  confined  to  the  United  States.  The  Erlanger  syndicate, 
headed  by  Baron  Erlanger,  of  Paris,  and  other  rich  foreign  corporations,  have 
invested  during  late  years  many  millions  of  dollars  in  building  new  railroads  and 
improving  old  ones  throughout  the  whole  South.  These  gentlemen  and  a  number  of 
others  who  represent  capital  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  have  added  untold 
and  incomputable  momentum  to  the  progress  of  the  South.  While  they  may  not 
have  led  the  way  in  starting  the  South  on  her  wonderful  speed  of  development, 
they  have  largely  added  to  and  confirmed — sealed,  as  it  were — the  confidence  of 
the  civilized  world  in  the  eligibility  of  the  South  as  a  field  for  investment  and 
enterprise ;  and  the  South  owes  an  immense  debt  of  gratitude  to  these  monetary 
magnates  who  have  stamped,  with  the  golden  seal  of  their  capital,  the  indelible 
impress  of  their  confidence.  The  logic  of  confidence  in  the  South's  progress  is 
enunciated  in  the  golden  argument  of  capital,  and  is  voiced  in  the  fierce  rhetoric 
of  thunderous  and  clattering  railroad  trains.  And  these  roads  are  bands  of  iron 
to  bind  our  Union  in  the  bonds  of  an  indissoluble  fraternity ;  and  the  cogency  of 
common  interest  is  added  to  the  kindliest  friendship. 

It  were  a  vain  task  to  attempt  to  keep  pace  with  the  Southern  railroad 
projects.  It  seems  as  though  almost  every  day  brings  a  revelation  of  some  new 
railroad  scheme.  It  is  quite  certain  that  railroads  are  projected,  purveys  being 
made,  "ground"  being  "broke,"  under  the  auspices  of  such  wealthy  corporations 
as  to  confirm  public  confidence  in  the  seriousness  and  good  faith  of  their  opera- 
tions and  intentions.  But  to  assume  nothing  as  to  the  amount  of  capital  to  be 
invested  in  roads  not  actually  built,  the  South  can  make  an  exhibit  which  is  "  both 
a  pledge  and  prophecy"  of  her  progress.  The  following  table  shows  the  railway 
mileage  in  the  Southern  States,  1887,  compared  with  Ib80: 


38  INTRODUCTION. 

MILEAGE  MILEAGE 

JAN.   l8<*7.  JUNE,   1880. 

Alabama  ........................................  ................  2,286  1,780 

Arkansas  ........................................................  2,208  822 

Florida  ..........................................................  1,939  529 

Georgia  ........................................................  3,274  2,433 

Kentucky  .......................................................  2,069  1,560 

Louisiana  .......................................................  *>393  522 

Maryland  ........................................................  1,252  931 

Mississippi  ......................................................  2,069  .          i»"9 

North  Carolina  ..................................................  2,187  1,44° 

South  Carolina  ..................................................  1,802  1,393 

Tennessee  ......................................................  2,184  1,816 

Texas  ..........................................................  7>234  2,697 

Virginia  .........................................................  2,727  1,697 

West  Virginia  ...................................................  1,143  692 


33,767 

Here  is  proof  of  development  and  of  the  confidence  of  the  capitalists  of  the 
civilized  world  to  the  measure  of  over  14,000  miles  of  railroad  in  six  and  a-half 
years,  and  that,  too,  during  a  comparative  dullness  in  railroad  building  North  and 
West  for  much  of  the  time.  At  a  low  average,  the  construction  of  these  14,300 
miles  must  have  cost  over  $350/00,000,  in  addition  to  which  many  millions  have 
been  spent  in  the  purchase  and  improvement  of  old  roads.  According  to  Poor's 
Kailroad  Manual,  the  actual  cost  of  the  railroads  now  in  the  South  and  their 
equipment  is  over  $1,300,000,000,  against  $679,804,000  in  1880. 

The  South  has  also  progressed  considerably  in  cotton  production.  If  the 
cotton-picker  should  prove  a  success,  the  production  of  cotton  will  be  greatly 
increased,  and  a  revolution  in  the  locality  of  cotton  raising  will  ensue.  In  the 
Mississippi  bottom,  it  is  a  common  thing  to  make  more  cotton  than  is  picked.  It 
has  been  said  that  there  is  land  enough  in  Mississippi,  in  what  is  called  the 
"  bottom,"  to  make  cotton  enough  for  the  present  needs  of  the  world.  If,  there- 
fore, the  cotton-picker  will  serve  the  purposes  hoped  for  it,  it  would  seem  that 
the  cheapest  labor  would  gravitate  there,  and  wreak  itself  on  the  most  "produc- 
tive land.  This  will  greatly  enhance  the  price  of  those  lands,  rapidly  bring 
them  into  cultivation,  and  greatly  improve  the  healthfulness  of  the  country.  It 
will  tend  to  depopulate  the  hill  country,  and,  indeed,  the  now  called  cotton  belt  of 
the  negro.  Vast  areas  now  devoted  to  cotton  raising  will  be  given  over  to  raising 
stock,  grass,  cereals,  etc.  For  awhile,  at  least,  these  lands,  unable  to  compete 
with  the  rich  bottoms  in  cotton  production,  will  be  even  cheaper  than  now,  until 
they  become  possessed  by  the  numerous  immigrants  from  the  North,  the  West 
and  Europe.  These  immigrants  will  not  raise  cotton.  They  will  go  into  general 
agriculture,  and  will  resuscitate  these  lands  by  "  clovering,"  green  manuring,  the 
use  of  marls,  etc.;  and  fruits,  vegetables,  cereals  and  live  stock  of  all  kinds  will  be 
raised.  One  can  see  that  if  all  the  cotton  be  produced  on  land  that  will  produce 
a  bale  or  more  per  acre,  and  can  be  picked,  that  cotton  can  sell  at  much  less  and 
pay  better  than  now.  If  the  pork  and  corn  be  raised  near  that  is  consumed  in 
making  it,  then  the  business  of  cotton  raising  alone  may  be  pursued  with  profit. 
But  all  this  is  conjecture;  and  yet  it  looks  as  though  the  "cotton  belt"  of  the 
South  might  be  on  the  verge  of  an  agricultural  revolution. 

MILLING  INTERESTS. 

Still  another  development  of  the  South  is  in  her  flour  and  grist  mills. 
Making  flour  from  Southern  raised  wheat  is  growing  to  be  a  very  considerable 
industry.  We  shall  not  only  make  all  we  need  for  home  consumption,  but  we 
shall  find  a  large  market  in  the  peoples  south  of  us,  and  shall  send  early  flour 
North  before  the  wheat  raised  there  is  fit  for  use. 

It  is  hardly  in  place  here,  but  may  be  noted,  that  the  South  will  do  an 
increasing  business  in  making  ale  and  beer  from  home-raised  barley.  Only  a 
short  time  ago  there  were  few  breweries  South.  Now  there  are  four  considerable 


INTRODUCTION.  39 

ones  in  New  Orleans  alone.     The  South  can  raise  fine  barley,  and  will  take  up 
this  industry  in  time  and  brew  her  own  beer. 

TIMBER  RESOURCES. 

I  come  now  to  a  topic  which  is  of  vast  moment — an  advantage  now  impressing 
the  whole  world  as  no  other  advantage,  except,  perhaps,  her  mineral  riches,  does, 
although  the  latter  does  not  impress  such  a  multitude — her  incalculable  resources 
in  her  virgin  forests  of  superb  hard  wood,  pine,  etc. 

It  would  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  give  at  length  a  list  of  the  p'.ants  of  the 
South,  but  limits,  already  transgressed,  forbid.  The  South  is  very  rich  in  her 
flora.  Her  altitudes  and  her  climate  vie  in  the  production  of  plants;  and  as  if  by 
a  beautiful  caprice  of  nature,  the  stern  native  of  austere  climates  elsewhere,  here 
looks  down  from  his  lofty  hight  upon  the  tropical  beauties  at  his  feet.  Hale,  in 
his  "The  Woods  and  Timbers  of  North  Carolina,"  on  page  19,  says: 

"The  mountains  on  the  western  border  ofAthe  State  are  several  hundred  feet 
higher  than  any  others  in  the  Union,  so  that  the  difference  of  elevation  between 
these  and  our  sea  coast  occasions  a  ditference  of  vegetation  equal  to  that  of  10  or 
12  degrees  of  latitude.  Thus,  upon  the  higher  summits  are  found  species  such  as 
belong  to  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire,  those  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  New  York,  and  to  Canada." 

In  the  census  report  on  the  forests  of  the  United  States  it  is  said : 

"The  pine  belt  of  the  South  Atlantic  region  still  contains  immense  quantities 
of  timber  unequalled  for  all  purposes  of  construction,  although  unsuited  to  take 
the  place  of  the  white  pine  of  the  North.  The  Southern  pine  forests,  although 
stripped  from  the  banks  of  streams  flowing  into  the  Atlantic,  are  practically 
untouched  in  the  Gulf  States,  especially  in  those  bordering  the  Mississippi  River. 
These  forests  contain  sufficient  material  to  long  supply  Jill  possible  demands 
which  can  be  made  upon  them." 

In  discussing  the  hard-wood  resources  of  this  section,  the  same  report  says : 

"  Two  great  bodies  of  hard- wood  timber,  however,  remain,  upon  which  com- 
paratively slight  inroads  have  yet  been  made.  The  most  important  of  these  forests 
covers  the  regions  occupied  by  the  Southern  Alleghanv  Mountain  system,  embrac- 
ing Southwestern  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Western  North  and  South  Carolina, 
and  Eastern  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Here  oak  unequalled  in  quality  abounds. 
*  *  *  The  second  great  body  of  hard  wood,  largely  oak,  is  found  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  extending  from  Central  Missouri  to  Western  Louisiana." 

Elsewhere  it  is  said  that  "  the  most  valuable  hard- wood  forest  remaining  on 
the  continent  exists  in  Southwestern  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  North 
Carolina." 

The  total  amount  of  pine  standing  in  the  Southern  States,  as  reported  by  the 
census,  was  as  follows: 

ESTIMATED  AMOUNT  OF  MERCHANTABLE  PINE  STANDING  MAY  31,  1880. 

LoNOLEAVED    1'lNE,  SHORT-LEAVED    PlNE,  LOBLOLLY    PlNE, 

Pinus  Australis.  Pinus  Mitis.  Pinus  Ta>da. 
No.  Feet,  Board  Measure.       No.  Feet,  Board  Measure.       No.  Feet,  Board  Measure. 

North  Carolina 5,229,000,000  

South  Carolina 5,316,000,000  

Georgia 16,778,000,000  

Florida 6,615,000,000  

Alabama 18,885,000,000  2,307,000,000                                

Mississippi 18,200,000,000  6,775,000,000                                  

Louisiana ...     26,588,000,000  21,625,000,000                                

Arkansas 41,315,000,000                                

Texas 20,508,200,000  26,093,200,000  20,907,100,000 

Total 118,119,200,000  98,115,200,000  20,907,100,000 

Total  of  pine,  all  species   237,141,500,000  feet. 

The  amount  of  pine  standing  in  the  whole  country  in  1880,  not  including  the 
South,  was  about  94,000,000,000  feet,  or  much  less  than  one-half  of  the  quantity 
in  the  Southern  States. 


40  INTRODUCTION. 

Dr.  Kerr,  in  his  special  report  as  geologist  in  charge  of  the  Southern  Division 
of  the  United  $tates  Geological  Survey,  as  to  a  portion  of  North  Carolina,  gives 
an  interesting  statement  as  to  this  vast  range  of  flora  within  a  comparatively 
limited  latitude.  The  following  is  taken  from  his  report : 

"It  will  bear  restating  and  emphasizing,  that  no  other  commercial  route  in 
this  country  of  the  same  length  as  this  railway,  (with  its  navigable  water  connec- 
tion to  the  seaboard,)  includes  so  wide  a  climatic  range.  A  reference  to  the 
geological  rt'port  of  1875  shows  a  range  of  mean  annual  temperature  from  06°  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Cape  Fear,  to  45°  on  the  Grandfather  plateau;  and  these  are  also 
the  figures  for  Southern  Alabama,  Mississippi  and  Texas  on  one  hand,  and  Canada 
and  Sascatchewan  on  the  other;  that  is,  the  climatic  range  along  this  route  of  less 
than  ;JOO  miles,  direct  line,  is  continental  ill  extent — from  sub-tropical  to  cold  tem- 
perate.* The  annual  rainfall,  given  in  tbe  same  report,  for  the  Middle  Region  of 
the  State  is  nearly  forty-six  inches,  which  is  distributed  in  nearly  equal  amounts 
through  all  the  months  of  the  year. 

"  The  above  facts— the  variety  of  soils,  the  wide  range  of  temperature  and  the 
abundant  rainfall — have,  of  course,  found  expression  in  a  correspondingly  great 
range  of  natural  products;  the  flora  having  a  really  continental  breadth  and 
variety — from  the  palmetto  and  Mve  oak  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  white  pine  and 
Canadian  fir  on  the  other;  so  that  what  I  have  said  in  the  geological  report  of  the 
variety  and  richness  of  tbe  forests  of  the  entire  State  may  be  applied,  with  scarce 
a  modification,  to  this  tract,  which  includes  both  the  extremes  that  gave  its  unique 
breadth  of  climatic  and  botanical  characteristics  to  the  whole;  that  is,  there  are 
about  one  hundred  species  of  woods — more  than  in  all  Europe.  Of  twenty-two 
species  of  oaks  in  the  United  States,  (east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,)  nineteen  are 
found  here,  all  (eight)  of  the  pines,  four  out  of  five  spruces,  all  (five)  of  the 
maples,  both  of  the  walnuts,  three  of  the  five  birches,  six  of  the  eight  hickories, 
and  all  (seven)  of  the  magnolias;  more  species  of  oaks  than  in  all  the  States 
north  of  us. 

"  Of  the  twenty  kinds  of  timber  admitted  to  the  ship-yards  of  New  York, 
nearly  all  are  founcLhere.  The  following  is  a  partial  catalogue  of  the  commercial 
timbers  common  t *  one  or  another  section  along  this  tract:  Pine,  six  species; 
white  pine,  fir,  three  species;  hemlock,  juniper,  cypress,  red  cedar,  oak,  fourteen 
species;  hickory,  six  species;  walnut,  two  species;  chestnut,  beech,  black  locust, 
maple,  three  species ;  ash,  four  species;  elm,  three  species;  cherry,  holly,  dogwood, 
gum,  two  species;  sassafras,  palmetto,  magnolia,  (cucumber  tree,)  persimmon, 
poplar,  birch,  two  species;  sycamore,  tulip  tree,  (poplar,)  linn,  (bassvvood) — sixty- 
four  species  valuable  for  their  timber." 

The  favor  into  which  Southern  lumber  has  grown  of  late  years  is  very  sur- 
prising, especially  pine  and  cypress.  The  latter  wood  grows  in  but  few  of  the 
States.  Mr.  Thomas  Hassan,  Jr.,  secretary  Mechanics,  Dealers  and  Lumberman's 
Exchange  of  New  Orleans,  La.,  says  of  it : 

"  The  merits  of  this  wood  destine  the  trade  in  it  to  become  one  of  the  most 
important  industries  of  this  State.  No  other  timber  combines  in  so  happy  a 
degree  the  essential  qualities  of  durability,  cheapness  and  ease  of  manipulation. 
For  factory  work  it  has  no  equal,  and  sash,  doors  and  blinds  made  of  it  are 
always  preferred  by  builders.  It  is  invaluable  for  ship  building,  its  durability 
placing  it  second  to  live  oak  alone.  In  the  cooperage  industries  it  has,  in  this 
locality,  for  a  long  time,  been  in  use.  In  house  building  it  should  be  as  strong 
with  its  cheaper  rival,  yellow  pine,  as  its  durability  more  than  counterbalances 
the  difference  in  price." 

Southern  pine  is  rapidly  winning  its  way  into  popular  favor  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  also  in  foreign  countries.  The  shipment  of  this 
lumber  from  Pensacola,  Pascagoula,  Mobile,  Jacksonville  and  other  Southern 
ports  to  Europe  has  become  an  enormous  business  during  the  last  few  years,  and 
gives  employment  to  many  vessels,  both  sail  and  steam.  From  the  same  ports 
millions  of  feet  of  yellow  pine  are  shipped  to  Baltimore,  New  York  and  other 
Northern  cities,  a  very  large  fleet  of  fine  coasting  vessels  being  constantly  engaged 
in  this  trade.  The  Western  cities  are  also  large  consumers  of  this  lumber,  and  in 


*"In  Watauga,  one  readily  imagines  himself  in  Vermont  or  Ontario;   and  among  the  rice  fields 
and  palmettoes  of  the  Lower  Cape  Fear,  one  has  the  agricultural  landscape  of  the  gulf  coast." 


INTRODUCTION.  41 

this  direction,  as  well  us  in  the  others  already  mentioned,  the  demand  is  steadily- 
increasing. 

The  enormous  timber  resources  of  the  South  and  the  great  variety  of  woods 
to  be  found  there,  coupled  with  the  remarkably  low  price  at  which  the  best  timber 
can  be  purchased,  give  that  section  very  superior  advantages  for  the  establishment 
of  furniture  factories  and  enterprises  of  a  similar  character.  There  are  already 
quite  a  number  of  nourishing  furniture  factories  in  the  South,  but  so  far  they  are 
plainly  confined  to  the  production  of  the  cheaper  grades.  With  the  rapid  increase 
of  wealth  in  the  South  there  is  naturally  a  steady  increase  in  the  demand  for  high- 
priced  furniture.  The  representative  of  a  large  Northern  furniture  factory  which 
has  an  immense  Southern  trade  has  lately  expressed  to  the  writer  his  surprise  at 
the  noticeable  increase  of  late  in  the  amount  of  the  very  finest  furniture  now  sold 
in  that  section.  At  the  present  time,  notwithstanding  its  almost  limitless  timber 
resources,  the  South  buys  the  great  bulk  of  its  furniture,  botli  cheap  and  high- 
priced,  in  the  North  and  West.  In  this  line  there  is  a  most  excellent  opening  for 
those  who  understand  the  business  and  who  desire  to  engage  in  manufacturing  in 
the  South. 

The  general  lumber  business  in  the  South  is  very  prosperous,  and  there  is 
hardly  a  manufacturing  interest  in  the  South  so  well  diffused  and  developing  so 
rapidly  as  this.  In  much  of  the  pine-woods  district  of  the  South  the  saw  mill  is 
the  forerunner  and  foundation  of  the  town. 

The  increase  in  the  last  few  years  in  the  number  and  capacity  of  saw  mills  in 
the  South  has  been  so  enormous  that  the  census  statistics  give  but  little  idea  of 
the  present  magnitude  of  this  industry;  but  as  no  other  statistics  are  obtainable, 
it  may  be  worth  while  to  give  the  census  figures,  as  they  show  the  extent  of  the 

business  in   1880:  NTMBRR  OF  TOTAL  STEAM 

ESTABLISHMENTS.  AND  WATER-I'UWER. 

Alabama 354  9,231 

Arkansas 319  9,°3i 

Florida    135  5,875 

Georgia 655  i5,3°° 

Kentucky 670  J  7,587 

Louisiana 175  5,128 

Maryland 369  7.464 

Mississippi 295  8,266 

North  Carolina 776  16,895 

South  Carolina 420  9,u6 

Tennessee 755                                 .     17,899 

Texas 324  10,222 

Virginia 907  18,091 

West  Virginia 472  11,481 


Total    6,626  161,589 

Tne  aggregate  amount  of  capital  invested  in  these  6,626  saw  mills  was  nearly 
$25,000,000.  While  the  number  of  saw  mills  has  enormously  increased  since  1880, 
there  has  at  the  same  time  been  a  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  other  wood- 
working establishments.  From  Maryland  to  Texas  many  planing  mills,  sash, 
door  and  blind  factories  and  enterprises  of  a  similar  character  are  being  built,  a 
goodly  proportion  of  them  being  constructed  in  the  most  substantial  manner  and 
fitted  with  the  best  machinery  to  be  had  in  the  country. 

ROSIN,  PITCH  AND  TURPENTINE. 

Another  aspect  of  Southern  development  is  in  the  production  of  rosin,  pitch 
and  turpentine.  The  increase  in  the  business  of  turpentine  and  rosin  manufacture 
has  been  very  rapid.  It  is  spreading  in  the  pine  woods  in  the  South,  wherever 
railroads  open  conveniences  for  shipping.  It  does  not  pay  to  haul  the  sap  over 
ten  or  twelve  miles  to  the  "  still."  Any  one  who  Avill  study  the  statistics  showing 
the  growth  of  the  trade  of  Mobile,  Ala.,  and  Savannah,  Ga.,  conspicuously,  can 
see  how  this  branch  of  development  has  grown. 


43 


INTRODUCTION. 


ADVANTAGES  OP  THE  SOUTH. 

There  are  some  advantages  the  South  possesses  and  must  ever  possess  over 
the  North  and  West.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  these  is  climate.  Let  us 
consider  this  in  some  of  its  more  prominent  aspects — saving  in  fuel,  clothing, 
food  to  man  and  beast,  etc. 

CLIMATE. 

Take  fuel ;  compute  the  consumption  of  the  aggregate  of  Southern  cities  and 
towns,  and  a  like  aggregate  of  population  in  Northern  cities ;  consider  that  the 
consumption  of  fuel  over  the  average  territory  of  the  South  and  North  would  be 
fully  three  months  longer  in  the  latter  than  the  former ;  and  the  much  greater 
consumption  North  during  the  months  both  use  fuel  for  comfort,  together  with 
the  three  months  mentioned,  (when  the  South  virtually  docs  not  use  it  for  com- 
fort,) would  give  fully  three  months  advantage  to  the  South  over  the  North  in 
saving  fuel  for  comfort. 

Take  the  principal  cities  North— those  of  a  population  of  100,000  and 
upwards — New  York,  Philadelphia,  Brooklyn,  Boston,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cin- 
cinnati, Cleveland,  Buffalo,  Detroit,  Jersey  City,  Newark,  Milwaukee,  Pittsburgh, 
Providence.  These  cities  show  in  the  aggregate,  in  the  Census  Report  for  1880, 
4,686,467  people.  Allowing  only  fifty  cents  consumption  of  fuel  per  capita  for 
three  months,  the  aggregate  will  amount  to  over  seven  millions  of  dollars. 
Surely  it  is  much  within  bounds  to  say  that  all  the  other  cities  of  the  North  con- 
sume three  times  as  much  more,  and  at  least,  at  a  like  cost,  for  the  time  in  question. 
Any  one  can  see  then,  that  the  South  saves  annually,  a  round  sum  of  money,  in 
the  cost  of  fuel.  Then,  the  cost  of  stoves,  and  above  all,  heating  appliances  will 
swell  the  cost  of  fuel  to  a  much  larger  amount  than  I  have  named.  In  the  South 
the  open  fire-place  is  most  in  vogue,  and  is  all  that  is  needed  for  much  of  the  area, 
and  is  much  more  healthful. 

The  farmer  can  estimate  the  cost  of  winter  at  the  North — in  the  expense  of 
feeding  live  stock  five  months  in  the  year.  Let  us  take  some  figures  and  make 
some  computations  upon  them.  Below  is  given  a  tabulation  which  shows  the  live 
stock  on  farms  in  the  States  named,  June  1,  1880.  Several  States  and  territories 
are  omitted  because  there  are  some  who  would  say  of  them :  "  They  have  their 
corn,  and  must  feed  it  to  their  hogs  and  cattle,  or  they  could  do  nothing.  Their 
hay  costs  nothing  but  cutting,  and  it  is  worth  nothing,  for  they  can't  sell  it,  as 
there  is  no  demand."  I  give  States  where  corn  and  hay  are  salable,  and  have  a 
good  cash  value.  The  man  who  could,  by  some  magic,  have  green  pastures  there 
in  winter,  could  certainly  pocket  the  value  of  the  hay  and  corn  he  is  forced,  at 
that  time,  to  feed  to  his  stock. 


Connecticut  

] 

HORSES 
,  .  .        44,940 

MULES  AND 
ASSES. 

539 
123,178 
51,780 
44,424 
298 
243 
5,083 
9,019 
9,267 
5,o72 
19,481 
22,914 
46 
283 
7,136 

298,763 

WORKING 
OXEN. 
28,418 
3,346 
3,970 
2,506 
43,049 

I4,57i 
40,393 
36,344 

2,022 
39»633 
8,226 
15,062 
3.523 
18,868 
28,762 

MILCH 
COWS. 
116,319 
865,913 

494,944 
854,187 
150,845 
150,435 
384,578 
275,545 
152,078 
1,437,855 
767,043 
854,156 
21,460 
217,033 
478,374 

7,220,765 

Indiana  

...      581,444 

Maine 

87  848 

Massachusetts  . 

59,629 
,  .  .      378  778 

Minnesota  .  
New  Jersey  
New  York  
Ohio     

...      257,282 
.  .        86,940 
.  .      610,358 
736  478 

Pennsylvania.  .  . 
Rhode  Island.., 
Vermont  

-.      533,587 

9,661 

Wisconsin  

...     352,428 
5,629,992 

288,793 

*Exclusive  of  spring  lambs. 

OTHER 

CATTLE. 

92,149 

1, 5^,063 

864,846 

1,755,343 
140,527 

96,045 
466,660 
347,l6i 

69,786 

862,233 

1,084,917 

861,019 

10,601 
167,204 
622,005 


SHEEP.* 

59,431 
!, 037,073 

1,100,511 

455,359 
565,918 

69.979 

2,189,389 

267,598 

117,020 

1,715,180 

4,902,486 

1,796,598 

17,211 

439,870 

1,336,807 


SWINE. 

63,699 
3,170,266 
3,186,413 
6,034,316 

73r,369 

80,123 

964,071 

38lAI5 

219,069 

751,907 

3>*4*,333 

1,187,968 

14,121 

76,384 

1,128,825 


8.955»559         16,070,430        21,131,279 


INTRODUCTION.  43 

Putting  the  cost  of  keep  for  winter,  at  $15  per  head  for  horses ;  for  mules  and 
«sses,  $12  per  head;  for  working  oxen,  $12  each;  for  other  cattle,  $10  each; 
milch  cows,  $10  each;  for  sheep,  per  head,  $1;  for  swine,  each,  $3,  we  have  an 
aggregate  cost  for  winter's  feed  of  all  the  above  animals*— $347,731,151.  The 
sum  is  almost  incredible. 

But  some  one  may  say  will  not  these  animals  sell  for  so  much  more  North 
than  they  would  South  as  to  pay  all  if  not  more  than  this  higher  cost  of  winter's 
"  keep  "  at  the  North  ?  Well,  the  answers  to  this  question  are  many.  In  the  first 
place,  for  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  this  computation,  the  food  contributed 
to  support  will  not  count  as  a  factor  in  gain ;  for  the  animals  are  not  fed  for  fat- 
tening with  a  view  to  sale.  Steers,  hogs  and  sheep,  possibly,  may ;  but  horses, 
mules,  working  oxen  and  milch  cows  are  not.  For  all  these  the  computation 
represents  the  bare  cost  of  "  keep  "  and  the  maintenance  of  condition.  If  you 
shall  say  that  the  cost  of  keeping  the  other  animals  will  be  got  back  in  their 
enhanced  value,  by  reason  of  the  fat  they  will  lay  on,  the  reply  is,  then  you  must 
increase  the  cost  of  the  estimate  upon  them.  Then,  if  milch  cows  are  to  be 
added  to  the  gainful  side,  by  reason  of  their  butter  or  milk  yield,  more  must 
be  added  to  their  cost  of  "  wintering."  In  other  words,  are  not  plenty  of  people 
North  and  East  willing  enough  to  let  one  have  the  use  of  a  cow  for  "wintering" 
her  ?  Can  any  one  suppose,  too,  that  the  value  of  a  cow  North  for  her  butter  or 
milk  is  greater  than  at  the  South?  Is  milk  anywhere  in  the  South  worth  less 
than  ten  cents  per  quart?  or  butter  worth  less  than  twenty  to  twenty-five  cents 
per  pound  ?  Are  not  millions  of  pounds  of  Northern-made  butter  carried  South  ? 
Is  not  grass-flavored  Southern  butter  from  grade  Jerseys  worth  from  twenty-five 
cents  to  forty  cents  per  pound  ?  Is  not  fancy  all- Jersey  butter  worth  from  forty 
cents  up  to  prices  too  high  to  be  credited?  Do  mules  sell  higher  in  the  North 
than  in  the  South?  Is  not  the  South  the  great  market  for  them?  Are  not  horses 
worth  more  South  than  North  ?  Is  a  hog  worth  more  North,  as  compared  with  the 
South,  than  the  cost  of  his  winter's  food?  Pray,  where  does  a  large  part  of  our 
pork  come  from  ?  What  has  kept  the  South  poor  so  long  but,  among  other  things, 
buying  Western  pork  ? — (soon,  fortunately,  to  stop.)  Where  do  Southern  cities 
get  their  live  hogs  from?  They  are  hauled  from  the  West  by  hundreds  of  car- 
loads daily.  Do  we  not  get  our  best  fat  beeves  from  the  North  and  West? 

But  there  are  other  aspects  to  this  matter  of  winter's  "keep"— a  factor  hard 
to  weigh;  an  unknown  quantity:  the  superior  health  of  the  animal  South;  or, 
Tather,  the  greater  cost  of  the  inferior  health  North.  Every  one  knows  the  bad 
effects  of  confinement  of  sheep  in  close  barns  in  winter.  I  have  known  of  much 
money  lost  in  one  season  in  only  one  herd  of  fine  Merinoes.  Who  does  not  know 
the  impaired  quality  in  wool  in  the  change  from  green  to  dry  food  in  winter,  and 
•vice  versa,  in  spring?  The  loss  in  cat:le  in  these  transitions  is  more  or  less  by 
reason  of  diseases  and  complaints  incident  to  it.  Because  we  cannot  compute  it, 
it  is  none  the  less  true.  The  fields  of  much  of  the  South  can  be  kept  green  the 
year  round  with  blue-grass,  the  clovers,  etc.  On  them  every  animal  is  naturally 
kept  in  better  health  than  on  the  artificial  food  of  corn  and  hay. 

There  is  a  great  temptation  to  dilate  upon  the  enormous  losses  in  some 
winters,  and  the  very  considerable  every  winter,  in  the  aggregate,  at  the  North 
and  West,  by  the  freezing  of  animals,  or  their  death  by  some  incident  in  connec- 
tion with  cold.  From  this  the  South  is  absolutely  exempt,  except  in  parts  of 
Texas,  where  the  "Northers"  sometimes  catch  stock.- 

*In  this  estimate  I  did  not  rely  on  my  own  views,  but  recently  submitted  the  matter  to  stock-raisers 
at  the  World's  Exposition.  Of  course,  the  estimate  varies  according  to  length  of  winter,  prices  of 
-feed,  etc.  I  have,  however,  put  the  figures  very  considerably  below  the  estimates  of  the  gentlemen 
mentioned. 


44  INTRODUCTION. 

The  saving  in  food  and  clothing  to  man,  by  reason  of  the  climate,  is  a  topic  it 
would  be  interesting  to  explore  at  length ;  but  I  can  but  barely  touch  upon  it, 
hoping  the  reflection  of  the  reader  will  supply  my  constrained  meagreness  of 
treatment. 

It  must  be  obvious  to  the  most  superficial  reflection  that  the  mildness  of  our 
Southern  climate  dispenses  largely  with  the  necessity  for  meat  to  supply  carbon 
or  heat,  in  order  to  resist  the  rigors  of  Northern  winters.  It  is  no  answer  to  say 
that  much  meat  is  eaten  South.  I  am  speaking  of  necessity,  and  not  of  choice  or 
habit.  Meat  is  the  large  element  of  cost  in  the  support  of  life  North  in  winter, 
and  is  indispensable  there.  Again,  the  mildness  of  the  Southern  climate  over  a 
large  area  gives  the  opportunity  to  draw  largely  for  the  support  of  life  (and  even 
for  money-making)  upon  the  winter  garden.  "Greens"  of  all  sorts  are  to  be  had 
there  in  winter.  The  Irish  potatoes  planted  in  July  or  left  in  the  ground  bear  a 
second  crop,  from  which  a  winter's  supply  is  to  be  had.  Cabbages  "set"  in  the 
fall  grow  through  the  winter.  Lettuce  and  radishes  can  be  planted  at  all  times. 
So  through  the  list.  The  ground  from  which  the  crops  of  corn,  cotton,  oats, 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  etc.,  are  taken  is  available  for  turnips,  cabbages,  carrots — what 
you  will — and  needs  not  to  lie  unutilized  till  spring.  Your  hens  are  laying  eggs 
all  winter,  and  chickens  can  be  hatched  in  fall.  Your  ewes  can  be  made  to 
"lamb"  in  November.  Your  cows  can  "come  in"  when  you  please  in  winter. 
In  large  areas  of  the  South  the  finest  fish  can  be  had  much  of  the  winter  in  the 
salt  and  fresh  waters ;  crabs,  shrimp  and  oysters  all  winter  in  parts  of  the  South ; 
and  I  do  not  elaborate  the  migratory  birds  that,  forsaking  the  North  in  winter, 
bring  choice  contributions  of  the  most  prized  food  supply  to  both  the  epicure  and 
poor  man,  in  this  season,  to  the  South. 

In  clothing,  the  aggregate  of  cost  to  be  saved  by  the  South  in  winter,  as  com- 
pared with  the  North,  is  very  considerable.  The  increased  quantity  of  wool  in 
the  character  of  goods  worn  North,  of  necessity,  counts  very  heavily  in  money's 
worth,  as  compared  with  that  worn  South.  It  is  one  of  the  discomforts  that 
Northern  people  suffer  who  "  winter"  pretty  well  South,  in  persisting  in  wearing 
the  same  clothing  South  they  are  habituated  to  at  home.  Less  bed  clothing  is 
necessary,  too.  Lap  blankets,  buffalo  robes,  are  a  trifling  expense  South.  Indeed, 
there  arc  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  South  who  never  saw  a  buffalo  robe. 
In  an  experience  of  a  good  many  years  South,  I  never  have  used,  never  have  seen 
a  buffalo  robe  on  but  two  or  three  occasions.  There  are  plenty  of  children  of  the 
poor  in  the  South  whose  feet  are  innocent  of  shoes  the  whole  year  round.  It  is 
useless  to  say  that  they  ought  to  wear  them.  They  do  not,  and  are  very  robust. 
I  have  seen  plenty  of  children  clad  in  next  to  nudity  in  midwinter  South,  and 
they  could  not  be  more  healthy  than  under  this  treatment.  Then,  blankets  for 
horses  are  very  rare. 

These  matters  may  seem  quite  trivial,  but  aggregate  them,  and  the  cost  will 
be  found  to  be  very  considerable.  Indeed,  there  is  the  germ  of  an  industrial  revo- 
lution in  the  thought  that  there  is  not  the  ratio  of  consumption  South  to  the  ratio 
of  production,  as  at  the  North  and  West.  Look  how  much  of  the  wool,  pork, 
hay,  corn,  wheat,  etc.,  that  the  Northern  man  produces,  which  he  and  his  stock 
must  consume !  South,  in  winter,  he  and  his  stock  not  only  do  not  consume  much 
of  these,  but  he  is  producing  at  the  very  season  the  Western  man  is  consuming. 

In  a  view  of  "points,"  I  ought  not  to  omit  the  expense  of  buildings  and  barns, 
particularly  the  latter,  so  often  expensive,  which  at  the  South  find  a  substitute  in 
comparatively  cheap  and  open  shelters. 

HEALTH, 

I  have  given  some  of  the  advantages  the  South  possesses  in  her  climate  over 
the  North  and  West.  It  is  almost,  if  not  a  corollary  of  her  climate,  that  she  has 


INTRODUCTION.  45 

has  a  great  advantage  in  her  superior  health.  In  the  article  on  Mississippi  some- 
thing will  be  said  generally  on  this  topic,  and,  through  the  pages  of  this  book 
comparisons  are  drawn  here  and  there  between  some  of  the  Southern  States, 
and  others  in  the  country  at  large.  But  the  theme  is  an  important  one,  and 
cannot  well  be  too  much  elaborated.  And,  first  let  me  consider  some  well  known 
facts,  the  bare  statement  of  which  ought  to  have  great  weight.  It  is  known  to 
every  intelligent  reader,  that  a  very  considerable  area  of  the  South  is  regarded  as 
a  sanitarium  by  much  of  the  country  at  large,  for  diseases  of  the  throat  and  lungs. 
It  would  be  invidious  to  particularize  the  best  localities  South  for  the  cure  or 
amelioration  of  these  complaints,  even  if  their  comparative  merits  could  be  deter- 
mined. The  appreciation  of  the  South  in  these  regards,  or  rather,  the  utilization 
of  her  areas  by  the  inhabitants  of  rigorous  winter  climates,  is  a  matter  of  very 
recent  date.  While  it  is  doubtless  true  that  the  wisdom  of  the  selection  of  resorts, 
now  greatly  favored  and  patronized,  has  been  vindicated  by  remedial  and  cura- 
tive results,  it  is  also  quite  as  true  that  there  are  probably  many  other  localities 
as  yet  almost,  or  altogether  unnoted,  or,  at  least,  not  celebrated,  where  the  lenitives 
of  climate  are  quite  as  efficacious  as  the  most  cherished  areas,  for  the  regards  in 
question.  Because  the  unprized  localities  have  as  yet  no  appreciation,  argues  no 
more  against  them  than  the  disregard  of  now  celebrated  areas  argued  against  the 
latter  a  few  years  ago.  I  can  see  no  reason  why  a  very  large  area  of  the  pine- 
woods  belt  of  the  South  is  not  as  near  a  specific  for  the  complaints  in  question,  as 
climate  can  be.  It  is  quite  certain  that  localities  next  to  unknown  by  the  country 
at  large,  have  proven  very  beneficient  to  sufferers.  Besides  the  sufferers  from 
catarrh,  bronchitis  and  pulmonary  consumption,  those  who  suffer  from  rheuma- 
tism and  neuralgia  will  find  great  relief  in  much  of  the  South.  I  have  mentioned 
the  immense  patronage  of  parts  of  the  South,  by  sufferers  from  the  complaints 
named,  as  a  conclusive  demonstration  of  the  healthfulness  of  the  Southern 
climate  in  the  premises;  My  argument  is  offered  by  the  Northern  people  them- 
selves, and  therefore  is  not  to  be  questioned.  Is  it  necessaiy  to  array  figures  to 
show  the  fearful  decimation  of  our  race  by  lung  and  throat  diseases? 

Another  fact  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that  the  diseases  of  the  South  are  largely 
of  a  class  that  are  tractable  and  avoidable,  nnd  will  largely  disappear  by  agricul- 
tural development.  As  is  well  known,  remittent  and  intermittent  levers  constitute 
a  large  proportion  of  Southern  complaints.  These  mostly  yield  readily  to  wise 
and  prompt  treatment.  They  can  largely  be  avoided,  even  under  present  condi- 
tions, by  prudence.  Malaria,  (which  has  its  share  in  producing  these  complaints,) 
will  disappear  with  improved  agriculture,  drainage,  use  of  lime,  etc.  Many 
localities  North,  once  very  sickly  from  malaria,  are  now  healthy  by  reason  of  the 
latter.  Better  regard  of  dietetics  and  hygiene  will  work  an  immense  improve- 
ment in  the  health  of  the  South.  The  enormous  consumption  of  salt  pork,  corn 
bread  and  cabbage — not  to  say  coffee,  South,  is  undoubtedly  a  fruitful  cause  of 
disease  and  death.  Diseases  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  are  certain  to  follow-  the 
use  of  such  food.  Every  physician  knows  how  certain  complaints  can  almost  be 
banished  from  localities  by  a  change  of  food.  The  large  use  of  fruits  and 
vegetables,  South,  will  work  great  changes  in  statistics  of  mortality  in  this 
section.  One  can  readily  see  that,  for  summer's  food,  South,  the  use  of  pork, 
cabbage  and  corn  bread,  is  certainly  very  injurious  to  health. 

Another  point,  almost  impossible  to  be  duly  estimated  by  the  average 
Northern  reader,  who  does  not  know  the  South,  is  the  mode  of  living  of  the 
average  negro.  As  a  whole,  they  are  ill-fed,  ill-housed,  ill-clothed.  They  are, 
also,  to  the  last  degree,  as  a  race,  in  the  South,  improvident  and  imprudent. 
Getting  sick,  they  do  not  take  medicine,  and  if  they  do,  often  guess  at  their 
complaint  and  its  remedy,  and  often  take  nostrums.  Often  too  poor  to  pay  for 


46  INTRODUCTION. 

medical  services,  they  dispense  with  them  altogether,  or  send  too  late  to  save  life.. 
They  are  the  poorest  of  nurses  in  the  world,  and  are  too  ignorant  often  to  admin- 
ister medicine  as  prescribed.  They  have  very  seldom  the  food  a  sick  person  needs. 
Often  when  they  should  be  in  bed  because  of  sickness  or  debility,  they  go  to  the 
field ;  and  this,  too,  from  no  irresistible  impulse  to  industry.  When  one  is  in  such 
a  state  of  exhaustion  from  disease  that  composure  is  of  the  utmost  or  absolute 
importance,  it  is  made  the  occasion  of  "calls"  from  numerous  visitors,  and  the 
most  noisy  and  often  fatal  demonstrations  of  sympathy  or  piety,  or  both.  Then, 
cleanliness  is  not  a  distinction  of  the  race;  and  I  pass  without  mention  diseases 
that  must  be  left  to  conjecture.  The  negro  as  a  race,  South,  has  a  great  fashion 
of  turning  night  into  day.  His  nocturnal  fashions  are  past  describing  and  past 
finding  out — mysterious  and  inscrutable.  He  is  prone  to  "  sprees,"  "  cake  walks," 
balls,  "hoe-downs/'  religious  gatherings,  (long  protracted,)  in  night  time,  etc.  One 
can  see  that  orgies  night  after  night,  long  tramps,  (in  wet  and  dry,)  to  meetings 
and  gatherings,  and  then  work  at  clay  in  the  field,  are  not  promo tive  of  health. 
No  wonder  that  the  mortality  of  the  race  is  marked,  as  compared  with  the  whites. 
I  have  been  somewhat  explicit  in  order  to  show  that  the  statistics  of  mortality 
South  are  not  fair  expositions  of  the  Southern  climate.  If  there  was  some  way  of 
obtaining  statistics  by  classes,  a  fairer  insight  would  be  had;  but,  even  then,  con- 
ditions which  militate  against  the  South  in  the  computation,  ought  to  be  eliminated 
in  justice  to  the  climate,  the  diet,  the  imprudences,  etc.,  of  the  people.  In  fine,  the 
fault  is  not  with  the  climate,  but  the  people;  and  a  quarter  of  a  century  will  show- 
changes  in  the  South  in  her  favor  that  will  astonish  the  statisticians  of  that  day. 

EXEMPTION   FROM   INSECTS. 

Another  advantage  the  South  possesses  over  the  North  and  West  is  in  her 
comparative  exemption  from  the  ravishes  of  insect  pests.  It  is  the  opinion  of  at 
least  two  eminent  entomologists,  that  the  South  must,  (for  much  of  her  area,)  be 
comparatively  exempt  from  insect  pests  for  two  reasons:  Her  great  rainfall  and 
her  mild  winters.  The  former  drowns  the  insects  and  washes  the  eggs  from  their 
places  of  deposit.  As  is  well  known,  the  rains  in  the  South  are  frequently  very 
heavy,  torrential,  and  are  very  fatal  to  insect  life.  They  are  frequent,  too,  in  the 
early  spring — a  season  of  ovipositing  and  hatching.  Again,  the  mild  winters  keep 
the  insects  in  a  state  of  life,  that,  giving  them  insufficient  heat  for  vigor,  induces 
animation  and  speedy  death. 

Any  one  who  has  read  Professor  Cyrus  Thomas'  brochure  on  the  chinch  bug, 
(Lygaeus  Lencopterus,)  published  a  few  years  ago,  will  see  what  devastation  this 
pest  has  wrought  in  some  years  in  the  West.  It  amounts  to  many  millions  of 
dollars.  Very  rarely,  according  to  my  investigations,  does  it  accomplish  much 
damage  South.  The  West  well  knows  what  it  is,  without  any  comment  on  my  part. 

The  Hessian  fly,  I  think,  is  nothing  like  so  abundant  here  as  at  the  North  and 
West.  It  was  supposed  to  have  had,  among  its  earliest  footholds  in  this  country, 
a  place  in  North  Carolina,  but  my  investigations  of  it,  in  a  part  of  the  South 
where  wrheat  is  more  or  less  raised,  show  it  to  be  almost  unnoted. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  locust,  it  is  almost  superfluous  to  say,  caianot  endure 
the  South.  Professor  E.  V.  Riley  has  shown  that  this  insect  will  never  penetrate 
a  certain  atmosphere,  which  the  South  will  always,  humanly  speaking,  possess. 

The  potato  bug — Colorado  beetle— (Dorypkora  decemlineata,)  I  have  never 
seen  South,  and  I  have  hunted  and  enquired  for  it,  and  sought  to  find  it  from 
those  who  would  be  apt  to  know  of  its  advent.  The  Juncta  is  to  be  found,  and  is 
apt  to  be  commonly  mistaken  for  the  former. 

I  have  noticed  these  common  scourges  among  insects,  because,  among  other 
matters,  I  think  their  absence  and  paucity  go  very  far  to  sustain  the  views  first, 
enunciated  under  this  caption. 


INTRODUCTION,  47 

VARIETY   OP  PRODUCTS. 

An  advantage  of  the  South,  worthy  a  very  thorough  survey — which  I  shall 
not  attempt,  is  the  numberless  variety  of  her  products.  She  has  been  reduced  to 
the  verge  of  beggary  and  temporary  ruin  by  her  wretched  uiipolicy  in  cultivating 
cotton  so  disproportionately.  Suppose  she  could  produce  nothing  else.  The 
West  is  likely  to  suffer  unspeakably  before  long,  in  those  areas  where  she  has 
only  or  can  only  raise  wheat.  In  a  considerable  portion  she  cannot  raise  maize. 
In  other  areas  the  West  cannot  raise  the  cultivated  grasses.  But  who  shall 
enumerate  what  the  South  can  produce?  Fruits  and  vegetables  have  been  con- 
sidered, and  will  be  treated  more  at  length  in  the  article  on  Mississippi.  To 
enumerate  them  all  is  impossible.  Let  one  think  of  the  range  from  the  climate  of 
the  Siberian  crab-apple  to  the  orange  and  the  pineapple,  for  fruits,  and  that  in 
much  of  the  South  fruits  of  some  kind  are  to  be  had  much  of  the  year,  (think  of 
the  strawberry  and  the  peach  for  six  months !)  and  vegetables  all  the  year.  And 
the  vegetables  one  cannot  think  of  undertaking  to  enumerate. 

In  the  article  on  Mississippi  are  to  be  found  a  small  list  of  grasses;  but  there 
are  probably  a  hundred  species  strictly  Southern,  so  to  speak,  not  mentioned;  and 
many  grasses  are  green  the  year  round.  Cotton,  ramie  and  jute,  the  South  may 
be  almost  said  to  have  a  monopoly  of;  and  silk  culture  can  have  no  better  climate 
in  the  known  world,  according  to  the  best  judgment  of  experts. 

In  cereals  the  South  can  show  a  long  list — Indian  corn  or  maize,  wheat,  rye, 
barley,  the  oat,  buckwheat,*  rice.  Then  there  are  ginger,  indigo,  the  tea-plant, 
etc.,  etc.  Her  plants  I  have  touched  upon ;  they  range  from  the  sugar-cane  of  the 
tropics  to  the  pine  of  rigorous  climates.  An  interesting  paper  might  be  made 
upon  the  medicinal  plants  and  herbs  of  the  South.  A  very  interesting  book  has 
been  written  on  them;  and  in  parts  of  the  South  it  is  avocation  of  people  to 
gather  them  in  the  wilds  for  the  uses  of  pharmacy. 

Consider  all  these  resources  in  a  mild  climate,  fertile  soil  abundantly  watered 
by  rainfall  and  never-failing  streams,  pierced  by  navigable  rivers,  with  inexhaust- 
ible  coal  and  iron.  WATBBCOUBBBS. 

Another  advantage  the  South  possesses  is  in  the  distribution  of  her  navigable 
rivers,  and  their  communication  with  ocean  highways.  One  must  take  a  map  and 
view  the  remarkable  location  of  the  South.  With  the  exception  of  Tennessee, 
Kentucky  and  Arkansas,  from  Maryland,  clear  round  to  away  west  and  south  in 
Texas,  there  is  no  Southern  State  but  may  be  said  to  have  an  ocean  front.  Into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Gulf  of  Mexico  empty  streams  which  have  their  sources 
far  in  the  interior.  On  these  streams,  at  greater  or  less  distances  from  their 
mouths,  are  situated  the  leading  Southern  cities.  Before  the  era  of  railroads, 
water  dictated  the  location  of  cities;  and  water  of  what  one  may  term  a  navigable 
depth  can  never  be  superseded  by  railroads.  In  the  past,  water  has  played  a  most 
important  part  as  a  factor  in  the  development  of  Southern  cities.  Look  at  her 
leading  cities — Baltimore,  Richmond,  Norfolk,  Wilmington,  Charleston,  Savannah, 
Mobile,  New  Orleans,  Galveston.  But  in  the  future  water  is  to  play  a  still  greater 
role  than  ever  in  the  past.  One  illustration— that  of  the  deepening  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River — shows  what  one  great  waterway  may  do.  This  came  very  nearly 
revolutionizing  the  grain  transportation  of  this  country.  It  saved  (and  will  for 
all  time  save  if  the  jetties  act  well)  millions  of  dollars  per  annum  to  the  Western 
farmers,  by  giving  cheaper  rates  to  Europe.  It  is  probably  destined  to  deflect 
greatly  immigration  from  New  York ;  as  if  immigrants  settle  South,  New  Orleans 
or  some  other  Southern  port  is  their  proper  place  of  debarkation ;  if  West,  they 


*Two  crops  per  season.     The  best  buckwheat  I  have  ever  seen  was  raised  on  the  gulf  coast, 
between  Mobile,  Alabama,  and  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. 


48  INTRODUCTION. 

are  readily  distributed  there  by  Southern  railroads  running  from  the  West  to  their 
point  of  debarkation* 

The  import  trade  of  the  country,  especially  that  of  the  West,  is  likely  to  be 
shared  largely  by  the  South. 

But  these  rivers  emptying  into  the  ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  penetrate 
far  into  the  interior  in  the  South.  Almost  every  navigable  river  has  its  source  in 
mountains,  and  is  of  unfailing  flow.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
furnish  vast  reservoirs  for  unfailing  evaporation ;  and  by  a  stupendous  harmony, 
the  mountains  compel  the  clouds  to  a  deposition  of  their  moisture,  to  flow  down 
again  in  unceasing  current  to  the  source.  Thus  the  Southern  sun  lifts  the  ocean, 
and  the  mountains  take  the  welcome  burthen ;  and  this  must  ever  be.  However 
science  may  vacillate  about  the  forests  making  more  or  less  rainfall,  the  ocean 
must  rise  in  vapor  at  the  bidding  of  the  sun ;  the  clouds  must  obey  the  stern 
command  of  the  haughty  altitudes  of  the  Apalachian  chain. 

I  have  said  that  Arkansas,  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  are  the  only  Southern 
States  that  have  not  an  ocean  front ;  but,  except  for  certain  conditions  and  for 
purposes  of  transportation,  they  virtually  have.  The  Mississippi  River  rolls  past 
the  whole  eastern  front  of  Arkansas,  and  rivers  from  away  up  in  the  interior  of 
the  State  bear  down  her  products.  Past  Western  Tennessee  the  Mississippi  flows 
the  entire  latitude  of  the  State.  Then  Kentucky  shares  the  benefit  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  to  Cairo,  111.  At  Cairo  the  Ohio  joins  the  Mississippi.  From  Cairo 
the  Ohio  is  the  western  boundary  of  the  State  up  to  the  State  of  Ohio.  At 
Paducah,  Ky.,  the  Tennessee  River  comes  in,  after  its  rise  in  its  sources  in  Western 
North  Carolina  and  East  Tennessee,  and  watering  much  of  the  latter.  It  sweeps 
well  down  into  Alabama;  then  runs  along  much  of  the  northern  part  of  this 
State;  then  is  deflected  north,  and  courses  clear  through  Tennessee  and  a  part  of 
Kentucky.  The  Cumberland,  after  watering  much  of  Northern  Tennessee  and 
part  of  Kentucky,  joins  the  Ohio. 

The  possibilities  of  this  river  system  no  one  can  predict.  It  is  certain  to  play 
a  great  part  in  the  future  of  these  States.  Their  grain,  flour,  live  stock,  iron,  coal, 
etc.,  will  be  immense  interests  in  the  future.  Take  the  river  system  of  Alabama 
and  East  Mississippi.  See  the  future  these  rivers  have  before  them ! 

It  would  be  a  matter  of  great  interest  to  show  the  vast  sums  of  money  which 
are  to  be  saved  to  the  South  in  the  development  of  her  coal  and  mineral  interests. 
Messrs.  C.  A.  Miltenberger  &  Co.  (to  whom  I  here  express  my  obligations  for 
information)  show,  in  their  last  annual  statement,  that  there  were  consumed  in 
New  Orleans  in  1884  3,864,300  barrels  of  Pittsburgh  coal.  The  consumption  has 
increased  since  1869,  beyond  which  year  I  have  not  their  figures.  The  average 
price  for  the  year  was  about  30  cents  per  barrel  wholesale.  There  were  over 
700,000  barrels  of  Tennessee  and  Alabama  coal  received.  This  is  over  4,500,000 
barrels  received  at  New  Orleans.  Pittsburgh  coal  has  sold  at  from  $1.50  to 
$2.25  per  barrel  retail.  At  wholesale  it  used  to  bring  75  cents  per  barrel.  Thus 
there  is  saved  to  New  Orleans  the  sum  of  at  least  $2,000,000  by  the  advent  of 
Alabama  coal.  Now,  Pittsburgh  coal  by  water  competes  with  Alabama  coal  by 
rail.  The  former  is  2,000  or  more  miles  from  New  Orleans  by  water;  the  latter 
is,  say,  300  miles.  Can  anything  better  show  the  value  of  water  for  cheap  trans- 
portation ? 

General  J.  W.  Burke,  Collector  of  Customs  at  Mobile,  Ala.,  in  a  speech  before 
the  Joint  Committees  of  the  Merchants'  Exchange  and  Cotton  Exchange  of  that 
city,  says,  on  page  25  of  the  pamphlet  containing  his  address:  "  As  late  as  1878 
the  government  paid  for  the  coal  furnished  its  vessels  at  the  gulf  ports  from  $8.00 
to  $12.00  per  ton.  To-day,  coal  is  furnished  at  the  rate  of  $3.40  per  ton." 


INTRODUCTION.  49 

Capt.  A.  C.  Banner,  of  Mobile,  A?a.,  a  gentleman  most  conversant  with  the  coal 
trade  of  the  Southwest,  and  who  is  most  prominently  connected  with  its  develop- 
ment, says,  in  a  letter  to  the  Baltimore  Manufacturers'  Record  of  January  19, 1884: 

"  Now,  of  the  six  rivers  that  we  have  in  the  State,  five  of  them  run  right 
through  coal  beds.  It  is  true  that  the  coal  beds  are  situated  on  the  headwaters, 
and  above  present  navigation ;  but  these  streams  can  and  will  be  made  navigable 
as  far  up  as  the  coal  beds. 

"  And  then  there  are  magnificent  tracts  of  coal  lands  now  within  twenty  or 
thirty  miles  of  the  navigable  part  of  one  of  these  rivers — a  river  that  never 
freezes  up,  and  that  is  navigable  eight  months  in  the  year.  When  these  coal 
lands  last  referred  to  are  developed,  and  a  railroad  built  to  the  river,  with  barges 
and  tug-boats,  coal  can  be  dumped  on  to  the  barges  at  the  cost  of  $1.10  per  ton. 
It  can  then  be  transported  to  Mobile  in  large  quantities  at  a  cost  for  freight  of 
less  than  50  cents  per  ton,  and  transferred  from  the  barge  to  a  ship  for,  say,  10 
cents  per  ton.  Add  50  cents  for  incidentals,  interest  and  profit,  and  we  have  coal 
put  f.  o.  b.  a  vessel  in  a  good  port  (Mobile  is  now  the  cheapest  port  for  vessels  in 
the  United  States)  at  the  price  of  $2.20  per  ton. 

"  No  coal  in  the  world  can  then  compete  with  Alabama  coal  in  all  the  markets 
of  the  Pacific  coast  and  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

"  Mobile  will  supply  South  America,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  the  Windward  Islands, 
California,  Mexico,  Texas  and  Florida." 

These  illustrations  are  given  to  show  the  value  of  water  transportation,  and 
that  the  rivers  of  the  South,  in  parts,  penetrate,  in  many  instances,  very  rich 
mineral  tracts.  In  other  parts  of  the  South  the  same  may  be  said  of  a  number  of 
their  rivers.  But,  besides  transportation  for  the  future  flour,  cereals,  live  stock, 
hay,  the  products  of  the  mine  and  manufactories  of  various  kinds,  the  rivers  and 
streams  will  play  a  most  important  part  in  furnishing  cheap,  abundant,  never- 
failing,  never-freezing  water-powers  for  the  future  factories  of  the  South.  Much 
of  this  is  given  elsewhere;  but  the  following,  from  the  pen  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Agriculture  for  Alabama,  will  be  of  interest  here.  On  page  119  of  a  pamphlet 
recently  issued,  he  says : 

"  The  Tennessee  River,  having  a  volume  of  water  greater  than  the  Ohio, 
descends  for  a  space  of  thirty  miles  over  a  series  of  shoals,  creating  an  amount  of 
power  greater  than  is  to  be  found  anywhere  011  the  continent  within  the  same 
compass.  The  canal  now  in  course  of  construction,  and  upon  winch  upwards  of 
three  millions  of  dollars,  under  appropriations  by  the  general  government,  super- 
vised by  its  own  officers,  have  been  already  spent,  and  which  will  be  completed  in 
less  than  two  years,  will,  it  is  estimated,  afford  power  enough,  without  impairing 
its  efficiency  for  purposes  of  navigation,  to  turn  all  the  machinery  in  New  Eng- 
land. The  Coosa,  throughout  a  still  greater  extent  of  its  course,  affords  power, 
in  the  aggregate,  little  inferior  in  magnitude  to  that  of  the  Tennessee." 

The  agriculturist  and  stock-raiser  can  appreciate  the  value  of  these  rivers 
when  he  knows  that  they  are  supplied  by  hundreds  of  streams  and  thousands  of 
rivulets  forever  dancing  in  sparkling  joy  through  the  meadows  and  over  rocks,  in 
dells,  along  from  their  unfailing  sources  in  the  mountains.  The  dairyman  will 
cherish  the  spring-houses,  and  the  stock-raiser  and  farmer  will  find  perennial 
water  for  his  flocks  and  herds ;  and  a  matter  of  no  small  consideration  is  it  now, 
and  hereafter  will  be  a  greater  one,  (in  the  great  future  of  the  South,)  that  cities 
and  towns  do  and  may  have  cheap  and  unfailing  supplies  of  the  clearest  and 
purest  water;  and  as  many  of  these  streams  already  contain  abundance  of  fine 
fish,  while  many  of  them  will  be  thickly  populated  hereafter  by  the  wise  provi- 
dence of  the  Southern  States,*  the  people  of  the  future  South  will  find  one  of  the 
best  species  of  food  for  the  support  of  man. 

CHEAPNESS  OF  LAND. 

Another  most  striking  advantage  of  the  South  is  in  her  cheap  lands.  The 
shrinkage  in  the  value  of  lands  at  the  South,  by  reason  of  the  war  and  its  correl- 


*Several  Southern  States  have  already  addressed  themselves  to  supplying  their  streams  with  fish. 


50  INTRODUCTION. 

ative,  the  abolition  of  slavery,  is  past  computation.  An  estimate  would  be 
complicated  by  impairment  in  intrinsic  value  through  wasteful  tillage ;  but  it  is 
quite  certain  that  there  is  an  extrinsjc  depreciation  of  an  enormous  measure. 
The  South  possesses  many  millions  of  acres  now  open  to  investment,  which,  for 
some  of  the  purposes  of  agriculture,  are  as  good  as  ever.  Then,  none  of  her 
lands  but  are  capable  of  resuscitation.  It  is  quite  true  that  it  will  take  years  and 
wise  management  to  restore  the  Southern  "worn-out"  lands,  so  called,  to  their 
primitive  fertility;  but  we  have  irrefragible  proofs  of  their  capability  of  resusci- 
tation and  production  in  the  "  intensive "  culture  more  and  more  obtaining,  and 
the  results  of  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The  wise  use  of  fhe  inexhaustible 
marls  of  the  South,  "clovering,"  turning  under  green  crops,  proper  rotation  of 
crops,  subsoiling,  sheep  raising  and  many  other  aspects  of  improved  agriculture, 
are  yet  to  play  their  parts — as  yet,  almost  untried — in  the  future  agriculture  of 
the  South.  There  are  lands  for  sale  in  the  South,  ready  for  the  plow,  in  vast 
areas — millions  of  acres  that  can  be  had  at  from  one-fifth  to  one-tenth  their  value 
before  the  war.  I  know  of  some  of  the  finest  lands  in  the  world  that  sold  for 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  dollars  and  more  per  acre,  now  purchaseable  at  from 
five  to  fifteen  dollars  per  acre. 

Another  consideration  the  Northern  and  Western  farmer  must  not  forget  is, 
that  the  bulk  of  Southern  arable  lands  have  only  been  "  scratched."  The  average 
of  Southern  lands  are  not  "  broke  "  for  over  two  or  three  inches  deep,  and  vast 
stores  of  fertility  lie  accessible  to  better  culture.  Then  there  are  millions  of  acres 
of  fine  woodland  absolutely  undesecrated  by  the  superficial  tillage  of  the  South — 
virgin  soils  the  richest  in  the  world.  These  can  be  had  at  merely  nominal  prices, 
and  await  the  thrift  of  a  new  husbandry  to  be  inaugurated,  with  all  and  more 
than  the  cheapness  of  a  new  and  unsettled  country;  with  all  our  advantages  of 
climate  and  thicker  population,  and  the  other  incidents  of  civilization  in  schools, 
churches,  railroads,  a  settled  state  of  society,  low  taxes,  competing  modes  of 
transportation,  etc.,  etc. 

Is  not  an  acre  of  land  in  the  South  that  will  produce  all  and  much  more  than 
an  acre  in  Iowa,  Ohio  or  New  York,  with  products  as  valuable,  and  that  sells  for 
five  to  ten  dollars  per  acre,  worth  quite  as  much  for  production  as  an  acre  that 
sells  for  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  acre  ?  The  enhancement 
in  value  of  the  laud — its  selling  price — is  only  a  question  of  time  South. 
As  to  titles,  they  are,  in  almost  all  the  South,  of  the  very  best  character. 
As  to  taxes,  they  are  a  mere  bagatelle.  Lands  are  general  assessed  very  low — 
probably  on  an  average  of  five  dollars  per  acre  at  most — that  is,  farm  lands. 
Taxation  is  very  generally  prohibited  by  the  constitutions  of  the  various  Southern 
States  in  excess  of  one  and  a-half  per  cent,  on  the  assessed  value.  A  man  with  a 
very  small  farm  in  the  Middle  States  and  New  England  pays  far  more  than  one  in 
the  South  with  a  thousand  acres  of  good  land.  Then  there  are  few  Southern 
States  where  the  onerous  burthens  of  taxes  for  building  railroads  must  be  paid, 
as  at  the  West. 

It  must  be  remembered  by  all  thinking  of  buying  lands  South,  that  the 
impairment  in  price  of  Southern  lands  is  not  impairment  in  value.  Climate  is 
left.  Conditions  more  favorable  to  the  happiness,  thrift  and  influence  of  the 
white  farmer  obtain  now,  than  when  lands  were  from  five  to  ten  times  as  high  in 
price.  Kailroads  are  built  or  building,  of  which  there  were  few  South  before  the 
war,  and  add  their  great  influence  to  a  true  enhancement  of  values.  Immigration 
is  coming  in.  The  foolish  notion  that  white  men  cannot  stand  Southern  climate 
is  abundantly  disproved  by  tens  of  thousands  of  Europeans  and  Northern  men  in 
Texas,  Arkansas,  North  Carolina,  Georgia  and  other  States.  The  grasses  have 
been  tried  and  found  quite  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  same  North  and  West. 


INTRODUCTION.  51 

Stock  raising  in  all  branches  and  dairying  have  proven  not  only  practicable,  but 
profitable  and  easy.  The  immeasurable  benefits  of  multifarious  industries  is  the 
promise  of  the  future,  with  potent,  yet  comparatively  small,  earnests  in  our 
present  cotton  mills,  iron  furnaces,  flour  mills,  &c.  These  are  some  of  the  bene- 
fits that  make  our  lands  truly  much  more  valuable  than  before  the  war.  If  they 
were  worth  then  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  dollars  per  acre,  they  are  worth  twice 
as  much  now.  They  only  sell  for  from  five  to  fifteen  dollars  per  acre  now ;  but 
wait  ten  years ! 

Akin  to  this  topic  of  cheap  lands  is  the  proximity  of  the  most  fertile  lands  in 
the  country  to  the  mineral  lands  of  the  South,  and  to  what  will  some  day  be  the 
seat  of  the  great  manufacturing  interests  of  this  country ;  for  be  it  remembered  the 
South  will  combine  the  predominant  features  of  New  England  industrial  life  with 
iron  and  its  cognate  industries.  Space  forbids  the  elaboration  of  this  matter  of 
the  proximity  of  the  rich  lands  of  tne  South  to  the  future  great  centres  of  manu- 
facturing industry.  Let  any  one,  however,  contemplate  the  exhaustless  fertility 
of  the  bottom  lands  in  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Mississippi  and  Tennessee.  There 
can  be  raised  enough  breadstuff's  to  support  the  entire  South,  to  say  nothing  of 
other  areas.  It  is  hardly  four  hundred  miles  from  the  farthest  point  of  these  rich 
lands  to  the  great  mineral  lands  of  the  South,  with  easy  grades  for  railroads;  no 
chances  of  trains  ever  being  incommoded  by  snows,  and  with  low  prices  of  con- 
struction. More  than  this,  a  large  part  of  the  area  is  pierced  by  navigable  rivers 
running  from  this  rich  territory  into  much  of  the  most  noted  mineral  areas.  Let 
one  take  a  map  and  look  across  the  country  from  the  bottoms  of  the  Mississippi 
River  to  East  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  Alabama  and  Western  Georgia.  It  will 
then  be  seen  what  is  the  proximity.  And  this  is  leaving  out  of  account  millions 
of  acres  in  fertile  valleys  in  the  mineral  States. 

Now,  the  West  is  a  long  way  from  New  England,  Pennsylvania  and  New  York. 
All  these  States  have  largely  ceased  raising  cereals.  They  leave  this  to  the  West; 
and  the  West  must  send  them  over  expensively-built  roads  a  long  distance  to  the 
consumers  East.  As  is  well  known,  New  England  may  be  said  to  raise  no  bread- 
stuffs.  She  has  her  naturally  poor  land  in  grass  and  fruits,  and  raises  these  and 
poultry  and  makes  butter  for  her  cities  and  towns,  so  dependent  upon  her  manu- 
factories for  support.  The  fertility  and  cheapness  of  land  West  have  made  the 
Eastern  States  no  longer  the  breadstuff's  producers  of  the  country. 

Now,  our  Southern  rich  lands  are  near  for  the  cheap  breadstuff's.  They  unite 
the  advantages  of  fertility,  proximity,  low  grades  for  cheaply-built  railroads,  with 
all  the  cheapness  of  far-off  Western  lands.  The  East  has  the  short  haul  of 
products,  but  very  high-priced  lands.  The  West  has  the  low-priced  lands,  with 
the  long  haul.  The  South  unites  both  advantages  of  low-priced  lands  and  short 
hauls.  Both  North  and  West  the  climate  is  rigorous  and  fuel  high-priced ;  South, 
just  the  reverse.  Now,  the  South  can  raise,  near  her  future  large  manufacturing 
cities,  fruits,  vegetables,  poultry,  hay,  beef,  mutton,  wool,  and  can  dairy  on  cheap 
lands ;  and  all  these  she  can  raise,  not  for  a  season,  but  all  the  time.  This  will 
give  great  enhancement  to  the  value  and  price  of  these  lands.  There  cannot  be  a 
reason  why  these  lands  shall  not  always  be  valuable,  because  these  future  cities 
will  flourish  by  reason  of  inexhaustible  supplies  of  raw  material  and  the  exemp- 
tion from  a  ruinous  competition.  If  iron  and  cotton  manufacturing  industries 
were  new,  or  if  the  South  had  long  ago  embarked  in  them,  these  lands  would 
have  been  high-priced,  because  large  cities  would  have  been  built.  Thep,  instead 
of  lands  from  which  to  feed  artisans  selling  at  ten  and  fifteen  dollars  per  acre, 
they  might  have  been  as  high  as  the  same  land  situated  North  and  East.  But 
now  these  lands  enter  the  lists  to  buttress  Southern  competition,  and  add  their 
formidable  strength  to  the  struggle ;  and  so  great  is  the  present  production,  as 


52  INTRODUCTION. 

compared  with  consumption,  of  materials  from  cotton  and  iron,  that  a  little  added 
from  the  South  makes  a  formidable  factor  in  these  affairs.  Soon,  as  has  been  said, 
there  must  be  desertion  of  cotton  manufacturing  East,  and  an  immense  increase 
in  iron  manufacturing  South.  Then  will  come  the  demonstration  of  the  immense 
value  of  our  rich  lands  being  within  a  day  or  two's  transportation  of  our  great 
mining  and  manufacturing  centres. 

RAINFALL. 

Yet  another  advantage  the  South  possesses  is  in  her  rainfall.  The  rainfall  of 
each  of  the  several  States  is  given  as  they  are  treated  of  hereafter.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  the  first  portion  of  a  rainfall  contains  ammonia,  and  therefore  the 
greater  the  rainfall  the  greater  the  ammonia.  In  this  fact,  with  the  large  rainfall 
at  the  South,  if  the  soil  be  in  proper  condition  to  absorb  it,  there  is  a  very  consid- 
erable advantage.  It  is  certain  that  this  heavy  rainfall  in  winter,  together  with 
much  of  the  warmth  of  the  sun,  are  what  promote  the  growth  of  the  grasses, 
vegetables,  etc.,  at  the  South  in  winter.  In  most  of  the  South  there  is,  in  strict- 
ness, neither  a  dry  nor  wet  season.  Sometimes  there  are  disastrous  drouths  in 
the  South,  as  over  the  country  at  large;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  sometimes 
the  heaviest  rainfalls  are  during  the  summer  months;  and  the  South  is  so  cir- 
cumstanced that  her  dryer  weather  (in  late  spring  and  summer)  cannot  often 
work  disaster,  as  is  frequently  done  North  and  West.  The  cereal  crops  of  the 
South  are  frequently  "  made "  before  the  dry  weather  comes.  It  is  seldom  very 
dry  before  July  in  much  of  the  South.  By  that  time,  oats,  rye,  barley,  wheat  and 
corn  are  generally  "made,"  or  beyond  frequent  great  injury.  Cotton  can  endure 
much  dry  weather  at  the  dryer  season  South.  Blue-grass,  clovers,  orchard  grass 
and  others  give  way,  generally,  by  July,  and  Bermuda  grass,  Japan  clover  and 
other  dry-weather-enduring  grasses  have  been  in  full  vigor  months  before;  so 
that  live  stock  do  not  suffer  as  they  would  had  we  not  these  latter  grasses.  If 
any  one  will  consult  the  charts  in  the  Tenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  it  will 
be  found  that  rather  more  than  half  the  annual  rainfall  of  the  South  is  in  spring 
and  summer,  and  one  will  see  that  the  greater  spring  and  summer  rainfall  is  in 
the  Southern  States.  These  are  facts  of  the  utmost  consequence  in  agriculture, 
and  should  duly  impress  the  fanner.  Prof.  Henry  Gannett,  E.  M.,  in  the  volume 
entitled  *'  Population"  of  the  last  census,  on  page  63,  thus  says : 

"The  prosperity  of  a  country  depends  largely  upon  its  rainfall,  as,  to  a  very 
great  extent,  the  primary  industry — that  upon  which  all  others  depend  directly — " 
viz :  agriculture,  may  be  said  to  flourish  in  a  degree  directly  proportioned  to  the 
amount  of  moisture.  Of  rainfall  this  country  receives  in  its  different  parts  a  very 
different  supply.  Throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  the  rainfall  is 
ample  for  all  purposes  of  agriculture;  while  in  the  western  half,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  narrow  strip  along  the  Pacific  coast,  the  supply  is  very  deficient.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Cordilleran  Region,  our  rainfall  is  nearly  all  derived  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Of  the  two,  the  principal  source  is  the 
gulf.  The  warm,  moist  currents  which  accompany  the  Gulf  Stream  from  the 
Caribbean  Sea  are  not  deflected  toward  the  eastward  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  as 
the  great  oceanic  river  is,  but  pass  northward  and  eastward  over  the  land  in  a 
broad  belt  extending  from  the  coast  of  Texas  to  the  peninsula  of  Florida. 
Judging  from  its  effects  in  the  form  of  rainfall,  the  central  portion  of  this  current 
passes  over  Eastern  Louisiana  and  Mississippi  aud  Western  Alabama.  The 
natural  result  of  leaving  the  warm  ocean  surface  and  entering  the  continent  is  to 
cool  these  air  currents  and  make  them  deposit  their  vapor.  The  heaviest  deposit 
is  along  the  northern  shore  of  the  gulf,  in  the  States  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi 
and  Alabama,  and  the  western  part  of  Florida,  where  the  rainfall  reaches  sixty 
inches  per  annum.  Were  there  no  mountains  or  other  irregular  topographical 
features  to  modify  the  rainfall,  this  wave  would  move  inland  in  a  northeasterly 
direction,  the  precipitation  decreasing  eastward,  northward  and  westward,  the 
lines  of  equal  rainfall  taking  the  form  of  great  concentric  ellipses.  This  form  we 
see  rongnly  outlined  in  the  western  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  rainfall 
decreasing  regulany  to  the  northward  and  westward.  To  the  northeastward, 


INTRODUCTION.  53 

however,  these  moisture-laden  currents  encounter  the  southern  end  of  the  Apala- 
chian  chain,  and  are  driven  at  once  up  to  high  altitudes,  where  they  are  forced  to 
disgorge  their  vapor,  giving  to  this  end  of  the  mountain  system  a  heavy  rainfall; 
while  farther  along  the  chain,  toward  the  northeast,  the  rainfall  diminishes, 
becoming  even  less  than  that  of  the  lower  country  on  the  east  and  west.  The 
portion  of  the  moisture-laden  current  which  passes  to  the  eastward  of  the  Apala- 
chian  chain  meets  and  mingles  with  nioist  air  currents  coming  directly  from  the 
Atlantic,  and  produces,  in  the  central  parts  of  North  and  South  Carolina,  an  area 
of  abnormally  heavy  rainfall.  A  second  source  of  moisture  is  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Here  the  moist  air  currents  from  the  Gulf  Stream  produce  a  line  of  heavy  rainfall 
along  the  Atlantic  coast,  reaching  from  Florida  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  Bay 
of  New  York.  This  strip  is  quite  narrow,  being  confined  to  the  coast  and  its 
immediate  neighborhood.  Back  of  that,  and  over  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Atlantic  plain,  the  precipitation  is  notably  less." 

He  then  says  further  on,  as  to  whether  the  "Cordilleran  Region"  can  be 
redeemed  by  "  a  judicious  system  of  cultivation  and  tree  planting :"  "  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  that  effect  can  be  produced  by  this  or  by  any  other  means  within  the 
power  of  man."  MARLg 

An  advantage  of  incalculable  proportions  is  the  vast  and  inexhaustible  wealth 
of  the  marls  of  the  South.  They  are  of  great  variety  in  their  components,  but 
most  of  them,  with  proper  knowledge  of  their  qualities,  can  be  made  great  aids 
to  agriculture.  In  the  future  days  of  stock  raising  and  grass  growing  in  the 
South,  these  marls  will  play  a  most  important  part.  They  are  known  to  be  in  all 
the  Atlantic  States  of  the  South.  They  are  very  abundant  in  parts  of  Mississippi 
and  Alabama,  and,  indeed,  it  is  probable  that  no  Southern  State  is  without  them. 
To  compute  their  value  would  be  idle.  Were  I  to  quote  the  language  of  scientists 
in  praise  of  them,  it  would  sound  very  extravagant  to  many.  There  are  few  richer 
marls  certainly  than  those  of  South  Carolina,  and  other  States  may  yet  prove  to 
have  equally  as  rich.  The  reader  will  find  something  more  at  large  in  the  articles 
on  South  Carolina  and  Mississippi.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  South  far  surpasses 
the  rest  of  the  country  in  this  most  valuable  wealth. 

Another  advantage  the  South  offers  is  the  opportunity  for  the  loan  of  money 
on  her  lands  and  otherwise — cotton  mills,  etc. — at  a  high  rate  of  interest  and  on 
long  time.  No  greater  good  could  be  conferred  on  the  South;  no  safer  investment 
can  be  found.  Lands  at  from  one-fifth  to  one-tenth  their  value  under  slavery, 
when  there  were  few  railroads,  no  immigration ;  when  there  was  nothing  but  an 
agricultural  spirit  marking  the  South,  are  burdened  with  mortgages  paying  eight 
to  ten  per  cent,  interest.  These  lands  are  now  far  more  valuable  than  before  the 
war.  Slavery  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  Immigration  is  coming  in.  The  manufac- 
turing era  is  inaugurated.  Railroads  are  built.  The  capitaLand  enterprise  of  the 
world  yearns  for  the  South.  Here  is  a  chance  to  loan  hundreds  of  millions  of 
capital  on  the  best  security  of  the  age. 

Banking  facilities  in  the  South  are  limited,  and  here  is  offered  a  fine  opportu- 
nity for  investment.  National  banks  in  the  manufacturing  towns  pay,  in  some 
instances,  enormous  dividends.  There  are  many  growing  towns  where  banks  are 
badly  needed. 

The  purchase  of  the  stock  of  cotton  manufactories  opens  another  fine  field  ( 
for  the  investment  of  capital,  as  does  the  purchase  of  forests,  pine  lands,  the 
construction  of  manufactories  of  one  kind  and  another. 

One  feels  tempted  to  aggregate  the  value  of  the  development  in  railroads, 
mines,  manufactories,  cereal  production,  etc.,  but  I  pass  it. 

It  would  seem  necessarily  inferable  from  what  has  been  said  in  this  intro- 
duction, that  the  South  will  soon  raise  her  own  breadstuff's;  that  with  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  pork,  hay,  sheep,  beef,  lard,  butter,  cotton  seed,  etc.,  we  shall  soon 
utterly  dispense  with  these  from  the  North  and  West.  It  seems  very  probable 


54  INTRODUCTION. 

that  we  shall,  before  long,  be  competing  with  the  North  and  West  in  their  own 
markets,  by  sending  them  our  cheaply  raised  beef,  early  lambs,  wool,  our  grass- 
flavored  winter  butter,  our  cheese,  as  we  now  send  them  our  early  fruits  and 
vegetables.  It  is  also  likely  that  our  own  canned  fruits,  vegetables,  fish,  oysters, 
shrimp,  etc.,  will  soon  furnish  a  Southern  supply,  and  that  we  shall  send  consider- 
able of  these  (as  is  now  done  on  an  extensive  scale  in  one  Southern  State — 
Maryland)  for  consumption  outside  the  South.  I  believe  that,  before  ten  years, 
most  of  the  cotton  mills  of  the  country  will  be  in  the  South,  and  I  dare  to  hope 
that  the  South  will  ere  long  manufacture  the  bulk  of  the  cotton  goods  for  the 
world's  consumption.  We  shall  soon  raise  silk  largely  and  manufacture  it  at 
home.  I  expect  to  see  the  South  the  seat  of  woolen  mills,  manufacturing  the 
finest  goods  from  wool  sheared  from  the  delicate  breeds  of  sheep  raised  South — 
irom  sheep  too  delicate  to  be  raised  North  and  West.  We  shall  raise  all  our 
own  horses  and  mules.  In  twenty-five  years  we  shall  see  scores  of  cities  (of 
which  Birmingham  and  Anniston,  Ala.,  Roanoke,  Va.,  and  one  or  two  more,  are 
the  present  hints  and  signs,)  South,  where  all  our  iron  and  steel  used  in  every 
shape  will  be  made,  and  many  goods  from  these  sent  elsewhere ;  where  locomotive 
works,  manufactories  of  railroad  cars,  cutlery  works,  agricultural  implements, 
cotton-manufacturing  machinery,  wagons,  carriages,  furniture,  woodenware,  build- 
ings for  export  and  much  more  will  be  found.  I  hope  to  see  the  South  the  great 
seat  of  iron  steamship  building  of  the  United  States.  We  shall  see  paper  mills 
on  Southern  streams  manufacturing  paper  for  all  the  South,  and  selling  in  con- 
siderable quantities  outside.  Our  boots,  shoes,  harness  and  all  articles  of  leather 
consumed  South  will  be  made  here.  We  shall  ere  long  manufacture  all  our  own 
flour  and  meal  from  our  own  home-raised  cereals,  and  be  sending  Southern-made 
flour  to  the  country  south  of  us  in  great  quantity ;  and  we  shall  make  the  barrels 
in  which  to  pack  it  here  out  of  our  own  lumber. 

The  South  has  yet  to  experience  through  all  her  arteries  the  invigorating 
influence  of  cheaper  money.  It  would  be  risking  little  to  say  that  ten  per  cent,  is 
a  low  estimate  of  what  the  money  invested  in  manufactories  has  cost  for  hire. 
When  it  is  seeking  the  South,  as  some  day  it  will,  at  half  that  rate,  an  ameliora- 
tion of  present  conditions,  an  impetus  to  new  and  many,  and  an  enlargement  of 
old  industries,  will  follow,  of  which  one  can  have  but  a  small  conception. 

The  South  unites  some  wonderful  factors — her  rivers,  ocean  and  gulf  for 
transportation,  an.l  their  cheap  food  supply;  the  water-powers  of  her  streams, 
which  are  perennial  and  never  frozen;  her  mild  climate  and  ever  bounteous  land; 
cheapness  and  inexhaustibleuess  of  fuel ;  the  cheapness  and  fertility  of  her  lands ; 
low  prices  of  building  materials;  cheap  raw  materials;  wonderful  wealth  in 
forests  and  mines;  proximity  to  markets;  her  railroads,  etc. 

Many  will  call  most  that  has  been  written  "rosy,"  "visionary,"  "exaggerated." 
That  is  to  be  expected.  I  ask  that  the  sincere  doubters — those  who  are  not  pre- 
determined and  ready-made — to  read  the  following.  It  is  from  no  romancing 
vagarist  or  prejudiced  sectionalism  Rhetoric  and  exaggeration  are  aloof  from  his 
style  and  habit.  He  is  used  to  dry  facts,  to  cautious  statements ;  he  enumerates 
rather  than  describes.  It  is  from  "  Farm  and  Factory :  Aids  to  Agriculture  from 
Other  Industries,"  by  J.  R.  Dodge,  M.  A.,  statistician  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture of  the  United  States.  As  has  just  been  said,  these  are  not  the  vagaries  of 
an  enthusiast.  They  are  from  one  used  to  a  sober  and  staid  style  of  writing; 
whose  habits  of  investigation  are  most  careful ;  who  finds,  and  does  not  invent  : 

"  The  territory  lying  between  the  Potomac  and  the  Rio  Grande,  including 
eleven  States,  is  eighteen  times  as  large  as  the  State  of  Ohio,  and  fully  three  and 
a-half  times  the  size  of  France  or  Germany.  Its  surface  is  diversified  by  moun- 
tains, with  extreme  elevation  above  six  thousand  feet.  Its  soil  is  of  great  variety 
— from  light  sands  to  heavy  clays — and  unfathomed  alluvial  deposits.  The  rainfall 


INTRODUCTION.  55 

is  abundant  and  seasonable — from  forty  to  sixty  inches  per  annum;  springs  of 
pure  water  are  so  numerous  as  to  supply  largely  the  place  of  wells  in  farm  econ- 
omy, and  rivers  furnish  a  perennial  supply  of  power  for  possible  manufactures. 

"  It  is  a  healthful  and  beautiful  land,  redolent  of  flowers  and  surfeited  with 
wild  fruits,  while  cultivated  fruits  of  the  temperate  and  sub  tropical  zones  grow 
profusely  with  little  care  or  cultivation.  The  dweller  in  a  forest  cabin  can  subsist 
in  luxury  on  fish  and  flesh  and  fruits,  with  venison,  turkey  or  duck  upon  his  table 
daily,  with  no  labor  beyond  that  of  the  angler  or  huntsman.  The  climate  is  so 
mild  that  his  house  could  be  constructed  with  a  few  days'  labor  in  the  primitive 
forest,  and  the  fuel  for  his  cuisine  and  comfort  could  be  gathered  within  a  furlong 
of  his  door. 

"  Though  the  rainfall  is  distributed  through  the  summer,  it  comes  in  showers, 
and  not  in  long  seasons  of  drizzling  mists,  leaving  the  landscape  bathed  in  sun- 
shine through  nearly  all  the  hours^of  daylight.  While  the  temperature  is  high, 
the  heats  are  abated  by  breezes  from  the  gulf  and  ocean,  and  the  lowest  latitudes 
have  cool  and  comfortable  nights,  favoring  sleep  and  recuperation.  Evaporation 
of  heavy  rainfall  cools  the  earth,  and  abundant  shade  subdues  the  noonday  heat, 
for  it  is  a  country  wooded  as  well  as  watered,  the  farm  lands  having  an  average 
of  fifty-four  per  cent,  of  their  area  in  forest. 

"  It  is  a  country  favorable  to  health  and  conducive  to  high  physical  comfort. 
Life  is  rich  and  full  and  joyous  in  this  sunny  land.  In  the  summer  days,  a  vaca- 
tion in  the  mountains,  to  the  dwellers  of  the  cotton  belt,  is  a  physical  luxury ;  and 
the  variety  and  purity  of  the  thermal  and  mineral  waters  of  the  slopes  and 
plateaus  of  the  Alleghanies  are  among  the  wonders  of  nature. 

"  The  coal,  iron,  and  a  long  list  of  minor  minerals,  are  found  in  great  abun- 
dance, and  are  mined  at  little  cost.  The  long  range  of  mountains,  on  the  eastern 
and  southern  slopes  of  which  these  States  lie,  stretch  fringe-like  ridges  through 
the  lower  areas,  piercing  the  cotton  region  with  fuel-bearing  lines.  In  the  centre 
of  Alabama  are  hills  solid  from  surface  downward  writh  ore  so  rich  that  two 
selected  tons  will  make  one  of  pig  iron;  so  accessible  that  it  has  been  mined  with 
a  crowbar,  and  so  cheap  that  fifty  cents  would  place  a  ton  of  it  upon  the  cars. 
And  there  is  abundant  coal  near  by,  and  limestone  for  fluxing  purposes.  This 
land  has  been  sold  for  taxes  in  the  days  of  the  cotton  craze,  because  not  suited  to 
the  best  results  in  fibre  growing. 

"The  live  oak,  the  Southern  pine,  the  cypress,  the  black  walnut,  the  wild 
cherry,  the  '  white-wood '  poplar,  and  a  great  variety  of  cabinet  woods,  and  those 
used  in  the  industrial  arts  and  in  building,  await  the  demands  of  commercial  and 
manufacturing  enterprise.  There  may  still  be  seen  black  walnut  fences  rotting 
by  the  roadside;  still  the  most  valuable  woods  are  'girdled'  to  make  a  clearing 
for  the  field  of  the  settler,  and  a  pioneer  holocaust  consumes  remorselessly  the 
wealth  of  the  forest  which  is  the  accumulation  of  a  hundred  years. 

"  These  bare  hints  of  the  wealth  of  nature  in  the  South,  which  might  be 
extended  to  a  volume  of  detail  without  exhausting  the  subject,  show  that  this 
fertile  domain  was  not  intended  for  a  sparse  population  or  a  single  product  or 
mere  agriculture,  but  for  all  arts,  all  culture,  and  a  dense  population  of  industrious 
and  thrifty  people.  This  prodigality  of  resources  was  not  intended  merely  to 
garnish  a  desert  with  beauty.  The  hidden  ores  and  darkling  coals  were  not 
merely  for  unconscious  trampling  of  hunters,  red  or  white,  but  for  the  use  and 
comfort  of  man.  The  people  of  this  favored  territory  are  beginning  to  realize 
and  to  appropriate  these  values,  which  are  a  cipher  without  labor,  but  millions 
with  it. 

"  The  population  is  sparse — 12,990,246  people  occupying  732,471  square  miles, 
showing  a  density  of  17.7  to  the  square  mile.  There  is  still  elbow  room.  For 
every  man  here  there  are  six  in  Germany  and  five  in  France.  In  Belgium  there 
are  twenty-seven  for  every  man  in  the  South. 

"  The  farm  area  of  this  great  district  is  forty-two  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  and 
only  one-seventh  is  'improved'  or  productive  land,  and  a  part  of  this  is  yearly  in 
fallow.  Counting  only  that  which  bears  the  crops  of  the  year,  exclusive  of  some 
wild  lands  depastured,  there  is  only  one  acre  in  ten  that  renders  actual  service  in 
agriculture. 

"  In  comparison  with  districts  more  populous  and  less  exclusively  agricultural, 
the  proportion  of  land  in  farms  aacl  of  '  improved '  land  was  in  1879 : 

ACRES  IN  FARMS.    PER  CENT.    ACRES  IMPROVED.   PER  CENT. 

Cotton  States 197,002,545  42  67,350,802  14.4 

Ohio  Valley  States 98,119,094  88.8  68,861,666  62.3 

Middle  States 47,592,113  72.9  33,984,124  52 

New  England 21,483,772  54.1  13,148,466  33.1 


56  INTRODUCTION. 

"The  northern  portion  of  New  England  is  mountainous  and  very  rough,  and 
much  of  the  surface  quite  unavailable  for  agriculture,  and  there  is  a  portion  of 
the  Middle  States  that  is  very  rugged  and  yet  in  wilderness.  The  Ohio  basin  has 
therefore  a  relatively  larger  improved  area  than  any  other  district. 

"When  the  sixty-seven  million  acres,  as  above,  represented  the  improved  land 
of  the  cotton  States,  the  area  actually  tilled  was  about  forty-four  million  acres. 
There  has  been  rapid  enlargement  of  cultivation  in  four  years,  and  the  crops  in 
tillage  now  occupy  fifty-three  million  acres.  About  three  millions  of  this  increase 
is  in  cotton,  and  more  than  four  millions  in  corn.  There  are  now  growing  in 
these  eleven  States  about  seventeen  and  a-half  million  acres  in  cotton  and  nearly 
twenty-four  millions  in  corn.  Thus  almost  four-fifths  of  the  tillage  is  in  these  two 
crops.  It  is  too  large  a  proportion,  and  the  earnest  and  persistent  endeavor  of 
Southern  farmers  should  be  to  enlarge  this  miscellaneous  fifth  to  a  full  third  at  a 
very  early  day. 

"  Three-fourths  of  this  remainder  is  in  wheat  and  oats,  which  should  have  a 
greater  breadth,  and  a  large  extension  of  sugar-cane  is  imperatively  required,  as 
well  as  of  orchard  fruits,  market  gardening,  various  fibres,  forage  for  stock  feeding, 
plants  for  oil  production,  and  a  multitude  of  exotic  plants  which  might  be  intro- 
duced for  use  as  aliment,  in  medicine  and  in  the  arts.  There  is  no  part  of  the 
United  States,  except  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  such  variety  is  possible  in  agri- 
culture as  in  the  States  of  the  South. 

"  The  census  statement  of  value  of  farm  productions  makes  an  aggregate 
value  for  1879  of  $547,567,526.  This  does  not  include  meats  of  any  kind,  or  the 
milk  used  in  the  families  of  farmers,  or  the  fruits  consumed  at  home,  which  may 
be  estimated  at  about  $222,000,000,  making  an  aggregate  of  $770,000,000  in  round 
numbers,  which  is  equivalent  to  $59  per  capita,  while  the  average  to  all  engaged 
in  agriculture  (farmers  and  farm  laborers)  is  $241. 

"  This  is  scarcely  $300  for  each  family,  and  should  be  largely  increased  by 
greater  variety  of  production,  more  effective  labor-saving  implements  and  advan- 
cing progress  in  scientific  agriculture.  But  this  can  never  be  fully  attained 
without  progression  passu,  in  the  industrial  arts,  which  demand  varied  culture 
of  hrad  and  hand,  and  the  latest  results  of  scientific  research  and  inventive  genius 
in  application  to  labor  in  every  industry. 

"Nor  will  $300  per  annum  suffice  to  supply  all  the  wants  of  a  family,  and 
allow  a  little  surplus  for  acquisition  of  a  competence;  scarcely  a  remainder  for  a 
'rainy  day'  or  the  disabilities  of  age.  To  the  values  of  products  of  agriculture 
must  be  added  those  of  mining  and  manufactures  in  all  the  rich  variety  suggested 
by  the  natural  resources  of  this  region.  t 

"The  events  of  the  past  year  give  assurance  of  growth  in  manufactures  as 
rapid  as  can  be  desired.  The  extension  of  the  cotton  manufacture  is  a  prominent 
example  of  the  advance  in  other  directions.  New  cotton  mills  in  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Tennessee  have  been  erected  the 
present  year,*  costing  from  fifty  thousand  to  four  hundred  thousand  dollars  each, 
and  requiring  many  millions  of  dollars  of  capital.  Between  January  and  May, 
Southern  investments  in  new  manufacturing  and  mining  enterprises,  as  reported 
by  a  Baltimore  paper,  amount  to  over  fifty-five  million  dollars,  of  which  eleven 
are  placed  in  Kentucky,  nearly  the  same  in  Alabama,  nine  in  Virginia,  six  in 
Texas,  with  smaller  investments  in  Georgia,  North  Carolina  and  other  States. 
They  include  iron  companies,  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  flour  mills,  saw  mills, 
machine  shops,  wood-working,  cotton-seed  mills,  and  other  operations. 

"  It  is  now  estimated  that  the  number  of  spindles  now  in  operation  in  the 
South  is  950,000,  and  the  capacity  for  consumption  420,000  bales  per  annum. 
There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among  mill  proprietors  as  to  the  precise 
measure  of  advantage  over  manufacture  in  the  North,  but  an  average  view  is  five 
dollars  per  bale,  or  one  cent  per  pound.  This  is  equal  to  a  tenth  of  the  farm  value 
of  the  cotton.  The  saving  of  freights,  commissions  and  other  expenses  is  an 
undoubted  advantage,  and  there  is  abundant  and  cheap  labor  and  power ;  but  the 
great  benefaction  of  manufacturing  near  the  cotton  fields  is  not  comparative  as  a 
matter  of  profit  to  proprietors,  but  is  an  absolute  and  priceless  boon  to  the 
laborers,  the  neighboring  farmers  and  the  whole  community  adjacent  to  the  place 
of  manufacture. 

"  The  manufacture  of  oil  from  cotton  seed,  now  so  active  and  progressive,  is 
the  utilization  of  a  product  formerly  useless  except  as  a  fertilizer.  A  crop  of  six 
million  bales  produces  three  million  tons  of  seed,  or  twice  the  weight  of  the  lint 

*  1884. 


INTR  OD  UCTIOX .  57 

saved,  capable  of  yielding  products  worth  more  than  a  third  of  the  value  of  the 
fibre  itself.  Less  than  a  fourth  of  it  is  yet  utilized,  though  the  proportion  is 
rapidly  increasing.  Here  is  a  product  that  has  been  practically  thrown  away 
which  is  worth  more  in  its  manufactured  state  than  all  the  barley,  rye  and  buck- 
wheat grown  in  the  United  States.  Yet  this  waste  of  an  actual  product  is  only  a 
mild  suggestion  of  the  immense  wealth  that  has  failed  to  materialize  by  neglect  of 
the  rich  natural  resources  of  this  region. 

"  It  is  useless  to  deplore  the  past.  It  is  the  present  that  calls  for  action,  and 
the  future  that  promises  its  rewards.  The  land  is  there,  much  of  it  in  original 
fertility ;  there  is  more  labor  than  at  any  former  day ;  and  the  visible  evidences  of 
wealth,  the  improvement  and  construction  which  represent  accumulated  labor, 
are  more  numerous  and  valuable,  by  far,  than  at  any  previous  date.  It  is  believed 
that  an  era  of  industrial  progress  and  great  prosperity  is  now  opening." 

To  the  writer,  no  aspect  of  Southern  progress  is  so  marked  and  cheering  as 
the  hopeful,  erect,  self-assertive  industrial  spirit  of  the  South.  No  longer  is  she 
supine,  inert,  self-mistrustful,  with  head  bowed  down.  Hope  elevates  and  joy 
brightens  her  face,  and  on  her  brow  sits  courage  plumed.  Time  was  when  the 
South  had  almost  no  courage  to  undertake  manufacturing.  The  few  cotton  mills 
could  not  sell  their  goods  to  the  Southern  trade  direct,  but  had  to  send  them  to 
Northern  salesmen,  who  sold  them  to  the  merchants  within  the  shadow  of  the 
mill  where  they  were  made.  The  South  thought  her  manufactures  were  next  to 
worthless.  She  must  need  have  New  England  goods.  But  this  has  passed  away 
now.  She  believes  in  her  capacity  to  do.  It  is  not  the  rash  and  presumptuous 
confidence  of  unreflecting  imbecility  or  inexperienced  immaturity;  it  is  a  courage 
based  on  results.  The  South,  in  some  regards,  has  confidence,  experience  and  the 
advantages  of  situation.  Her  aggressive  and  experimental  spirit  will  carry  her 
into  new  fields  of  endeavor,  where  there  are  many  opportunities  for  conquest. 


MARYLAND. 


Maryland  has  for  its  northern  boundary  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  while  on 
the  east  are  Delaware  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  south  and  west  Virginia 
and  West  Virginia.  It  is  separated  from  Virginia  by  the  Potomac  River.  The 
Chesapeake  Bay,  a  magnificent  body  of  water  about  200  miles  in  length,  divides 
the  State  into  two  parts,  known  as  the  Eastern  and  Western  Shores.  The  State 
lies  between  38°  and  39°  43'  north  latitude,  and  longitude  75°  3'  and  79°  32'  west. 
As  shown  by  the  census  of  1880,  the  land  surface  of  the  State  included  an  area  of 
9,860  square  miles.  The  population  was  934,943—724,693  whites  and  210,230 
colored ;  native  852,137  and  foreign  82,806.  The  assessed  value  of  real  estate  was 
$368,442,913,  and  of  personal  property  $128,864,762.  There  were  40,517  farms 
and  3,342,700  acres  of  improved  land.  The  value  of  farms,  including  fences  and 
buildings,  was  $165,503,341 ;  the  value  of  farm  implements  was  $5,788,197,  of  live 
stock  $15,865,728,  and  the  value  of  all  farm  products  consumed  on  the  farm  or 
sold  was  $28,839,281. 

SOIL   AND  TOPOGRAPHY. 

Maryland  presents  a  great  diversity  of  surface  and  soil.  The  tidewater 
section  of  the  State  is  mostly  level,  ranging  in  elevation  from  sea  level  to  100 
feet,  the  surface  gradually  rising  towards  the  north  and  west.  Western  Maryland 
is  high  and,  uudulating,  becoming  more  rolling  and  hilly  as  you  approach  the 
Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  which  cross  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  State.  The 
extreme  western  counties,  Garrett  and  Alleghany,  which  are  crossed  by  chains  of 
the  Alleghany  Mountains,  are  wild  and  rugged,  presenting  the  general  character- 
istics of  mountainous  countries  everywhere.  Much  of  their  area  is  covered  with 
original  forests  and  underlaid  with  coal  and  iron  ore.  In  this  section  there  are 
wide  valleys  possessing  the  most  fertile  soil  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation.  In 
fact,  Western  Maryland,  notably  Washington  and  Frederick  Counties,  can  boast 
of  some  of  the  most  highly  improved  and  productive  farms  in  the  country.  The 
Middletown  Valley  and  that  of  the  Monocacy,  in  Frederick  County,  are  noted  for 
their  wealth  and  their  magnificent  farms,  which  are  cultivated  on  the  most 
approved  principles  of  agriculture.  The  soil  of  this  portion  of  the  State  is 
mostly  a  rich  loam  underlaid  with  limestone.  There  are  also  granitic  and  slaty 
soils.  The  rolling  character  of  the  land  and  the  numberless  intersecting  streams 
afford  good  drainage.  The  central  part  of  the  State,  including  Carroll,  Howard 
and  Montgomery  Counties,  and  most  of  Baltimore  and  Harford,  is  for  the  most 
part  slightly  rolling,  and  in  some  sections  hilly.  The  soil  is  variable,  but  on  the 
whole  is  very  productive  and  capable  of  high  improvement.  There  is  some  lime- 
stone land  of  very  great  fertility.  As  a  rule,  the  farms  are  in  a  fine  state  of 
cultivation,  and  more  attention  is  given  to  improved  methods  of  culture  than  in 
the  States  farther  south. 

The  lower  counties  of  the  State — Anne  Arundel,  Prince  George,  Charles,  St. 
Mary's  and  Calvert — form  a  peninsula  lying  between  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the 
Potomac  River.  They  present  a  variety  of  surface — level,  gently  undulating  and 


MARYLAND.  59 

hilly.  The  soils  are  for  the  most  part  a  clay  and  sand  loam.  In  some  parts  there 
are  dark,  stiff  soils,  very  productive.  The  lands  of  this  section  were  originally 
very  rich,  but  have  been  depleted  by  excessive  cultivation,  without  proper  atten- 
tion to  their  needs.  Though,  to  some  extent,  impoverished,  they  are  readily 
susceptible  of  resuscitation,  and  under  proper  care  and  management,  with  the 
judicious  use  of  nourishing  manures,  they  may  be  restored  to  their  former 
condition. 

The  Eastern  Shore  of  Maryland  is  that  portion  of  the  State  east  of  the 
Chesapeake  Bay,  and  includes  the  counties  of  Cecil,  Kent,  Queen  Anne's,  Caro- 
line, Talbot,  Dorchester,  Somerset,  Wicomico  and  Worcester,  covering  an  area  of 
about  2,700  square  miles.  In  the  north  it  is  somewhat  broken  and  hilly,  but 
through  the  central  and  southern  portions  it  is  almost  entirely  level.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  many  navigable  salt-water  rivers  and  creeks.  The  soil  varies  from  light 
sandy  to  rich  black  meadow  lands,  the  sandy  having  mostly  a  clay  subsoil.  The 
land  is  entirely  free  from  stones,  and  is  remarkably  easy  of  cultivation  and  suscep- 
tible of  high  improvement. 

CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  Maryland  varies  with  the  topography.  On  the  Eastern  Shore, 
placed  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  the  heat  of  summer 
is  very  greatly  modified  by  the  sea  breezes,  while  in  the  western  and  northern 
sections  the  same  result  is  produced  by  the  elevation.  In  the  western  part  of  the 
State  the  winters  are  somewhat  severe,  but  in  the  lower  counties  are  milder  and 
the  cold  weather  less  protracted.  The  usual  range  of  the  thermometer  in  summer 
is  from  80  to  90,  though  it  sometimes  goes  several  degrees  higher  for  a  few  days. 
In  winter  the  mercury  rarely  gets  lower  than  10°  above  zero.  According  to  the 
temperature  maps  of  the  census  report,  the  mean  temperature  for  July  is  75°  to 
80°,  except  in  the  extreme  northwestern  section,  where  it  is  70°  to  75°;  the  mean 
temperature  for  January  is  35°  to  40°  in  the  lower  counties  of  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Shores,  30°  to  35°  in  the  central  part  of  the  State,  and  25°  to  30°  in  the 
west.  The  average  annual  rainfall  ranges  from  38  inches  in  the  western  counties 
to  45  inches  in  the  tidewater  section. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

This  State  produces  as  great  a  variety  of  cereals,  vegetables  and  fruits  almost 
as  any  State  in  the  Union.  Agriculture  has  reached  a  very  high  state  in  Mary- 
land, and  this  important  interest  has  nourished  and  prospered  even  during  the 
long  depression  which  has  been  so  seriously  felt  by  the  wheat  producers  of  the 
West.  In  this  State  a  wise  agricultural  system  prevails  in  the  wide  diversification 
of  crops.  Wheat,  corn,  oats,  rye,  buckwheat,  hay  and  all  the  usual  products  of 
the  farm  are  cultivated.  Of  the  cereals,  wheat  probably  receives  more  attention 
than  any  other.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Western  Maryland,  the  rich  valleys 
producing  heavy  yields.  It  is  also  a  very  prominent  crop  in  some  parts  of  the 
Eastern  Shore.  Maryland  produced  in  1884  8,260,000  bushels  of  wheat,  1,980,000 
bushels  of  oats  and  15,237,000  bushels  of  corn. 

Tobacco  is  a  leading  crop  in  the  lower  counties  and  in  parts  of  Western 
Maryland.  The  census  report  on  the  culture  of  tobacco  says: 

"A  marked  characteristic  of  Maryland  tobacco  is  its  mildness.  There  are 
some  fine  Bay,  Burley  and  cigar-leaf  tobaccos  raised  in  Maryland.  The  soils  are 
capable  of  producing  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  finer  types  than  has  gener- 
ally been  grown,  requiring,  of  course,  a  change  of  varieties  and  appropriate 
management.  Nearly  all  the  tobacco  grown  in  Maryland  is  produced  in  the 
counties  of  Anne  Arundel,  Calvert,  Carroll,  Charles,  Frederick,  Howard,  Mont- 
gomery, Prince  George's  and  St.  Mary's." 


60  MARYLAND. 

Truck  farming  is  an  interest  of  very  great  proportions,  and  certain  sections 
of  the  State  are  among  the  most  noted  areas  in  the  country  for  the  production  of 
vegetables  and  fruits.  The  business  of  market  gardening  is  carried  on  around 
Washington  and  Baltimore  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  other  large  cities,  and  on 
an  extensive  scale  in  Anne  Arundel  County  and  lower  Eastern  Shore.  The  soil 
of  the  lower  counties  of  the  Eastern  Shore  is  peculiarly  suited  to  trucking ;  light, 
easily  wrorked,  responding  readily  to  fertilizers,  the  yields  of  cabbages,  potatoes, 
peas,  tomatoes,  beans,  asparagus,  melons,  berries,  etc.,  are  very  large.  From 
Worcester  and  Wicomico  Counties  thousands  of  crates  of  strawberries  are 
annually  shipped  by  railroad  and  by  steam  and  sail-boats.  The  demand  for 
fruits  and  vegetables  raised  in  Maryland  is  not  limited  to  the  supply  needed  for 
immediate  consumption.  Enormous  quantities  are  also  required  by  the  large 
number  of  canning  factories  in  Baltimore  and  throughout  the  State. 

Maryland  produces  a  wide  range  of  fruits  in  great  abundance.  The  raising 
of  peaches  is  one  of  the  most  important  industries  in  the  State.  The  soil  and 
climate  of  the  Eastern  Shore  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  fruit,  and  it  has 
become  a  source  of  enormous  revenue  to  that  section,  one  of  the  most  noted 
peach  districts  in  the  world.  The  famous  peach  orchards  of  Maryland  occupy 
there  as  important  a  position  relatively  as  orange  groves  in  Florida.  The  profits 
of  the  business  are  very  large,  and  fortunes  have  been  made  in  it.  During  the 
season  thousands  of  car  loads  and  vessel  and  steamer  loads  are  shipped  to  Balti- 
more, Philadelphia,  New  York  and  other  markets.  Large  quantities  are  also 
absorbed  by  the  local  canneries. 

DAIRYING  AND  STOCK  RAISING. 

The  dairying  interest  is  one  of  great  extent,  and  along  the  lines  of  railroads 
leading  into  Baltimore  and  Washington,  almost  every  farmer  makes  this  a  part  of 
his  business.  The  fine  grazing  lands  of  Western  Maryland  support  some  splendid 
herds  of  cattle,  and  much  attention  is  given  to  stock  raising,  both  for  market  and 
for  dairying  purposes.  Some  of  the  leading  farmers  in  the  State  give  much 
attention  to  raising  the  finest  breeds  of  live  stock,  an  industry  conducted  on  a 
large  scale  also  by  a  large  number  of  wealthy  Baltimoreans,  whose  stock  farms 
are  among  the  most  noted  in  the  country.  There  is  probably  no  State  in  the 
Union  which  can  show  finer  herds  of  the  highest  grades  of  cattle  than  Maryland. 

MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

Maryland  is  rich  in  mineral  resources,  the  largest  source  of  wealth  in  this 
line  being  the  inexhaustible  veins  of  bituminous  and  semi-bituminous  coal  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  State.  Coal  mining  was  commenced  in  Alleghany 
County  in  1843,  and  has  been  vigorously  prosecuted  ever  since.  There  are  now 
over  20  companies  engaged  in  mining  in  that  county,  the  coal  reaching  the  sea- 
board by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal, 
the  latter  connecting  Cumberland,  Md.,  and  Georgetown  and  Washington,  D.  C. 
Nearly  2,500,000  tons  have  been  shipped  from  that  county  in  one  year. 

Iron  ore  of  a  superior  quality  abounds  in  a  large  part  of  the  State 

Marble  of  the  finest  quality  for  building  purposes  is  very  abundant  in  some 
sections.  Maryland  marble,  quarried  at  Cockeysville,  in  Baltimore  County,  was 
used  in  the  erection  of  about  four-fifths  of  the  Washington  Monument  lately 
completed  at  Washington,  D.  C.  The  same  marble  is  used  largely  in  public 
buildings  in  Baltimore  and  Washington. 

Granite  is  found  in  unlimited  quantities. 

The  limestone  beds  in  the  central  part  of  the  State  yield  large  supplies  of 
limestone  for  building  and  agricultural  purposes. 


MARYLAND.  61 

Copper,  gold,  marl  and  other  minerals  are  found  to  some  extent  in  certain 

sections. 

MANUFACTURING. 

The  manufacturing  interests  of  Maryland  are  varied  in  character  and  of  wide 
extent.  There  is  probably  no  State  in  the  Union  having  better  advantages  for 
many  lines  of  manufacturing  than  Maryland,  and  in  Baltimore  are  concentrated 
advantages  which,  if  properly  appreciated,  would  make  that  city  one  of  the  most 
important  seats  of  industrial  activity  in  the  country  It  has  cheap  land,  cheap 
living,  cheap  water,  cheap  raw  material,  low  taxes  and  unsurpassed  transportation 
facilities  by  land  and  water.  The  report  of  the  census  for  1880  places  the  amount 
of  capital  invested  in  manufactures  in  Maryland  at  $58,742,384,  the  number  of 
establishments  being  6,787.  The  amount  of  wages  paid  was  $18,904,965;  the 
materials  used  were  valued  at  $66,937,846,  and  the  aggregate  value  of  the  products 
was  $106,780,563.  The  great  bulk  of  this  interest  is  centered  in  and  around  Balti- 
more— the  value  of  the  products  of  manufactures  in  that  city  being  $78,417,304, 
and  in  Baltimore  County  $11,147,294,  or  a  total  for  the  two  of  over  $89,500,000 
out  of  an  aggregate  for  the  whole  State  of  $106,780,563.  The  leading  industries, 
with  the  amount  of  capital  Invested  and  the  value  of  products  produced,  were  in 
1880: 

NO.  OF  VALUE   OF 

INDUSTRIES.  ESTABLISHMENTS.  CAPITAL.  PRODUCTS. 

Boots  and  Shoes 34  $    590,600  $2,212,963 

Bakery  Products 341  864,022  2,275,227 

Clothing,  men's 220  3,894,943  9,579,066 

Cotton  Goods 20  4,605,816  4,688,714 

Fertilizers 48  4,271,870  5,770,198 

Flouring  and  Grist  Mill  Products 546  3,i45»520  7,954,004 

Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Products 91  2,684,358  4,454,317 

Fruits  and  Vegetables,  canned  and  preserved.  114  2,412,692  6,245,297 

Furniture 131  863,727  1,663,143 

Iron  and  Steel 23  4,962,125  4,470,050 


Lard,  refined 2  240,000 

63 
Liquors,  distilled 16  715,500  1,202,303 


Leather,  tanned 63  802,343  1,468,59 


1,544,000 
1,468,591 


Liquors,  malt 53  2,145,590  1,820,303 

Lumber,  sawed 369  1,237,694  1,813,332 

Marble  and  Stone  Work 59  673,926  1,007,893 

Slaughtering  and  Meat  Packing 9  865,000  3>377»6o5 

Tinware,  &c 226  1,179,267  3,564,994 

Tobacco  and  Snuff 10  602,600  1,531,424 

Tobacco,  cigars 369  623,607  1,730,604 

The  manufacture  of  pig  iron  has  for  many  years  been  a  leading  industry  in 
Maryland,  the  total  capacity  of  all  the  furnaces  now  in  the  State,  both  in  and  out 
of  blast,  being  a  little  over  87,000  tons  a  year.  The  manufacture  of  cotton  goods 
is  a  very  important  industry  in  this  State,  and  in  the  past  yielded  large  profits, 
but,  in  sympathy  with  all  other  manufactures,  this  business  has  suffered  consider- 
able depression  lately.  It  is  estimated  that  over  75  per  cent,  of  all  the  cotton 
duck  made  in  the  United  States  is  produced  in  Woodberry,  a  manufacturing  town 
near  Baltimore,  in  which  are  located  extensive  cotton  mills  and  machine  shops. 
The  flour  milling  interests  of  Maryland  are  of  considerable  extent.  This  industry 
was  first  started  in  1874-76  by  the  Ellicotts,  who  built  a  mill  at  what  is  now  Elli- 
cott  City,  and  called  it  the  Patapsco  Mill.  From  this  have  grown  the  three 
Patapsco  Flour  Mills  now  in  operation  in  that  State.  The  winter  wheat  raised  in 
Maryland  and  the  adjoining  States  is  admitted  to  be  much  superior  in  nutriment 
to  the  Northwestern  spring  wheat,  and  this  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  popu- 
larity of  Maryland-made  flour.  The  canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  which  in 
summer  is  carried  on  in  the  same  establishments  that  in  winter  are  used  for 
packing-houses,  is  one  of  the  most  important  industries  in  the  State.  The  value 
of  the  products  of  these  factories  in  1880  (not  including  oyster  canning)  was 
$6,245,297,  but  since  then  there  has  been  a  large  increase  in  the  business.  It  is 
this  industry  mainly  that  makes  the  raising  of  fruits  and  certain  kinds  of  vege- 


MARYLAND. 


tables  so  profitable  in  Maryland,  as  it  affords  a  ready  home  market  for  these 
products.  Maryland  farmers  are  thus  enabled  to  devote  their  attention  mainly  to 
the  fruit  and  "  trucking "  business  in  sections  suitable  for  that  industry,  as  they 
can  always  be  sure  of  finding  a  sale,  and  that,  too,  without  the  expense  of  heavy 
freights.  Baltimore  is  the  most  important  center  of  the  fruit  canning  trade  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  great  success  that  she  has  scored  in  this  industry  should 
stimulate  the  other  Southern  States  that  have  excellent  natural  advantages  for 
the  business  to  engage  in  fruit  and  vegetable  canning. 

As  already  stated,  the  total  value  of  the  products  of  manufactures  in  1880 
was  $78,417,304.  To  show  how  large  the  increase  in  manufactures  since  then  has 
been,  it  may  be  well  to  give  some  statistics  compiled  by  the  Merchants  and  Manu- 
facturers' Association  of  Baltimore  as  to  the  industries  of  the  city  in  1884.  In  this 
report  the  value  of  the  products  of  Baltimore's  manufactures  is  given  as  follows: 

Agricultural  Implements $       550,000  Looking-glass  and  Picture  Frames..  610,590 

Boots  and  Shoes 2,655,560            Millers 3,255,000 

Brick  and  Tile 1,084,921            Marble  and  Stone  Works 1,891,340 

Bread  and  Steam  Bakeries 1,550,000            Malsters  and  Brewers 2,313,250 

Clothiers 12,002,000            Paints  and  Oils 4,205,500 

Carriage,  Coach  and  Wagon 905,650            Pianos,  Organs,  &c 1,400,000 

Canning  and  Fishing 16,424,546  Potteries,  stone  and  earthenware . . .  554,000 

Cotton  Manufactures 6,302,500  Printing,  Lithographing  and   Pub- 
Candy,  Confections  and  Fruit 3,101,334                lishing 2,157,134 

Distillers   2,000,000            Soap  and  Candles 760,000 

Drugs,  Chemicals  and  Patent  Medi-                                  Saddlery,  Harness  and  Whips 1,018,207 

cines 10,519,618            Sashes,  Doors  and  Blinds 


Fertilizers 6,720,000  Shirts,  Underwear  and  Overalls 

Furniture 3,246,000  Shot 

Glass 1,683,200  Tin,  Copper  and  Sheet  Iron 


1,136,250 
3,540,000 
609,375 
9,492,065 
5,868,750 


Hardware 575,°oo            Tobacco  Manufactures 

Hair 2,715,320            Woolens 651,079 

Iron,   Steel,   Bell,  Brass    and    Ma- 
chinery   16,276,305               Total $127,774,604 

It  will  be  seen  that,  according  to  these  figures,  the  value  of  the  manufactures 
of  Baltimore  in  1884  exceeded  by  $21,000,000  the  value  for  the  whole  State  in  1880. 

OYSTERS. 

Maryland  is  the  greatest  oyster  producing  State  in  the  Union,  though  there  is 
danger  of  her  temporarily  losing  this  position,  as  the  oyster  beds  have  been  so 
much  overworked  that  there  is  now  a  growing  scarcity  of  oysters  as  compared 
with  former  years.  This  may,  however,  be  remedied  by  more  attention  being 
given  to  the  planting  of  oysters.  The  field  for  profitable  employment  in  this 
direction  is  practically  unlimited.  The  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributaries  can 
easily  support  a  dozen  men  for  every  one  now  employed,  wrhen  the  importance 
and  practicability  of  oyster  cultivation  are  fully  appreciated,  and  the  profits  to 
those  engaged  in  the  business  will  be  larger  and  more  certain  than  at  present. 
The  demand  for  oysters  is  yearly  increasing,  and  there  is  no  danger  or  even 
possibility  that  the  supply  will  ever  exceed  the  wants  of  the  country.  While  the 
gathering  of  oysters  is  so  far  mainly  confined  to  the  native  population,  except  the 
crews  of  the  dredging  boats,  which  are  composed  of-  all  nationalities,  quite  a 
number  of  New  England  people  have  embarked  in  the  planting  of  oj'sters  in  the 
Chesapeake  Bay,  and,  so  far  as  can  be  learned,  with  unvarying  success.  Until 
lately  the  State  laws  have  not  been  calculated  to  encourage  oyster  farming,  but 
there  is  now  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  State  officials  to  do  everything  in 
their  power  to  develop  an  industry  that  is  of  such  vital  importance  to  the  welfare 
of  the  State.  The  statistics  of  the  Maryland  oyster  business  were  compiled  in 
1880  for  the  United  States  Census  by  Mr.  R.  H.  Edmonds,  editor  of  the  Manufac- 
turers' Record,  Baltimore,  and  from  his  report  the  following  figures  are  gathered : 
The  total  number  of  boats  engaged  in  the  oyster  trade  in  that  year  was  3,275,  of 
which  1,825  were  canoes  averaging  about  three  hands  each,  while  1,450  were 
larger  vessels  running  in  size  from  5  to  75  tons,  and  in  value  from  a  thousand 


MARYLAND.  63 

dollars  or  so  up  to  $8,000  or  $10,000.  The  aggregate  for  the  whole  fleet  was 
$2,042,500;  while  the  number  of  men  employed  on  these  vessels  was  13,748,  their 
wages  and  earnings  for  the  oyster  season  aggregating  $2,538,000.  The  total 
amount  of  capital  invested  in  all  branches  of  the  oyster  trade  was,  in  1880, 
$6,245,876,  and  the  number  of  hands  employed  was  24,337.  During  the  same 
year  there  were  10,600,000  bushels  of  oysters,  valued  at  about  $2,500,000,  taken  in 
Maryland  waters,  of  which  6,653,000  bushels  were  canned  or  shipped  raw,  while 
over  2,000,000  bushels  were  sent  out  of  the  State  in  the  shell,  mainly  to  Northern 
cities.  Baltimore  is  the  center  of  the  oyster  canning  trade,  controlling  the  great 
bulk  of  the  business,  but  several  small  cities  are  beginning  to  develop  a  large 
trade  in  this  line.  In  the  whole  State  there  were,  in  1880,  98  firms  engaged  in 
canning  oysters,  their  capital,  including  the  estimated  value  of  the  buildings 
which  they  occupied,  being  a  little  over  $3,900,000.  The  number  of  hands 
employed  was  8,600. 

FISH  AND  GAME. 

The  waters  of  the  State  abound  with  the  finest  food  fishes.  Rock-fish, 
sheep's-head,  trout,  tailors,  mullet,  perch  and  all  the  well-known  varieties  are 
caught  in  limitless  numbers,  affording  a  large  source  of  food  supply  and  furnish- 
ing sport  to  the  fisherman.  Turtles  and  terrapin  are  found  in  abundance. 
Millions  of  wild  fowl  infest  the  creeks  and  rivers.  Partridges,  snipe,  rabbits, 
squirrels,  etc.,  are  found  all  over  the  State. 

TRANSPORTATION  FACILITIES. 

Every  portion  of  the  State  is  provided  with  the  means  of  ready  access  to 
the  best  markets.  The  State  is  traversed  by  numerous  railroads,  bringing  every 
section  within  a  short  distance  of  the  line  of  some  road.  The  tidewater  districts 
are  closely  connected  with  Baltimore  by  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  rivers  and 
creeks  tributary  to  it,  through  hundreds  of  steamboats  and  sail  vessels. 

EDUCATION. 

Maryland  has  one  of  the  most  efficient  systems  of  public  schools  to  be  found 
in  any  State.  Every  section  of  the  State  is  supplied  with  good  schools,  and 
teachers  are  specially  trained  for  their  duties  at  the  State  Normal  School  in  Balti- 
more. There  are  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  and  notably  in  Baltimore,  many 
private  schools  of  a  high  order.  The  renowned  Johns  Hopkins  University,  which 
has,  within  the  few  years  it  has  been  in  existence,  taken  rank  among  the  most 
noted  institutions  of  learning  in  the  world,  is  located  in  Baltimore. 


VIRGINIA. 


The  history  of  no  other  State  has  more  to  appeal  to  the  imagination  and  the 
judgment  than  that  of  Virginia — a  history  romantic,  heroic  and  august.  What 
shapes  trod  her  early  stage!  No  experiences  of  age  dispel  the  charms  of  her 
bright  romance.  No  aspiring  historian,  panting  after  iconoclasm,  can  destroy 
these  idols  of  childhood.  Smith  and  Pocahontas  will  be  always  real  and  dear; 
and  the  sounds  of  the  names  of  some  of  her  rivers  make  melodies  in  our  ears 
now,  as  they  did  in  young  and  day-dream  days.  But  if  her  early  history  is  so  dear 
for  the  charms  it  gave  our  childhood,  there  are  eras,  in  the  contemplation  of  which 
veneration  is  the  fittest  mood.  Her  soil  seems  hallowed  with  the  ashes  of  the  best 
and  bravest  of  our  countrymen.  She  seems  an  "eternal  camping-ground"  for 
fame;  and  the  spirits  of  her  warriors  and  statesmen  crowd  their  sacred  try  sting- 
place — a  numerous  and  immortal  concourse.  There  reposes  all  that  mortality 
can  claim  of  one  of  the  most  revered  of  Christian  warriors  and  statesmen — 
Washington.  In  the  soil  of  Virginia  rests  the  immortal  author  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence— Thomas  Jefferson.  There,  too,  lies  Patrick  Henry,  one  of  the 
most  kindling  and  enthralling  orators  of  any  time.  There  is  buried  Randolph  of 
Roanoke,  the  fierce  and  fiery  tribune,  whose  "splendid  conflagration"  illumined 
in  his  day  the  most  august  forum  of  his  country — the  United  States  Senate.  But 
who  shall  call  the  long  roll  of  heroes  in  proper  tones  ? 

Her  generous  bounty  gave  to  the  nation  long  ago  a  large  area.  Lately  she 
was  dismembered  by  cutting  off  from  her  what  is  now  AVest  Virginia ;  but  she  is 
still  not  only  a  noble  and  glorious,  but  a  great  State.  She  is  now  on  a  new  path 
of  progress,  and  her  bowels  yearn  to  endow  the  State  with  a  vaster  wealth  in  her 
minerals  than  has  ever  been  drawn  from  her  bosom  by  agriculture. 

Virginia  lies  in  latitude  36°  33'  to  39°  27'  north,  corresponding  to  Southern 
Europe,  Central  Asia,  Southern  Japan  and  California.  Its  longitude  is  from  75° 
13'  to  83°  37'  west  from  Greenwich.  On  the  south  it  adjoins  North  Carolina  for 
326  miles  and  Tennessee  for  114  miles,  making  the  line  of  the  State  from  the 
Atlantic  west  440  miles;  on  the  west  and  northwest,  Kentucky  for  115  and  West 
Virginia  (by  a  very  irregular  line)  for  450  miles,  form  the  boundary.  Maryland  is 
northeast  and  north,  separated  by  the  Potomac  River  and  the  Chesapeake  Bay  for 
205  miles  from  Virginia,  and  by  a  line  of  25  miles  across  the  Eastern  Shore.  East 
and  southeast  it  is  bordered  by  the  Atlantic  for  125  miles.  The  boundary  lines  of 
the  State  measure  about  1,400  miles.  On  the  northwest  they  are  mostly  mountain 
ranges ;  on  the  northeast  and  east,  water.  The  longest  line  in  the  State,  from  the 
Atlantic  southwest  to  Kentucky,  is  476  miles ;  the  longest  from  north  to  south 
is  192  miles. 

The  State  has  an  area  of  land  surface  of  40,125  square  miles,  and  a  water 
surface  estimated  at  2,325  square  miles.  The  population,  according  to  the  census 
of  1880,  was  1,512,565— an  average  of  38  to  the  square  mile.  Of  this  number, 
880,858  were  white  and  631,616  colored. 


VIRGINIA.  65 

There  are  six  great  natural  divisions  of  the  territory  of  Virginia — belts  of 
country  extending  across  the  State  from  northeast  to  southwest,  as  a  general 
direction,  nearly  parallel  to  each  other,  and  corresponding  to  the  trend  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  on  the  east,  and  of  the  ranges  of  the  Apalachian  system  of  moun- 
tains on  the  northwest.  These  grand  divisions  are,  taken  in  the  order  of  succes- 
sion from  the  ocean  northwest  across  the  State:  1st.  The  Tidewater  Country; 
2d.  Middle  Virginia;  3d.  The  Piedmont  Section ;  4th.  The  Blue  Ridge  Country; 
5th.  The  Great  Valley  of  Virginia;  6th.  The  Apalachian  Country.  These  divi- 
sions not  only  succeed  each  other  geographically,  but  they  occupy  different  levels 
above  the  sea,  rising  to  the  west  like  a  grand  stairway.  They  differ  geologically 
also;  therefore  they  have  differences  of  climate,  soil,  productions, &c., and  require 
a  separate  consideration  in  every  respect  in  a  description  of  the  State. 

TIDEWATER  VIRGINIA  is  the  eastern  and  southeastern  part  of  the  State  that  on 
the  south  borders  North  Carolina  104  miles;  on  the  east  has  an  air-line  border  of 
120  miles  along  the  Atlantic ;  on  the  west  is  bounded  by  150  miles  of  the  irregular 
outline  of  the  Middle  Country — (this  would  be  164  miles  if  it  took  in  the  mere 
edge  of  Tidewater  along  the  Potomac  up  to  Georgetown.)  The  shore  line  of  the 
Potomac  River  and  the  Chesapeake  Bay  for  140  miles,  and  a  line  of  25  miles  across 
the  Eastern  Shore,  separate  it  from  Maryland  on  the  north.  The  whole  forms  an 
irregular  quadrilateral,  averaging  114  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south,  and  90 
in  width  from  east  to  west,  making  an  area  of  some  11,000  square  miles. 

The  latitude  is  from  36°  33'  to  38°  54'  north,  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  in  Europe,  and 
to  the  central  belt  of  States — Kentucky,  Missouri,  California,  &c. — in  the  United 
States.  The  longitude  is  from  75°  13'  to  77°  30' west  from  Greenwich— that  of 
Maryland,  Central  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  in  the  United  States,  and 
Ontario,  in  Canada,  on  the  north,  and  of  North  Carolina,  the  Bahamas,  Cuba, 
&c.,  on  the  south. 

This  is  emphatically  a  tidewater  country,  since  every  portion  of  it  is  pene- 
trated by  the  tidal  waters  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributary  rivers,  creeks, 
bays,  inlets,  &c.,  which  cover  some  2,300  square  miles  of  surface,  and  give  nearly 
1,500  miles  of  tidal  shore  line.  The  united  waters  of  nearly  all  this  section,  with 
those  that  drain  40,000  more  square  miles  of  country,  or  the  drainage  of  50,000 
square  miles,  (an  area  equal  to  that  of  England,)  flow  out  through  the  channel,  12 
miles  wide,  between  Capes  Charles  and  Henry — the  "Virginia  Capes" — into  the 
Virginian  sea  of  Captain  John  Smith,  along  the  eastern  border  of  which,  50  or  60 
miles  from  the  land,  runs  the  ever-flowing  Gulf  Stream. 

Tidewater  is  naturally  divided  into  nine  principal  peninsulas,  and  these  are 
sub-divided  into  a  great  number  of  smaller  ones,  giving  a  wealth  of  outline  not 
even  surpassed  by  the  famous  Morea  of  Greece ;  in  truth,  there  are  here  dozens  of 
Moreas.  These  peninsulas  are,  politically,  each  divided  into  counties,  (thirty  in 
all,)  most  of  them  laid  out  and  named  when  this,  the  first  settled  portion  of 
English-speaking  America,  wae  a  British  colony,  and  the  names  given  them  were 
those  of  the  counties  or  worthies  of  England,  the  u  Mother  Country  "  at  the  time. 

The  first  peninsula,  taking  them  from  the  north  to  the  south,  is  the  Northern 
Neck,  75  miles  long  and  from  6  to  20  wide,  extending  southeast  from  the  Middle 
Country  to  the  bay,  between  the  Potomac  and  Rappahannock.  Its  counties  are 
King  George,  Westmoreland,  Richmond,  Northumberland  and  Lancaster.  This 
peninsula  is  almost  surrounded  by  navigable  waters. 

The  second,  or  Middlesex  Peninsula,  extends  southeast  for  60  miles,  with  a 
breadth  of  from  3  to  10,  between  the  Rappahannock  and  the  Piankitank  Rivers, 
including  Essex  and  Middlesex  Counties.  The  Rappahannock  is  navigable  all 


66  VIRGINIA. 

along  one  side,  and  the  Piankitank  nearly  half  of  the  other.    This  is  one  of  the 
short  peninsulas  succeeding  a  long  one. 

The  third,  or  Gloucester  Peninsula,  reaches  southeast  from  the  Middle 
Country,  between  the  Piankitank  and  the  York  and  its  extension,  the  Mattapony, 
some  70  miles  to  the  bay,  where  it  is  " forked"  by  the  Mobjack  Bay.  Its  width  is 
from  6  to  18  miles.  It  includes  King  &  Queen,  Mathews  and  Gloucester  Counties. 

The  fourth,  the  King  William  or  Pamunkey  Peninsula,  a  short  one,  extends 
60  miles  southeast,  between  the  Mattapony  and  the  Pamunkey,  (the  streams  that 
form  the  York.)  This  is  from  3  to  14  miles  wide,  and  includes  the  counties  of 
Caroline  and  King  William,  although  the  former  extends  across  the  neck  of  the 
third  peninsula  to  the  Rappahannock. 

The  fifth,  a  long  one,  is  known  as  "  The  Peninsula,"  by  way  of  eminence,  as 
it  was  the  first  settled ;  and  Williamsburg,  its  chief  town,  was  the  colonial  capital 
of  Virginia.  This  stretches  100  miles  to  the  southeast,  with  a  width  of  from  5  to 
15  miles,  between  the  Pamunkey  and  its  extension,  the  York,  on  the  north,  and 
the  Chickahominy  and  the  continuing  James  on  the  south.  This  large  peninsula 
extends  from  the  Middle  Country  to  the  bay,  and  looks  out  between  "  The  Capes." 
Its  counties  are  Hanover,  New  Kent,  James  City,  York,  Warwick  and  Elizabeth 
City. 

The  sixth,  the  short,  Richmond  or  Chickahominy  Peninsula,  between  the 
Chickahominy  and  the  James,  is  50  miles  long  and  from  5  to  15  wide,  divided  into 
Henrico  and  Charles  City  Counties.  The  former  contains  Richmond,  the  capital 
of  Virginia. 

The  seventh,  or  Southside  Peninsula,  embraces  all  the  country  south  of  the 
James,  and  between  it  and  the  Nansemond  River  and  the  North  Carolina  line. 
This  is  the  last  peninsula  trending  to  the  southeast,  which  it  does  for  64  miles, 
with  a  width  of  from  35  to  40.  Its  counties  are  Prince  George,  Surry,  Sussex, 
Southampton,  Isle  of  Wight  and  Nansemond. 

The  eighth  is  the  Norfolk  Peninsula,  including  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and 
Princess  Anne — the  territory  between  the  Nansemond  River,  Hampton  Roads, 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Atlantic — some  30  by  35  miles  in  extent,  protruding 
northward. 

The  ninth,  the  Eastern  Shore,  is  the  peninsula  extending  to  the  south  between 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Atlantic,  divided  between  the  large  counties  of  Accomac 
and  Northampton. 

The  last  two  are  the  Upper  Tertiary  Plain,  raised  but  from  20  to  30  feet  above 
the  sea  level,  composed  of  north  and  south-lying  belts  of  smaller  peninsulas  and 
islands,  with  the  "  pocoson  "  ends  of  the  other  peninsulas,  forming  the  first  step 
of  the  ascending  stairway  or  terraces  of  Virginia  to  the  westward.  The  shifting 
sands  of  its  ocean  shore  are  often  elevated  into  dunes  more  than  100  feet  high. 

The  seven  other  peninsulas,  with  all  their  masses  extended  southeast  and 
northwest,  rise  up  as  the  second  and  third  steps.  The  second  step,  corresponding 
in  the  main  to  the  middle  tertiary  formation,  attains  an  elevation  of  from  80  to 
120  feet  above  the  sea.  This  is  the  widest  tidewater  terrace,  gashed  and  broken 
by  the  broad  estuaries  that  flow  through  it.  The  third  step  has  its  eastern  edge 
just  west  of  the  meridian  of  77°,  and  attains  an  elevation  of  from  90  to  150  feet 
above  the  sea,  occupying  the  belt  of  lower  tertiary  country.  Beyond  this  rises 
the  fourth  step,  the  border  of  granite  and  sandstone  elevated  from  150  to  200  feet 
above  the  sea,  forming  the  rocky  barrier  over  which  the  waters  of  the  Middle  or 
"  upper  country "  fall,  and  up  to  which  the  tides  of  the  "  low  country "  come, 
making  the  "head  of  tide"  for  the  Atlantic  slope,  and  furnishing  sites  for  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  cities,  where  water-power  for  manufacturing  and  tide 
power  for  commerce  are  found  side  by  side.  Here,  half  in  Tidewater  and  half  in 


VIRGINIA.  67 

Middle,  on  the  fourth  step  and  on  the  level  of  the  first,  on  the  hills  and  below 
them,  are  Petersburg,  Richmond,  Fredericksburg  and  Alexandria, 

The  Tidewater  Plain,  then,  has  an  average  width  of  nearly  100  miles,  and 
rises  in  three  successive  terraces  to  an  elevation  of  about  150  feet.  It  is  a  fine, 
rolling,  low  country,  with  a  surface  diversified  by  salt-water  marshes  and  meadows, 
river  bottoms,  plains,  upland,  slopes  and  ridges,  with  a  moderate  proportion  of 
41  pocoson  "  or  swamp  country. 

The  MIDDLE  COUNTRY  extends  westward  from  the  "  head  of  tide  "  to  the  foot 
of  the  low,  broken  ranges  that,  under  the  names  of  Catocton,  Bull  Run,  Yew, 
Clark's,  Southwest,  Carter's,  Green,  Findlay's,  Buffalo,  Chandler's,  Smith's,  &c., 
mountains  and  hills,  extend  across  the  State  southwest,  from  the  Potomac,  near 
the  northern  corner  of  Fairfax  County,  to  the  North  Carolina  line,  near  the 
southwest  corner  of  Pittsylvania,  forming  the  eastern  outliers  of  the  Apalachian 
.system,  and  that  may  with  propriety  be  called  the  Atlantic  coast  range. 

The  general  fonn  of  this  section  is  that  of  a  large  right-angled  triangle,  its 
base  resting  on  the  North  Carolina  line  for  120  miles ;  its  perpendicular,  a  line  174 
miles  long,  extending  from  the  Carolina  line  to  the  Potomac,  just  east  of  and 
parallel  to  the  meridian  of  77°  30'  west,  is  the  right  line  along  the  waving  border 
of  Tidewater  which  lies  east;  the  hypothenuse  is  the  216  miles  along  the  Coast 
Range,  before  mentioned,  the  border  of  Piedmont,  on  the  northwest — the  area  of 
the  whole,  including  the  irregular  outline,  being  some  12,470  square  miles. 

The  latitude  of  this  section  is  from  36°  33'  to  39° ;  the  longitude  70°  to  79°  40' 
"west.  So  its  general  situation  and  relations  are  nearly  similar  to  those  of  Tide- 
water. 

The  Middle  Country  is  a  great,  moderately  undulating  plain,  from  25  to  100 
miles  wide,  rising  to  the  northwest  from  an  elevation  of  150  to  200  feet  above  tide, 
at  the  rocky  rim  of  its  eastern  margin,  to  from  300  to  500  along  its  northwestern. 
In  general  appearance  this  is  more  like  a  plain  than  any  other  portion  of  the  State. 
The  principal  streams,  as  a  rule,  cross  it  at  right  angles ;  so  it  is  a  succession  of 
ridges  and  valleys  running  southeast  and  northwest,  the  valleys  often  narrow  and 
deep,  but  the  ridges  generally  not  very  prominent.  The  appearance  of  much  of 
this  country  is  somewhat  monotonous,  having  many  dark  evergreen  trees  in  its 
forests.  It  needs  a  denser  population  to  enliven  it.  To  many  portions  of  the 
Middle  Country  the  mountain  ranges  to  the  west,  of  the  deepest  blue,  form  an 
agreeable  and  distant  boundary  to  the  otherwise  sober  landscape.  There  are  a 
few  prominences  like  Willis',  Slate  River  and  White  Oak  Mountains  farther  east, 
only  prominent  because  in  a  champaign  country. 

There  can  be  but  little  natural  grouping  of  the  political  divisions  of  the 
Middle  Country,  since  there  are  but  few  great  natural  landmarks,  unless  James 
River,  which  crosses  this  section  at  right  angles  nearly  midway,  be  considered  as 
one,  and  the  twenty-five  counties  of  Middle  Virginia  be  grouped  as  northside  and 
southside  ones.  Many  of  these  counties  were  laid  out,  named  and  settled  in 
colonial  times  also,  and  some  of  the  oldest  settled  portions  of  the  State  are  here. 

The  northside  counties  are  Fairfax,  Alexandria,  Prince  William  and  Stafford, 
bordering  on  the  Potomac ;  Spotsylvania  between  the  Rappahannock  and  North 
Anna,  Louisa  on  the  south  of  the  North  Anna  (portions  of  Caroline,  Hanover  and 
Henrico  properly  belong  here,)  Fluvanna  and  Goochland  on  the  James — making  8 
northside  counties. 

The  seventeen  southside  counties  are  Buckingham,  Cumberland,  Powhatan 
and  Chesterfield,  between  the  James  and  Appomattox  rivers ;  Appomattox,  on  the 
James,  Prince  Edward,  Amelia  and  Dinwiddie,  south  of  the  Appomattox,  and  the 
two  latter  between  it  and  the  Nottoway,  (Nottoway  is  north  of  the  river  of  that 
name ;)  Campbell  between  the  James  and  Staunton  (or  Roanoke)  rivers,  Charlotte 


68  VIRGINIA. 

north  of  the  Roanoke,  Lunenburg  between  the  Nottoway  and  Meherrin,  Bruns- 
wick and  Greensville  extending  from  the  Nottoway  across  the  Meherrin  to  the 
North  Carolina  line,  (a  portion  of  the  latter  county  is  in  Tidewater ;)  Pittsylvania 
and  Halifax  reach  from  Staunton  across  the  Banister  and  the  Dan  to  the  North 
Carolina  line,  and  Mecklenburg  extends  from  the  Meherrin  across  the  Roanoke  to 
the  same  boundary. 

Portions  of  Fairfax,  Prince  William,  Stafford,  Spotsylvania,  Caroline,  Fau- 
quier,  Culpeper,  Hanover,  Henrico,  Goochland,  Powhatan,  Chesterfield,  Bucking- 
ham, Cumberland,  Prince  Edward,  Campbell  and  Pittsylvania,  which  are  on  the 
triassic,  or  new  red  sandstone  formation,  differ  considerably  in  appearance  from 
the  rest  of  the  Middle  Country  which  is  on  the  eozoic,  or  granite,  gneiss,  &c.,  rocks. 

This  section  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  rest  of  the  eozoic  belt  that  extends 
from  the  Alabama  River  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  embracing  large  portions  of  the  best 
sections  of  Alabama,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  North  Carolina,  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  York  and  all  the  New  England  States.  The  cities  of  Atlanta, 
Raleigh,  Petersburg,  Richmond,  Fredericksburg,  Alexandria,  Washington,  Balti- 
more, Philadelphia,  New  York,  New  Haven,  &c.,  are  situated,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
on  these  rocks. 

PIEDMONT  VIRGINIA  is  the  long  belt  of  country  stretching  for  244  miles  from 
the  banks  of  the  Potomac  and  the  Maryland  line  southwest,  along  the  eastern  base 
of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  and  between  them  and  the  Coast  Range,  to  the 
banks  of  the  Dan  at  the  North  Carolina  line ;  it  varies  in  width  from  20  to  30 
miles,  averaging  about  25 ;  its  approximate  area  is  6,680  square  miles. 

Its  latitude  corresponds  with  that  of  the  State  36°  33'  to  39°  27'  north;  its 
longitude  is  from  77°  20'  to  80°  50'  west. 

This  Piedmont  Country  is  the  fifth  step  of  the  great  stairway  ascending  to 
the  west ;  its  eastern  edge,  along  Middle  Virginia,  is  from  300  to  500  feet  above 
the  sea ;  then  come  the  broken  ranges  of  the  Coast  Mountains,  rising  as  detached 
or  connected  knobs,  in  lines  or  groups,  from  100  to  600  feet  higher.  These  are 
succeeded  by  the  numberless  valleys,  of  all  imaginable  forms,  some  long,  straight 
and  wide;  others  narrow  and  widening ;  others  again  oval  and  almost  enclosed, 
locally  known  as  "  Coves,"  that  extend  across  to  and  far  into  the  Blue  Ridge,  the 
spurs  of  which  often  reach  out  southwardly  for  miles,  ramifying  in  all  directions. 
Portions  of  Piedmont  form  widely  extended  plains.  The  laud  west  of  the  coast 
ranges  is  generally  from  300  to  500  feet  above  the  sea,  and  rises  to  the  west,  until 
at  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Ridge  it  attains  an  elevation  of  from  600  to  1,200  feet. 
The  Blue  Ridge  rises  to  from  2,000  to  4,000  feet  above  the  sea ;  at  one  point  near 
the  Tennessee  line,  it  reaches  a  height  of  5,530  feet ;  its  general  elevation  is  about 
2,500,  but  its  outline  is  very  irregular. 

Numerous  streams  have  their  origin  in  the  heads  of  the  gorges  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  and  most  of  them  then  flow  across  Piedmont  to  the  southeast  until  near  its 
eastern  border,  where  they  unite  and  form  one  that  runs  for  a  considerable  distance 
along  and  parallel  to  the  Coast  Mountains,  and  takes  the  name  of  some  of  the  well 
known  rivers  that  cross  Middle  and  even  Tidewater  Virginia,  like  the  Roanoke  or 
Staunton,  and  the  James.  Some  of  these  rivers  break  through  the  Blue  Ridge 
from  the  Valley,  making  water  gaps  in  that  formidable  mountain  barrier,  as  the 
Potomac,  the  James  and  the  Roanoke ;  but  they  all  follow  the  rule  above  given  in 
their  way  across  this  section. 

This  is  a  genuine  "  Piedmont "  country — one  in  which  the  mountains  present 
themselves  in  their  grand  as  well  as  in  their  diminutive  forms — gradually  sinking 
down  into  the  plains,  giving  great  diversity  and  picturesqueness  to  the  landscape, 
with  its  wealth  of  forms  of  relief  as  varied  as  those  of  outline  in  Tidewater.  Few 
countries  surpass  this  in  beauty  of  scenery  and  choice  of  prospect,  so  it  has 


VIRGINIA.  69 

always  been  a  favorite  section  with  men  of  refinement  in  which  to  fix  their  homes. 
Its  population  is  31  to  the  square  mile,  giving  some  21  acres  for  each. 

The  political  divisions  of  Piedmont  are  fourteen.  Some  of  its  counties  have 
long  been  settled,  and  are  highly  improved.  There  are  no  natural  groupings  pos- 
sible for  these  counties;  they  all,  with  three  exceptions,  run  from  the  summit  of 
the  Blue  Ridge  across  this  belt  of  country.  Taking  them  from  the  Potomac,  the 
counties  are:  Loudouu,  watered  mostly  by  Goose  and  Catoctin  Creeks  and  the 
Potomac ;  Fauquier,  drained  by  the  Rappahannock  waters,  to  which  river  it 
extends;  Rappahannock  and  Culpeper,  on  the  southwest  side  of  the  same  stream, 
Culpeper  reaching  to  the  Rapid  Anne,  as  does  also  Madison;  Greene  and  Orange, 
southwest  of  the  Rapid  Anne ;  Albemarle,  drained  by  the  Rivanna  and  Hardware 
branches  of  James,  and  reaching  to  the  James;  Nelson  and  Amherst,  bounded  by 
the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  James,  Amherst  by  that  river,  both  southeast  and  south- 
west; Bedford  and  Franklin,  southwest  of  the  James,  and  drained  chiefly  by 
waters  of  the  Roanoke  or  Staunton ;  Patrick  and  Henry,  next  the  North  Carolina 
line,  furnishing  many  branches  to  the  Dan.  Every  portion  of  this  section  is 
penetrated  by  watercourses  and  is  well  supplied  with  unfailing,  bright,  pure 
water,  from  springs  and  mountain  rivulets. 

The  BLUE  RIDGE  SECTION,  for  two-thirds  of  its  length  of  310  miles,  is 
embraced  in  the  Valley  and  Piedmont  counties  that  have  their  common  lines  upon 
its  watershed;  it  is  only  the  southwestern  portion  of  it,  where  it  expands  into  a 
plateau,  with  an  area  of  some  1,230  square  miles,  that  forms  a  separate  political 
division ;  still  the  whole  range  and  its  numerous  spurs,  parallel  ridges,  detached 
knobs  and  foot  hills,  varying  in  width  from  3  to  20  miles,  embracing  nearly  2,500 
square  miles  of  territory,  is  a  distinct  region,  not  only  in  appearance  but  in  all 
essential  particulars.  The  river,  in  the  gorge  where  the  Potomac  breaks  through 
the  Blue  Ridge,  is  242  feet  above  tide.  The  Blue  Ridge  there  attains  an  elevation 
of  1,460  feet.  Mt.  Marshall,  near  and  south  of  Front  Royal,  is  3,369  feet  high; 
the  notch,  Rockfish  Gap,  at  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio>  Railroad,  is  1,996  feet,  and 
James  River,  where  it  passes  through  the  Ridge,  is  706  feet  above  tide,  or  more 
than  twice  as  high  as  the  Potomac  at  its  passage.  The  Peaks  of  Otter,  in  Bedford 
County,  are  3,993  feet,  and  the  Balsam  Mountain,  in  Grayson,  is  5,700  feet,  and  in 
North  Carolina  this  range  is  nearly  7,000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  These  figures 
show  that  this  range  increases  in  elevation  as  we  go  southwest,  and  every  portion 
of  the  country  near  rises  in  the  same  manner.  At  a  little  distance  this  range  is 
generally  of  a  deep  blue  color.  The  whole  mountain  range  may  be  characterized 
as  a  series  of  swelling  domes,  connected  by  long  ridges  meeting  between  the  high 
points  in  gaps  or  notches,  and  sending  out  long  spurs  in  all  directions  from  the 
general  range,  but  more  especially  on  the  eastern  side,  these  in  turn  sending  out 
other  spurs  giving  a  great  development  of  surface  and  variety  of  exposure. 

The  political  divisions  upon  the  plateau  of  the  Blue  Ridge  are  the  counties  of 
Floyd,  Carroll  and  Grayson,  all  watered  by  the  Kanawha,  or  New  River,  and  its 
branches,  a  tributary  of  the  Ohio,  except  the  little  valley  in  the  southwest  corner 
of  Grayson,  which  sends  its  waters  to  the  Tennessee.  The  population  of  this 
romantic  section  is  23  to  the  square  mile. 

The  GREAT  VALLEY  OF  VIRGINIA  is  the  belt  of  limestone  land  west  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  and  between  it  and  the  numerous  interrupted  ranges  of  mountains,  with 
various  local  names,  that  run  parallel  to  it  on  the  west  at  an  average  distance  of 
some  twenty  miles,  that  collectively  are  called  the  Kitatinny  or  North  Mountains. 
This  valley  extends  in  West  Virginia  and  Virginia  for  more  than  330  miles  from 
the  Potomac  to  the  Tennessee  line,  and  305  miles  of  this  splendid  country  are 
within  the  limits  of  Virginia.  The  county  lines  generally  extend  from  the  top  of 
the  Blue  Ridge  to  the  top  of  the  second  or  third  mountain  range  beyond  the 


70  VIRGINIA. 

Valley  proper,  so  that  the  political  Valley  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  natural 
one,  which  has  an  area  of  about  6,000  square  miles,  while  the  former  has  7,550, 
and  a  population  of  twenty-six  to  the  square  mile.  The  latitude  of  the  Valley  is 
from  30°  35'  N.  to  39°  26';  its  longitude  is  from  77°  50'  to  80°  16'  W. 

While  this  is  one  continuous  valley,  clearly  denned  by  its  bounding  moun- 
tains, it  is  not  the  valley  of  one  river,  or  of  one  system  of  rivers,  but  of  five ;  so 
that  it  has  four  water-sheds  and  four  river  troughs  in  its  length,  along  the  Valley 
from  the  Potomac  to  the  Tennessee  line.  These  valleys  and  their  length  in  the 
Great  Valley  are,  from  the  northeast — 

ist.  The  Shenandoah  Valley 136  miles. 

2d.  The  James  River  Valley 50     " 

3d.  The  Roanoke  River  Valley 38      " 

4th.  The  Kanawha  or  New  River  Valley 54      " 

5th.  The  Valley  of  the  Holston  or  Tennessee 52      " 

330  miles. 

As  a  whole  the  Valley  rises  to  the  southwest,  being  242  feet  above  the  tide 
where  the  Shenandoah  enters  the  Potomac  and  the  united  rivers  break  through 
the  Blue  Ridge  at  Harper's  Ferry,  and  1,687  feet  where  the  waters  of  the  Holston 
leave  the  State  and  pass  into  Tennessee.  The  entire  Valley  appears  then  as  a 
series  of  ascending  and  descending  planes,  sloping  to  the  northeast  or  the  south- 
west. That  of  the  Shenandoah  rises  from  242  to  1,863  feet  along  the  line  of  its 
main  stream,  in  136  miles,  looking  northeast ;  those  of  the  James  slope  both  ways, 
from  the  Shenandoah  summit  to  the  southwest,  and  from  the  Roanoke  summit  to 
the  northeast,  and  so  on.  This  arrangement  gives  this  seventh  great  step  a 
variety  of  elevations  above  the  sea  from  242  to  2,594  feet,  or  even  to  3,000,  in  a 
great  enclosed  valley,  sub-divided  into  very  many  minor  valleys,  giving  "facings" 
in  all  directions ;  for  the  whole  Valley  has  a  very  decided  southeastern  inclination, 
to  be  considered  in  this  connection,  its  western  side  being  from  500  to  1,000  feet 
in  surface  elevation  above  its  eastern,  presenting  its  mass  to  the  sun,  giving  its 
streams  a  tendency  to  flow  across  it  toward  the  east,  as  the  result  of  its  combined 
slopes,  and  making  the  main  drainage  way  hug  the  western  base  of  the  Blue 
Ridge.  A  moment's  reflection  will  show  that  this  is  a  well  watered  country, 
having  a  wealth  of  water-power  and  drainage  and  irrigation  resources  almost 
beyond  estimate. 

The  aspect  of  this  region  is  exceedingly  pleasant.  The  great  width  of  the 
Valley ;  the  singular  coloring,  and  wavy,  but  bold  outline  of  the  Blue  Ridge ;  the 
long,  uniform  lines  of  the  Kitatinny  Mountains,  and  the  high  knobs  that  rise  up 
behind  them  in  the  distance;  the  detached  ranges  that  often  extend  for  many 
miles  in  the  midst  of  the  Valley  like  huge  lines  of  fortification — all  these  for  the 
outline,  filled  up  with  park-like  forests,  well  cultivated  farms,  well  built  towns, 
and  threaded  by  bright  and  abounding  rivers,  make  this  a  charming  and  inviting 
region. 

The  fifteen  counties  of  the  Valley — its  political  divisions — are  naturally 
grouped  by  the  river  basins,  to  which  their  lines  generally  conform. 

The  noted  Slwnandoah  Valley  has,  in  Virginia,  in  the  northeast  Frederick  and 
Clarke  counties,  reaching  from  the  North  Mountains  to  the  Blue  Ridge  across  the 
Valley,  watered  by  the  Opequon  Creek  and  the  Shenandoah  River  and  branches; 
Shenandoah  County,  extending  from  the  mountains  west  to  the  Massanutton 
range,  that  for  50  miles  divides  the  Valley  into  two,  one  watered  by  the  North 
and  the  other  by  the  South  Fork  of  the  Shenandoah ;  Warren,  that  lies  at  the 
confluence  of  these  forks  and  between  the  Massanutton  and  the  Blue  Ridge,  and 
Page  County,  between  the  same  mountains  and  intersected  by  the  South  Fork ; 
Rockingham,  a  large  and  noted  county,  reaching  across  the  whole  Valley,  and 
holding  the  sources  of  the  North  Fork ;  and  Augusta,  the  largest  county,  also 


VIRGINIA. 


71 


occupying  the  width  of  the  Valley,  and  containing  the  head  springs  of  the  Shen- 
andoah.  These  seven  counties  occupy  the  whole  of  this  well-known,  fertile  and 
wealthy  valley. 

In  the  Valley  of  the  James  are  Rockbridge  and  Botetourt,  two  fine  counties 
in  the  heart  of  the  valley,  both  extending  across  it,  the  former  watered  by  the 
North  and  South  rivers  of  the  James,  and  that  river  and  other  tributaries,  and 
the  latter  by  the  much-developed  James  River  and  Catawba,  Craig's  and  other 
creeks.  The  mountain  scenery  of  Rockbridge  is  especially  noted. 

In  the  Valley  of  the  Roanoke  is  the  small  but  rich  county  of  the  same  name ; 
portions  of  Botetourt  and  Montgomery  are  drained  by  that  river  also. 

The  Kanawha  or  New  River  Valley  has  Montgomery,  Pulaski  and  Wythe 
Counties,  famous  ones  for  grazing  and  stock,  that  reach  from  mountain  to 
mountain. 

In  the  Valley  of  the  Holston  or  Tennessee  are  the  two  fine  counties  of  Smyth 
and  Washington,  with  soils  of  rare  fatness. 

APALACHIAN  VIRGINIA,  succeeds  the  Valley  on  the  west.  It  is  a  moun- 
tain country,  traversed  its  whole  length  by  the  Apalachian  or  Alleghany 
system  of  mountains.  It  may  be  considered  as  a  series  of  comparatively  narrow, 
long,  parallel  valleys,  running  northeast  and  southwest,  separated  from  each  other 
by  mountain  ranges  that  are,  generally,  equally  narrow,  long  and  parallel,  and 
quite  elevated.  In  crossing  this  section  to  the  northwest,  at  right  angles  to  its 
mountains  and  valleys,  in  50  miles  one  will  cross  from  6  to  10  of  these  mountain 
ranges,  and  as  many  valleys.  As  before  stated,  a  strip  of  this  region  is  embraced 
in  the  Valley  counties,  as  they  include  the  two  or  three  front  ranges  that  have 
drainage  into  the  Valley ;  so  that  some  900  square  miles  of  Apalachia  are  politi- 
cally classed  with  the  Valley,  leaving  5,720  square  miles  to  be  treated  of  here. 
This,  in  Virginia,  is  an  irregular  belt  of  country  260  miles  long,  varying  in  wicjth 
from  10  to  50  miles.  Its  waters,  generally,  flow  northeast  and  southwest,  but  it 
has  basins  that  drain  north  and  northwest,  and  south  and  southeast.  The  heads 
of  the  valleys  are  generally  from  2,000  to  2,800  feet  above  tide,  and  the  waters 
often  flow  from  each  way  to  a  central  depression — that  is,  from  600  to  1,200  feet 
above  sea  level — before  they  unite  and  break  through  the  enclosing  ranges.  The 
remarks  made  concerning  the  slopes  of  the  Great  Valley  apply  also  to  this  section, 
except  that  the  Apalachian  valleys  are  straighter. 

The  twelve  counties  of  this  section  group  very  well  as  follows: 

1st.  The  James  River  group,  the  waters  from  which  flow  into  that  river, 
including  Highland,  on  the  water-shed  of  the  James  and  Potomac,  the  South 
Branch  of  the  latter  having  several  of  its  sources  there,  with  the  Cow-pasture  and 
Jackson's  River  branches  of  the  former;  Bath,  crossed  by  the  same  branches  of 
the  James;  Alleghany,  through  a  portion  of  which  the  same  rivers  flow,  and  in 
which  they  unite,  meeting  the  waters  of  Dunlap's  and  Pott's  Creeks  from  the 
southwest;  and  Craig,  drained  by  Johns',  Craig's  and  Barber's  Creeks,  flowing 
from  the  southwest.  Sinking  Creek  of  New  River  flows  southwest  from  this 
county.  All  these  waters  but  the  last  run  into  the  James  before  it  crosses  the 
Valley. 

2d.  The  Kanawha  or  New  River  group  includes  Giles,  which  is  intersected 
by  New  River,  into  which  flow  from  the  northeast  Sinking  and  Big  and  Little 
Stony  Creeks,  and  from  the  southwest  Walker's  and  Wolf  Creeks ;  Bland,  on  the 
head  waters  of  Walker's  and  Wolf  Creeks,  just  mentioned,  and  having  also  some 
of  the  springs  of  the  Holston,  that  flows  southwest. 

3d.  The  Tennessee  River  group,  on  the  waters  of  that  river,  embraces  Taze- 
well,  on  the  divide  of  New  and  Tennessee,  (the  lowest  gaps  of  which  are  2,116 
feet  above  tide);  Wolf  Creek,  Bluestone  and  East  Rivers  run  from  this  county 


72  VIRGINIA. 

northeast  into  New  River,  while  the  North  and  the  Maiden  Spring  Forks  of 
Clinch  flow  southwest ;  Russell  is  southwest  of  Tazeweli,  and  the  Clinch  and  its 
Copper  and  Moccasin  Creek  branches  run  through  it  to  the  southwest ;  Scott  is 
next,  on  the  southwest,  and  the  same  streams  pass  through  it  from  Russell,  and 
the  North  Fork  of  the  Holston  besides,  all  running  southwest ;  Lee  is  southwest 
of  Scott,  Powell's  River  and  its  numerous  branches  flowing  southwest  from  it  to 
the  Clinch.  All  these  waters  unite  in  the  State  of  Tennessee,  and  form  the  river 
of  that  name.  The  land  of  the  counties  of  this  group  is  exceedingly  fertile,  large 
portions  of  it  being  limestone ;  and  its  exposure  to  the  southwest,  and  the  situa- 
tion and  elevation  of  its  surrounding  mountains,  secure  to  it  a  very  mild  climate. 

4th.  The  Sandy  River  group  includes  Buchanan  County,  drained  by  the 
Tug,  Louisa  and  Russell's  Forks  of  the  Big  Sandy,  flowing  northwest,  and  Wise 
County,  drained  by  Russell's  and  Pound  Forks  of  the  same  .river,  and  a  portion 
by  the  Guest's  River  branch  of  the  Clinch,  and  some  head  springs  of  Powell's 
River.  These  two  counties  really  belong  to  the  Trans- Apalachian  Country,  the 
great  plain  that  slopes  from  the  parallel  ranges  of  mountains  to  the  northwest, 
from  which  the  waters  have  eroded  their  deep  channels.  They  cover  Virginia's 
part  of  the  great  carboniferous  formation,  and  give  her  a  most  valuable  coal  field. 

Apalachia  is  noted  as  a  grazing  country,  its  elevation  giving  it  a  cool,  moist 
atmosphere,  admirably  adapted,  with  its  fertile  soil,  to  the  growth  of  grass  and 
the  rearing  of  stock  of  all  kinds. 

INLAND  WATERS. — The  State  has  two  systems  of  inland  waters — (1)  the 
Atlantic  and  (2)  the  Ohio  or  Mississippi. 

(1.)  The  waters  of  the  State,  from  Tidewater,  Middle,  Piedmont,  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  central  part  of  the  Valley,  flow  southeast  to 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  Albemarle  Sound,  following  the  inclination  of  the  "  Atlantic 
slope."  Those  from  the  northern  portions  of  the  Valley  and  Apalachia  follow  the 
mountain  ranges  northeast  to  the  Potomac,  which  river  follows  the  southeasterly 
course  before  mentioned. 

(2.)  The  waters  from  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  the  middle  of 
the  southwestern  half  of  the  Valley  and  Apalachia,  flow  northwest  and  north  to 
the  Ohio;  those  of  the  southwestern  portions  of  the  Valley  and  Apalachia  flow 
southwest  to  the  Tennessee.  So  the  waters  of  the  State  flow  in  all  directions. 

PRINCIPAL  RIVERS  AND  BRANCHES. — The  waters  belonging  to  the  Atlantic 
system  drain  six-sevenths  of  the  State.  The  principal  streams  of  this  system  are : 
The  Potomac,  a  wide  and  deep  river,  the  northeastern  boundary  of  Virginia,  with 
its  large  branches,  the  Shenandoah  'and  the  South  Branch,  and  its  prominent 
smaller  ones,  Potomac  Creek,  Occoquan  River,  Broad  Run,  Goose,  Catoctin  and 
Opequon  Creeks,  draining  a  large  area  of  each  of  the  sections  of  the  State.  The 
Potomac  is  navigable  for  110  miles  from  where  it  enters  the  bay,  some  65  miles 
from  the  ocean.  It  has  many  landings,  and  lines  of  steamers  and  sailing  vessels 
connect  them  with  all  portions  of  the  country,  giving  great  facilities  for  cheap 
transportation  to  a  very  extensive  and  valuable  portion  of  the  Northern  Neck. 
The  Rappahannock,  with  its  Rapid  Anne  and  numerous  other  branches  flowing 
from  the  Blue  Ridge  across  Piedmont,  Middle  and  Tidewater,  irrigating  a  large 
territory.  The  Rappahannock  is  navigable  to  Fredericksburg,  92  miles  from  its 
mouth  at  the  bay,  some  40  miles  from  the  ocean.  The  Piankitank,  draining  only 
a  portion  of  Tidewater,  is  navigable  for  some  14  miles ;  and  Mobjack  Bay  and  its 
rivers  furnish  deep  entrances  to  the  Gloucester  Peninsula.  The  York,  with  its 
Pamunkey  and  Mattapony  branches,  and  many  tributaries  flowing  from  a  consid- 
erable area  of  Middle  and  Tidewater.  The  York  is  a  wide,  deep  and  almost 
straight  belt  of  water,  reaching  over  40  miles  from  the  bay  to  the  junction  of  the 
Pamunkey  and  the  Mattopony,  which  are  themselves  navigable  for  many  miles 


VIRGINIA  73 

for  light-draught  vessels.  The  James,  with  the  Chickahominy,  Elizabeth,  Nanse- 
mond,  Appomattox,  Rivanna,  Willis',  Slate,  Rockfish,  Tye,  Pedlar,  South,  Cow- 
pasture,  Jackson's,  and  many  other  inflowing  rivers  and  streams  of  all  kinds, 
gathers  from  a  large  territory  in  all  the  divisions,  draining  more  of  the  State  than 
any  other  river.  The  James  is  navigable  to  Richmond.  The  Elizabeth  is  a  broad 
arm  of  the  Hampton  Roads  estuary  of  the  James,  extending  for  12  miles,  the  last 
four  of  which  are  expanded  as  the  superb  harbor  between  the  cities  of  Norfolk 
and  Portsmouth.  All  these  flow  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  Chowan,  through 
its  Blackwater,  Nottoway  and  Meherrin  branches  and  their  affluents,  waters 
portions  of  Middle  and  Tidewater  Virginia.  The  Roanoke  receives  the  Dan, 
Otter,  Pig,  and  many  other  streams  from  the  Valley,  Piedmont  and  Middle  Vir- 
ginia, and  then  flows  through  North  Carolina  to  Albemarle  Sound,  joining  the 
Chowan.  The  sources  of  the  Yadkin  are  in  the  Blue  Ridge. 

The  waters  of  the  Ohio,  a  part  of  the  Mississippi  system,  drain  the  remaining 
seventh  of  the  State ;  but  they  reach  the  Ohio  by  three  diverse  ways.  The  rivers 
are:  The  Kanawha  or  New  River,  that  rises  in  North  Carolina,  in  the  most 
elevated  portion  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  flows  through  the 
plateau  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  from  which  it  receives  Chestnut,  Poplar  Camp,  Reed 
Island  and  other  creeks  and  Little  River;  across  the  Valley,  where  Cripple,  Reed 
and  Peak's  Creeks  join  it;  across  Apalachia,  from  which  Walker's,  Sinking,  Big 
and  Little  Stony  and  Wolf  Creeks  and  East  and  Bluestone  Rivers  flow  into  it, 
and  then  through  West  Virginia  into  the  Ohio,  having  cut  through  the  whole 
Apalachian  system  of  mountains,  except  its  eastern  barrier,  the  Blue  Ridge.  The 
Holston,  through  its  South,  Middle  and  North  Forks,  Moccasin  Creek,  &c.,  drains 
the  southwestern  portions  of  the  Valley  and  Apalachia ;  and  the  Clinch,  by  its 
North  and  South  Forks,  Copper  Creek,  Guest's  and  Powell's  Rivers,  and  many 
other  tributaries,  waters  the  extreme  southwest  of  the  Apalachian  Country. 
These  flow  into  the  Tennessee.  A  portion  of  the  mountain  country  gives  rise  to 
the  Louisa  and  Russell's  Forks  of  the  Big  Sandy  River,  and  to  some  branches  of 
the  Tug  Fork  of  the  same  river,  the  Tug  forming  the  Virginia  line  for  a  space. 
These  flow  into  the  Ohio  by  the  Big  Sandy. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  thousand  or  more  named  and  valuable  streams  of 
Virginia.  They  abound  in  all  portions  of  the  State,  giving  a  vast  quantity  of 
water-power,  irrigating  the  country,  furnishing  waters  suited  to  every  species  of 
fish,  giving  channels  for  tide  and  inland  navigation,  and  enlivening  the  landscapes. 
Springs  are  very  numerous,  many  of  them  of  large  size.  Nearly  every  portion  of 
the  State  is  well  watered. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  geological  formations  found  In  Virginia,  like  it's  geographical  divisions, 
succeed  each  other  in  belts,  either  complete  or  broken,  nearly  parallel  to  the  coast 
of  the  Atlantic.  In  fact,  the  geographical  divisions  of  the  State  that  have  already 
been  given,  correspond  in  the  main  to  the  different  geological  formations,  and 
have  been  suggested  by  them ;  hence,  those  divisions  are  natural. 

The  formations  developed  in  Virginia,  taken  in  the  order  in  which  they 
succeed  each  other  and  cover  the  surface,  or  form  the  rocks  found  with  the 
surface,  from  the  Atlantic  at  the  Virginia  capes  to  the  northwest  across  the  State, 
are  as  follows : 

Tidewater.— I.  Quaternary;  2.  Upper  Tertiary;  3.  Middle  Tertiary;  4 
Lower  Tertiary.  Middle. — 5.  Triassic  and  Jurassic;  6.  Azoic  and  Granitic. 
Piedmont. — 7.  Azoic,  Epidotic,  &c.  Blue  Ridge. — 8.  Azoic  and  Cambrian.  The 
Valley. — 9.  Cambrian  and  Silurian.  Apalachia. — 10.  Sub-carboniferous  and  Devo- 
nian; 11.  Silurian;  12.  Devonian  and  Sub-carboniferous;  13.  Great  Carboniferous, 


74  VIRGINIA. 

TIDE  WATEK.— This  is  what  the  geologists  call  a  tertiary  or  lately  formed  region 
—one  where  the  remains  of  plants  and  animals  found  in  the  rocks  and  soils  do 
not  differ  greatly  from  the  plants  and  animals  now  living;  they  belong  to  the 
same  families.  The  beds  of  mineral  substances  here  found  are  rarely  converted 
into  real  rocks,  but  lie  as  beds  of  sand,  gravel,  clay,  &c.,  much  the  same  as  when 
they  were  deposited  in  shallow  waters  by  the  ocean  and  inflowing  rivers. 

1st.  The  quarternary  or  post-tertiary  formation  is  the  sandy  shore,  the  mere 
margin,  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  bay.  It  is  like  the  shore  land  of  Lincolnshire 
and  other  eastern  counties  of  England. 

3d.  The  upper  tertiary  or  pliocene  is  the  first  step  or  terrace  of  the  State 
above  the  ocean.  It  is  the  low  plain  of  the  Eastern  Shore  and  Norfolk  Penin- 
sulas, where  the  surface  is  composed  of  "light-colored  sands  and  clays,  generally 
of  a  fine  texture,  and  never  enclosing  pebbles  of  large  dimensions.  This  is, 
geologically,  a  similar  country  to  most  of  Suffolk  in  England,  to  the  hills  of  Rome 
in  Italy,  and  the  territory  around  Antwerp  in  Belgium.  Underneath  this  are 
found  the  other  formations  in  order,  and  their  valuable  marls  can  be  reached  at 
no  great  depth  by  going  through  this.  The  immense  piles  of  shells  found  along 
the  shores  and  the  refuse  fish  furnish  fertilizers  adapted  to  the  soils  of  this  section. 

3d.  The  middle  tertiary  or  miocene  is  the  surface  of  the  second  step  of 
country,  extending  from  the  western  border  of  the  last-described  formation, 
where  this  passes  under  that,  to  a  line  running  southward  from  Mathias  Point,  on. 
the  Potomac,  to  Coggin's  Point,  on  the  James — a  line  just  west  of  the  meridian 
of  77°.  From  the  James  south  it  inclines  to  the  west.  This  formation  generally,, 
descending  from  the  surface,  consists  of  the  following  materials : 

1.  Beds  of  coarse  sand  and  gravel  just  under  the  soil,  sloping  in  position. 

2.  Horizontal  beds  of  sand  and  clay. 

3.  Yellow  marl,  underlaid  by  a  conglomerate  of  fragments,  with  shells  nearly- 
entire,  but  water-worn. 

4.  Yellow  marl,  with  friable  shells  and  tenacious  clay. 

5.  Upper  blue  marl — a  clay,  bluish,  of  fine  texture,  rich  in  shells. 

6.  Lower  blue  marl — clay  with  more  sandy  materials,  more  shells  and  more 
varieties. 

7.  A  thin  band  of  pebbles,  with  ferruginous  matter — the  bottom  of  the 
formation. 

In  some  parts  of  Tidewater  some  of  these  strata  harden  into  a  sort  of  lime- 
stone or  into  sandstones,  very  good  for  building  purposes.  Of  course,  the  lower 
tertiary  underlies  this  as  this  underlies  the  upper,  and  is  overlapped  by  it.  Thia 
formation  covers  a  large  portion  of  the  Atlantic  plain  and  of  the  Lower  Missis- 
sippi Valley  of  the  United  States;  it  is  the  formation  of  the  valley  of  the  Columbia 
in  Oregon  and  of  the  valleys  of  California;  in  Europe  it  forms  the  Gironde  and 
Landes  of  France  and  the  basin  of  Vienna ;  in  England  it  is  the  New  Forest 
Region  of  Hampshire  and  Dorset,  the  country  around  Portsmouth  and  South- 
ampton. 

4th.  The  lower  tertiary  or  eocene.  This  formation  underlies  both  the  others, 
and  forms  the  surface  of  the  remainder  of  Tidewater  west  of  the  line  already 
described  as  forming  the  western  boundary  of  the  middle  tertiary.  It  is  a  strip  of 
country  some  15  miles  wide  along  the  "  head  of  tide."  The  fossils  found  in  this 
are  more  unlike  the  forms  now  existing.  This  green-sand  marl  formation  on  the 
east  pushes  its  headlands  into  the  middle  tertiary,  and  on  the  west  fills  up  the 
ravines  between  the  headlands  of  sandstone,  granite,  &c.,  that  protrude  into  it 
from  the  Middle  Country. 

The  following  section,  from  the  banks  of  the  Potomac  below  Aquia  Creek, 
"will  give  an  insight  into  the  composition  of  this  group  of  "  rocks :" 


VIRGINIA.  75 

(1.)    The  soil. 

(2.)    20  feet  of  yellow  clay,  impregnated  with  sulphates. 

(3.)      5  feet  of  sulphur-colored  clay,  containing  shells. 

(4.)      3  feet  of  rock,  resembling  marl  in  color  and  composition. 

(5.)    12  feet  of  yellowish  gray  marl,  specked  with  green  sand  and  abounding 
—        in  shells. 
40  feet,  the  level  of  the  Potomac. 

In  some  places  the  marl  of  this  eocene  contains  so  much  carbonate  of  lime 
from  the  shells  distributed  through  it,  it  has  become  a  limestone.  Here  are  also 
beds  of  blue  marl,  shell-rock,  gypseous  and  acid  clays,  dark  bluish  clay  and  sand 
containing  sulphates  of  iron  and  lime.  There  are  also  beds  of  sand  and  gravel, 
coarse  and  often  cemented  by  iron.  In  all  of  these  there  is  great  variety  of  color 
and  composition.  The  strata  are  slightly  inclined,  generally  to  the  southeast. 
This  is  the  formation  on  which  the  most  of  Essex,  Middlesex,  Kent,  &c.,  counties 
around  London  in  England,  are  situated — the  region  of  the  noted  London  clay. 
(The  same  material  abounds  in  Virginia.)  The  Isle  of  Wight,  Dorset,  Wilts, 
Hants,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Cambridge  and  Lincoln  Counties,  the  most  productive  in 
England,  are  in  the  lower  tertiary ;  the  cities  of  Liverpool  and  Paris  are  also  on  it. 

5th.  The  triassic  or  new  red  sandstone  is  sometimes  found  as  transported  frag- 
ments from  that  formation,  (which  forms  a  part  of  the  western  boundary  of  this 
section,)  scattered  over  the  surface  of  some  of  the  peninsulas  southeast  from 
where  this  rock  is  found  in  place. 

6th.  The  azoic  or  primary  rocks,  which  underlie  all  the  others,  and  also  form 
part  of  this  western  border,  are  sometimes  found  as  headlands  thrust  into  the 
tertiary  or  as  islands  in  its  surface. 

MIDDLE  COUNTRY — The  larger  portion  of  this  region  is  azoic  or  primary. 
The  rocks  contain  no  organic  remains.  They  are  crystalline  in  their  character, 
generally  stratified,  dip  at  a  high  angle  either  to  the  southeast  or  the  northwest, 
or  are  nearly  vertical,  rarely  horizontal,  and  their  exposed  edges  or  "strike"  run 
northeast  and  southwest.  The  strata  vary  in  thickness  from  the  fraction  of  an 
inch  to  many  feet. 

The  rocks  of  this  formation  are :  Gneiss,  (a  name  given  to  any  crystalline, 
stratified  rock  composed  of  quartz  and  felspar,  mixed  with  smaller  quantities  of 
hornblende,  mica  or  other  simple  minerals,)  the  most  abundant,  which,  along  the 
east  side  of  the  Middle  Country,  is  a  gray  rock  consisting  of  quartz,  felspar  and 
black  mica,  with  some  spangles  of  white  and  grains  of  hornblende.  This  is  the 
fine  Richmond  granite.  In  some  of  the  layers  of  this  rock  the  felspar  predomi- 
nates, and  the  rock  crumbles  on  exposure.  The  finer  grained  gneiss  is  generally 
called  granite;  the  coarser,  syenite  or  syenitic  granite.  The  former  are  quartzose; 
the  latter  felspathic.  Next,  going  westward,  are  other  varieties  of  gneiss  more 
slaty  in  structure,  containing  more  felspar  and  hornblende,  (quartz  is  the  flint 
rock ;  felspar  is  softer  and  duller  in  color ;  hornblende  is  dark  green  or  black,)  and 
are  more  decayed,  sometimes  into  beds  of  porcelain  clay  or  kaolin.  These  are 
succeeded,  on  the  western  border  of  this  section,  by  a  broad  belt  of  micaceous, 
talcose  and  argillaceous  slates,  according  to  the  ingredient  predominant  in  the 
rock,  whether  mica,  talc,  or  soapstone  or  alumina.  The  rocks  on  the  east  side  of 
this  slaty  belt  are  most  micaceous ;  on  the  west,  talcose.  In  these  belts  are  some 
beds  or  small  tracts  of  chloritic  gneiss,  slate,  steatite,  serpentine,  &c.,  making 
spots  noted  for  fertility  like  the  Green  Spring  Country  in  Louisa  County.  In 
the  more  argillaceous  part  of  this  belt — the  western  side  next  to  Piedmont — some 
of  the  slates  become  so  sandy,  they  pass  as  sandstones  or  conglomerates,  (gneissoid 
sandstones,)  and  among  these  are  found  roofing  slates  and  a  fragmentary  belt  of 
limestone.  Through  the  centre  of  this  region  runs  the  "  gold  belt,"  where  gold  is 


76  VIRGINIA. 

found  in  quartz  veius,  interstratified  with  the  other  rocks.  Here  are  also  veins  of 
various  kinds  of  iron  and  copper  ores.  This  formation  covers  large  areas  of 
valuable  country  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

In  this  Middle  Section,  as  before  stated,  laid  over  the  other  rocks,  (the  granitic 
ones,)  or  filling  depressions  in  them,  are  a  number  of  patches  of  the  triassic  and 
Jurassic,  or  new  red  sandstone  rocks,  sometimes  called  the  middle  secondary,  and 
generally  known  as  "  brownstone."  The  localities  of  this  are  (a)  the  "Richmond 
coal-field,"  a  large  oval  area  in  Chesterfield,  Powhatan,  Goochland  and  Henrico 
Counties,  inside  Middle  Virginia;  (b]  a  small  oval  territory  bordering  Tidewater, 
between  Ashland  and  Milford  stations,  on  the  Richmond  and  Fredericksburg 
Railroad,  and  nearly  divided  by  it;  (c)  a  long  narrow  strip  bordering  Tidewater 
from  several  miles  south  of  Fredericksburg,  on,  along  the  west  bank  of  the 
Potomac,  to  near  Mount  Vernon;  (d)  a  large  wedge,  nearly  600  square  miles, 
resting  for  some  20  miles  on  the  Potomac,  and  extending  southwest,  between  the 
Middle  and  Piedmont  Sections,  to  its  apex  on  the  Rapid  Anne,  near  Orange  Court 
House,  with  a  small  outlying  portion  near  that  place,  and  extending  beyond  it 
towards  Gordonsville ;  (e)  a  curved  portion  of  land  extending  from  Hampden 
Sidney  College  north  through  Farmville  to  Willis'  River,  and  northeast  along  that 
river  to  near  Cumberland  Court  House;  (/)  a  narrow  belt  along  James  River 
from  Scottsville,  some  15  miles  to  the  southwest;  (g)  a  band  ot  country  some  60 
miles  long,  extending  from  a  point  southeast  of  Campbell  Court  House  southwest 
to  the  North  Carolina  line  near  Danville. 

These  rocks  are  of  the  kind  known  as  sedimentary — composed  of  particles  of 
sand  and  earth,  and  of  pebbles  derived  from  other  rocks,  and  deposited  by  water 
where  they  now  are.  They  are  in  strata,  some  of  coarse  conglomerate,  with  very 
large  pebbles ;  others  of  finer  material,  making  sandstones,  slates  and  shales,  gen- 
erally dark  brown  or  red  in  color,  but  sometimes  gray,  brownish  gray  or  yellow, 
and  greenish  gray.  They  generally  dip  but  little,  being  nearly  horizontal.  The 
"breeciated  marble"  of  the  Potomac  is  from  this  formation,  as  is  also  the  "brown- 
stone"  from  Manassas.  In  this  formation  are  found  remains  of  plants  as  lignite 
or  coaly  matter,  and  of  fishes;  and  in  the  Richmond,  Danville  and  Farmville 
portions  are  valuable  beds  of  rich  bituminous  coal. 

PIEDMONT  is  in  the  same  region  of  primary,  azoic  or  transition  rocks  as 
Middle,  but  they  differ  much  in  their  characteristics. 

The  gneiss  of  Piedmont,  from  the  Blue  Ridge  to  the  Southwest  Mountain,  is 
usually  of  a  darker  color  and  coarser  texture  than  that  of  Middle  Virginia,  and  it 
has  much  more  variety  in  its  structure  and  composition.  Generally,  it  contains 
more  or  less  talc  or  chlorite,  not  much  mica,  and  very  often  hornblende  and  iron 
pyrites — the  latter  a  powerful  agent  in  decomposing  rocks,  and,  with  hornblende, 
giving  a  red  tinge  to  the  soil,  so  that  this  is  often  called  the  "  Red-land  "  District. 
Near  the  base  of  the  Blue  Ridge  are  belts  of  granitic  gneiss ;  also  belts  of  mica- 
ceous, chloritic,  argillaceous  and  talcose  slates,  generally  narrow,  with  bands  and 
patches  of  limestone.  The  epidotic  or  greenstone  rocks  form  the  chief  mass  of 
the  broken  Southwest  Mountain  or  Coast  Range  chain,  the  eastern  border  of 
Piedmont.  These  rocks  are  of  a  greenish  hue,  with  crystals  of  epidote  and 
quartz.  They  weather  into  a  yellowish  soil  that  changes  into  orange  and  red, 
and  is  always  fertile.  Bands  of  iron  ores  of  various  kinds,  slates,  soapstone,  &c., 
are  found  throughout  this  section. 

The  BLUE  RIDGE  is  the  border  land  between  the  azoic,  primary  or  transition 
rocks  and  the  fossiliferous  ones.  Generally,  its  eastern  flank  and  summit,  and 
sometimes  a  good  portion  of  the  western  slope,  are  composed  of  the  epidotic 
rocks  before  mentioned — more  highly  epidotic  than  even  those  of  Piedmont — and 
SO  it  acquires  peculiar  geological  characteristics.  The  epidote  is  found  there 


VIRGINIA.  77 

compact,  with  quartz  imbedded  as  amygdaloid,  &c.  Here  are  also  beds  of  epidotic 
granite,  of  whitish  granite  and  of  syenite,  with  sandstones  and  slates  of  various 
kinds;  but  epidote  is  here  more  abundant  than  elsewhere,  and  this,  by  decom- 
posing, makes  the  wonderful  soil  of  this  mountain  range. 

The  western  flank  of  the  Blue  Ridge  is  composed  of  the  rocks  of  the  Cam- 
brian, Potsdam  Sandstone,  Primal,  or  Formation  I  of  Professor  Rogers;  for  by 
all  these  names  is  known  the  "  close-grained  white  or  light  gray  sandstone,"  with 
beds  of  coarse  conglomerate,  brown  sandstones  and  brownish  olive-colored  shales, 
here  found,  that  once  made  the  eastern  shore  of  a  great  ocean.  In  this  formation 
are  bands  of  specular  iron  ore  and  beds  of  hematite. 

The  VALLEY  is  the  region  of  Cambrian  and  Lower  Silurian  rocks — Forma- 
tions I,  II  and  III  of  Rogers,  or  from  Potsdam  to  Hudson  River  formations  of 
New  York,  inclusive — a  country  mainly  of  limestone,  slate  and  shale  rocks,  with 
a  fertile  soil  and  undulating  surface.  The  section  across  the  Valley  through 
Staunton  gives  some  thirty  alternating  bands  of  slates  and  limestones  of  various 
kinds — some  magnesian,  others  silicious  or  rich  carbonates ;  some  compact,  others 
flaggy  or  slaty,  &c.  Among  these  are  beds  of  chert,  iron  ore,  umber,  lead,  zinc, 
&c.  This  formation  extends  northward,  and  forms  the  rich  Cumberland,  Lebanon 
and  other  valleys  of  Maryland,  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  the  Hudson  and 
Mohawk  Valleys  of  New  York,  and  the  Champlain  Valley  of  Vermont.  South- 
west it  becomes  the  Valley  of  East  Tennessee,  and  extends  into  Alabama,  making 
a  great  central  valley  some  1,500  miles  in  length  of  unsurpassed  fertility  and 
productiveness.  This  formation  underlies  a  large  portion  of  Scotland,  especially 
the  southern  and  central  parts ;  much  of  the  area  of  Wales,  and  large  districts  in 
the  west,  southwest  and  northwest  of  England.  It  covers  an  extensive  tract  in 
Russia ;  is  found  in  Spain,  &c.  The  most  fertile  portions  of  New  York,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Kentucky,  Wisconsin  and  Missouri  are  also  underlaid  by  this  rock. 

Belonging  to  the  Valley  counties,  (the  lines  of  which  extend  to  the  summit  of 
the  Blue  Ridge,  and  cross  often  several  ranges  of  the  mountains  west,)  of  course, 
we  have  the  half  of  the  summit  and  all  the  western  slope  of  the  Blue  Ridge, 
already  described.  To  it  also,  politically,  will  belong  parts  of  the  Upper  Silurian 
and  Devonian  systems,  that  are  more  especially  referred  to  in  the  account  of  the 
Apalachian  Country.  These  form  long  ridges  that  rise  up  and  run  for  great 
distances  in  the  Valley,  like  the  Massanutton  and  other  mountain  ranges,  making 
barriers  that  divide  the  Valley  lengthways  into  two  parallel  valleys.  The  rocks 
of  the  Valley  generally  dip  to  the  southeast  at  a  high  angle.  In  some  places  there 
runs  an  axis  through  the  Valley  from  which  the  rocks  dip  both  ways — to  the 
southeast  and  to  the  northwest — making  an  anticlinal.  The  upturned  edges  of 
the  rocks  strike  or  run  northeast  and  southwest  with  the  Valley. 

Fragments  of  the  sub-carboniferous  formation  are  found  along  the  western 
margin  of  the  Valley,  sometimes  containing  valuable  beds  of  semi-anthracite 
coal,  as  in  Montgomery,  Augusta  and  other  counties.  This  formation  consists  of 
conglomerates,  shales,  sandstones,  &c. 

The  APALACHIAN  COUNTRY,  beginning  with  the  mountains  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Great  Valley,  is  occupied  chiefly  by  the  Upper  Silurian  and  Devonian 
rocks  from  IV  to  IX  inclusive.  It  also  shows  narrow  outcrops  of  Lower  Silurian 
and  important  areas  of  carboniferous  rocks,  comprising  sandstones,  slates,  lime- 
stones, coal  seams,  &c.  The  sandstones  hold  up  the  high  parallel  ridges  or  chains 
of  mountains  that  run  unbroken  for  such  long  distances;  the  slates  and  limestones 
form  the  rich  valleys  between.  In  these  rocks  are  great  continuous  bands  of 
hematite  and  fossil  iron  ores,  among  the  most  abundant  and  valuable  in  the  world. 

The  Devonian  rocks  (or  old  red  sandstone — Rogers'  VIII  and  IX;  the  corn- 
iferous,  Hamilton,  Chemung  and  Catskill  groups  of  New  York,)  are  found  among 


78  VIRGINIA. 

those  that  have  already  been  described,  the  convulsions  of  nature  having  exposed 
In  successive  ridges  and  valleys  the  different  formations.  Formation  VIII  is 
composed  of  slates  and  slaty  sandstones  that  often  appear  as  low  serrated  ridges. 
The  slates  are  black,  olive,  green  and  reddish,  sometimes  with  calcareous  bands. 
Some  of  the  shales  contain  copperas,  alum  and  iron  ore.  Formation  IX  is  known 
by  its  red  slates  and  sandstones  alternating  with  green,  yellow,  brown  and  dark 
gray  shales  and  slaty  sandstones,  with  some  iron  ore. 

The  sub-carboniferous  rocks  in  Virginia,  Formations  X  and  XI,  are  confined 
to  narrow  belts  made  up  of  conglomerates,  slates,  shales  and  limestones,  running 
along  the  southeast  flanks  of  the  North  Mountains.  It  is  in  Formation  X 
(Vespertine)  that  Rogers  locates  the  coal  of  Augusta,  Botetourt,  Montgomery,  &c. 
Formation  XI  is  very  calcareous,  and  is  the  repository  of  the  gypsum  and  rock- 
salt  of  Southwest  Virginia,  (Rogers.)  This  is  the  equivalent  of  the  carboniferous 
limestone  of  England.  Great  down-throws  and  upheavals  of  the  rocks  have 
brought  the  carboniferous  and  Silurian  formations  in  the  southwestern  portion  of 
Apalachia  side  by  side,  and  all  the  intervening  formations  are  often  wanting. 
Iron  ore  of  good  quality  is  found  in  the  shales  of  this  group. 

The  carboniferous  or  true  coal-bearing  rocks,  Rogers'  XII  to  XV,  cover  but  a 
moderate  area  in  Virginia,  when  compared  with  that  occupied  by  the  other  forma- 
tions; still,  the  State  has  nearly  a  thousand  square  miles  of  territory  that  belongs 
to  the  great  carboniferous  in  the  southwest,  in  that  portion  of  it  lying  north  of 
the  Clinch  River  and  drained  by  its  western  branches,  and  in  the  Virginia  terri- 
tory drained  by  the  Sandy  River,  with  some  small  adjacent  areas.  This  formation 
is  a  group  of  sandstones,  slates,  bands  of  limestone  and  seams  of  coal,  that 
together  make  the  great  Apalachian  coal-field — one  of  the  most  remarkable  in 
the  world  for  the  number,  thickness,  quality  and  variety  of  its  seams  of  bituminous 
coal,  and  for  their  accessibility  above  water  level. 

The  fonnations  of  the  Apalachian  District  are  the  same  as  those  that  cover 
large  portions  of  the  States  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan 
and  Iowa.  In  Europe  this  formation  occupies  the  Lowland  Region  of  Scotland, 
the  country  of  Edinburg  and  Glasgow ;  also  the  Cromarty  and  Caithness  Region. 
In  England  it  underlies  large  areas  in  the  northwest  and  southwest,  and  in  Wales. 

CLIMATE. 

Virginia,  as  a  whole,  lies  in  the  region  of  "  middle  latitudes,"  between  86°  30' 
and  39°  30'  north,  giving  it  a  climate  of  "  means  "  between  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold  incident  to  States  south  and  north  of  it. 

If  Virginia  were  a  plain,  the  general  character  of  the  climate  of  the  whole 
State  would  be  much  the  same;  but  the  "relief"  of  its  surface  Varies  from  that  of 
some  of  its  large  peninsulas  not  more  than  10  or  15  feet  above  the  sea  level,  to 
that  of  large  valleys  more  than  2,000  feet  above  that  level.  Long  ranges  of 
mountains  from  3,000  to  4,000  feet  in  height  run  entirely  across  the  State,  and  the 
waters  flow  to  all  points  of  the  compass.  So  diversified  are  the  features  of  the 
surface  of  the  State,  within  its  borders  may  be  found  all  possible  exposures  to  the 
sun  and  general  atmospheric  movements.  It  follows  from  these  circumstances 
that  here  must  be  found  great  variety  of  temperature,  winds,  moisture,  rain  and 
snowfall,  beginning  and  ending  of  seasons,  and  all  the  periodical  phenomena  of 
vegetable  and  animal  life  depending  on  "  the  weather." 

The  winds  are  the  great  agents  nature  employs  to  equalize  and  distribute 
temperature,  moisture,  &c.  Virginia  lies  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  American 
Continent,  and  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  extends  to  and 
embraces  many  of  the  ranges  of  the  Apalachian  system  of  mountains  that  run 
parallel  to  that  ocean  shore;  therefore  it  is  subject  not  only  to  the  general  move- 


VIRGINIA.  79 

ment  of  winds,  storms,  &c.,  from  west  to  east,  peculiar  to  the  region  of  the  United 
States,  but  to  modifications  of  that  movement  by  the  great  mountain  ranges.  It 
is  also  subject  to  the  great  atmospheric  movements  from  the  Atlantic  that,  with  a 
rotary  motion,  come  up  from  the  tropics  and  move  along  the  coast,  extending 
their  influence  over  the  Tidewater  and  Middle  Regions  of  the  State;  sometimes 
across  Piedmont  to  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  but  rarely  ever  over  or  beyond 
that  range.  It  has  also  surface  winds,  usually  from  the  southwest,  that  follow  the 
trend  of  the  mountains  and  bring  to  them  and  their  enclosed  parallel  valleys  the 
warmth  and  moisture  of  the  gulf  that  clothes  them  all  with  an  abundant  vege- 
tation. 

The  same  causes  that  produced  the  magnificent  forests  of  the  carboniferous 
era  and  furnished,  the  materials  for  the  vast  deposits  of  coal  in  the  60,000  square 
miles  of  the  great  Apalachian  coal-field  that  flanks  Virginia  on  the  west,  still 
operate  and  clothe  the  surface  of  the  same  region  with  an  abundant  vegetation. 
The  laws  of  the  winds  make  one  region  fertile  and  another  barren.  America 
owes  its  distinction  as  the  Forest  Continent  to  the  situation  of  its  land  masses  in 
reference  to  the  prevailing  winds. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  for  the  State  is  56°;  for  the  Tidewater  Region, 
58°;  for  the  Middle  and  Piedmont,  35.60°;  and  for  the  Valley,  54°.  The  average 
mean  temperature  of  the  State  for  January  is  42°,  and  for  July  78°. 

The  notable  points  about  the  climate  are,  first,  its  range — from  that  of  the 
southeastern  low  plain,  fronting  the  Atlantic  and  tempered  by  it,  to  that  of  the 
high  mountain  plateaus  of  the  northwestern  margin,  where  cold  temperate  condi- 
tions prevail;  second,  its  mildness,  on  the  whole,  notwithstanding  this  consider- 
able range ;  third,  its  dryness,  although  the  rainfall  is  abundant,  and,  compared 
with  most  European  countries,  large.  The  climate  is  healthful  and  favorable  to  a 
great  variety  of  agricultural  products. 

The  rainfall  is  next  in  importance  to  the  temperature  in  the  climate  of  a 
country,  for  heat  and  moisture  are  the  two  great  requisites  for  abundant  produc- 
tion when  a  fertile  soil  is  present. 

Guyot,  a  standard  authority,  says:  "North  America  has  in  the  eastern  half  a 
greater  amount  of  rain  than  either  of  the  other  northern  continents  in  similar 
latitudes."  *  *  "The  great  sub-tropical  basin  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  sends  up 
into  the  air  its  wealth  of  vapors  to  replace  those  lost  by  the  winds  in  crossing  the 
high  mountain  chains.  Hence  the  eastern  portions — the  great  basins  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Apalachian  Region — which,  without  this 
source  of  moisture,  would  be  doomed  to  drought  and  barrenness,  are  the  most 
abundantly  watered  and  the  most  productive  portions  of  the  continent."  "In  the 
eastern  half  of  the  United  States  the  southwesterly  winds  which  prevail  in  the 
summer  spread  over  the  interior  and  the  Atlantic  plains  an  abundant  supply  of 
vapors  from  the  warm  waters  of  the  gulf.  Frequent,  copious  showers  refresh  the 
soil  during  the  months  of  greatest  heat,  which  show  a  maximum  of  rain.  Thus 
the  dry  summers  of  the  warm-temperate  region  disappear,  and  with  them  the 
periodical  character  of  the  rains  so  well  marked  elsewhere  in  this  belt." 

These  quotations  show  the  advantages  Virginia  has,  in  this  respect,  over  the 
warm-temperate  regions  of  Europe  and  elsewhere. 

As  to  mean  annual  rainfall,  nearly  the  whole  State  lies  in  a  zone  of  from  40 
to  45  inches. 

SOILS. 

The  character  of  the  soils  of  Virginia,  as  of  other  countries,  is  dependent  on 
its  geology. 

TIDEWATER  is  a  tertiary  region.  Its  soils  are  the  alluvial  deposits — the  sands 
and  clays  peculiar  to  that  formation.  The  soil  of  the  low,  flat,  sandy  shores  and 


80  VIRGINIA. 

islands  is,  naturally,  thin,  light  and  soft.  At  the  same  time  it  is  warm,  and,  under 
the  influences  of  a  mild  climate,  a  near  ocean  and  bay,  and  the  dense  crops  of  wild 
bent-grass,  magothy  bay-beans,  &c.,  that  grow  and  decay  upon  it,  it  becomes  very 
productive  and  "  quick."  The  salt-marshes  of  this  region  are  rich  in  the  elements 
of  fertility,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  crops  of  grass  they  produce.  The  soil  of  the 
Eastern  Shore  Peninsula  is  like  that  already  described,  only  it  rests  upon  a  stiff 
clay,  and  so  retains  fertilizers  applied  to  it  and  is  easily  improved.  The  soils  of 
the  Norfolk  Peninsula  also  belong  to  this  class.  They  are  light,  warm,  easily 
tilled,  and  respond  quickly  to  the  influence  of  fertilizers.  All  these  may  be  char- 
acterized as  garden  soils,  adapted  to  the  hoe.  In  all  this  upper  tertiary  country 
there  is  much  salt-marsh  and  swamp  land  that,  when  properly  drained,  becomes 
exceedingly  productive. 

In  every  portion  of  Tidewater  along  the  streams  are  "first"  or  alluvial 
bottoms,  composed  of  mixed  materials,  the  sediment  of  the  waters.  These,  where 
above  tide,  or  where  protected  by  embankments,  have  a  perpetual  fertility. 

The  second  bottoms,  or  second  terrace  above  the  waters,  are  called  the  "  rich 
lands"  of  the  country.  They  "are  composed  of  loams  of  various  qualities,  but 
all  highly  valuable,  and  the  best  soils  are  scarcely  to  be  surpassed  in  their  original 
fertility  and  durability  under  severe  tillage."  The  subsoil  is  a  dark  red  or  yellow 
clay — the  yellow  becoming  of  a  chocolate  color  on  exposure — lying  not  very  deep. 
These  soils  are  drier  and  stiffer  than  those  of  the  first  bottom.  Sometimes  they 
are  sandy;  but  all  are  susceptible  of  improvement. 

In  some  places  there  are  spots  of  "shelly"  soil,  where  the  remains  of  oysters, 
mussels,  &c.,  have  decomposed  and  mingled  with  the  loam  and  sand.  These  are 
permanently  fertile,  bringing  forth  abundantly.  "Shelly"  soils  could  be  made 
anywhere  in  this  region,  for  Providence  has  bountifully  supplied  the  means  by 
which  this  "hint"  may  be  taken  advantage  of. 

The  first  and  second  bottoms  are  not  far  above  the  water  level,  and  form  a 
comparatively  small  portion  of  the  country.  They  are  succeeded  by  the  "  slope  " — 
the  incline  that  reaches  back  to  the  ridge  or  water-shed  of  the  peninsulas.  The 
soil  of  these  slopes,  compared  with  that  on  the  flat  ridges,  "  is  of  a  higher  grade 
of  fertility,  though  still  far  from  valuable;"  *  *  " generally  more  sandy  than 
the  poorer  ridge  land,"  and,  when  exhausted  by  injudicious  cultivation,  inclined 
to  wash  during  rains.  "The  washing  away  of  three  or  four  inches  in  depth 
exposes  a  sterile  subsoil."  Sometimes  these  soils  are  productive,  but,  as  a  rule,  do 
not  wear.  That  they  are  not  wanting  in  some  of  the  elements  of  fertility  is  well 
shown  by  the  dense  growth  of  pine  trees  that  speedily  covers  them  when  aban- 
doned by  severe  cultivation.  Though  thin,  sandy  and  poor,  and  considered  as 
almost  valueless,  these  lands  have  been  made  fertile  by  using  the  marls  and  shells 
that  are  near  by.  The  same  can  be  done  again.  There  is  a  large  area  of  this  land. 

"The  ridge  lands  are  always  level  and  very  poor,  sometimes  clayey,  more 
generally  sandy,  but  stiffer  than  would  be  inferred  from  the  proportion  of  silicious 
earth  they  contain,  which  is  caused  by  the  fineness  of  its  particles."  These  evils 
"  vary  between  sandy  loam  and  clayey  loam."  Numerous  shallow  basins  are  found 
in  these  soils  which  are  filled  with  rain  water  in  winter  and  are  dry  in  summer. 

The  soils  of  the  MIDDLE  COUNTRY  vary,  of  course,  as  the  rocks  do  which 
they  overlie.  In  a  work  on  the  Geology  of  New  Jersey,  speaking  of  a  similar 
region  in  that  State,  it  says:  "  Hitherto  the  country  in  which  they*  are  found  has 
been  considered  poor  and  little  capable  of  improvement.  But  gradually  the 
farmer  has  been  encroaching  upon  them,  and  turning  these  unpromising  hills  into 
fruitful  fields.  It  is  observed  that  the  rocks  are  in  many  places  subject  to  rapid 


*The  azoic  rocks. 


VIRGINIA.  81 

decay,  and  that  in  such  localities  the  soil  is  susceptible  of  high  cultivation."  This 
report  then  gives  an  analysis  of  three  varieties  of  felspar  common  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  rocks  there,  and  also  in  Middle  Virginia,  with  the  following  results: 

SODA  POTASH  SODA   AND   LIME 

FELSPAR.  FELSPAR.  FELSPAR. 

Silica 68.6  64.6  62.1 

Alumina 19.6  18.5  23.7 

Soda ii. 8 

Potash 16.9  

Lime 14.2 


It  has  been  found  that  the  soda  and  the  soda  and  lime  felspars  are  more  easily 
decomposed  than  the  potash  ones.  It  will  readily  appear  that  a  soil  containing 
the  ingredients  shown  in  the  table  must  have  the  elements  of  fertility;  and  since 
there  are  numerous  and  wide  belts  of  these  in  this  section,  we  find  here  upon 
these  fertile  and  productive  soils.  Along  the  streams  also  the  transported  mate- 
rials of  these  easily  decomposed  rocks  have  been  deposited,  giving  everywhere 
rich  soils  in  the  "  bottom  "  lands.  Where  the  beds  of  gray  or  light  brown  slate 
occur,  the  soil  is  not  productive ;  but  it  has  been  found  that  lime  renders  the  soil 
from  these  fertile.  Wherever  the  rocks  contain  epidote,  they  decompose  into  a 
very  fertile  soil  of  a  deep  red  hue.  Sometimes  these  rocks  cover  considerable 
areas;  and  we  find  these  noted  for  their  fertility,  like  portions  of  Louisa,  Buck- 
ingham, and  the  other  counties  of  this  section.  There  are  also  calcareous  soils 
found  in  various  portions  of  the  Middle  Country,  where  the  patches  of  limestone 
before  mentioned  occur.  These  are  always  fertile.  Some  of  the  red  soils  of  this 
section  are  derived  from  gneiss  rocks  containing  sulphuret  of  iron,  but  not  epidote. 
Such  soils  are  as  noted  for  sterility  as  the  epidotic  ones  are  for  fertility. 

The  soils  of  the  triassic  or  new  red  sandstone  belts  are  generally  fertile  and 
easily  worked.  The  composition  of  these  rocks  in  New  Jersey  shows  what  they 
furnish  to  make  a  good  soil.  The  red  shale  of  the  triassic  at  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
gave,  by  analysis,  the  following  results : 

Silicic  acid  and  quartz 73 .00 

Peroxide  of  iron 10.00 

Alumina 3.20 

Lime 4-93 

Magnesia 0.90 

Potash 0.73 

Soda 0.97 

Sulphuric  acid a  trace 

Water i  .00 

Other  analyses  of  other  rocks  from  this  formation  indicate  the  presence  of  a 
considerable  percentage  of  lime,  potash,  soda,  sulphuric  acid,  alumina,  silica,  &c., 
&c.,  all  valuable  ingredients  of  fertile  soils.  As  a  rule,  the  soils  on  the  areas  of 
this  formation  are  among  the  best  in  this  section. 

The  soils  of  PIEDMONT  and  of  its  southwest  mountain  border  are  much  more 
epidotic  in  their  character,  and  therefore  naturally  more  fertile  than  most  of  those 
farther  east. 

The  red  or  chocolate-colored  soils  of  this  section,  formed  from  the  decom- 
posed dark  greenish-blue  sandstone  here  found,  is  generally  considered  the  most 
fertile.  This  sandstone  contains  several  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The 
other  soils  of  this  region  are  grayish  or  yellowish.  These  are  by  no  means  as 
fertile  as  the  darker  soils;  but  there  are  red  soils  here,  as  in  Middle  Virginia,  that 
aie  also  poor  ones,  and  for  the  same  reasons.  The  epidotic  rocks,  from  wThich  the 
best  soils  of  this  region  are  formed,  often  contain,  says  Rogers,  24  per  cent,  of 
lime.  Hornblende,  in  decomposing,  forms  a  red  soil  also  that  is  very  fertile,  but 
it  contains  magnesia,  and  less  lime  and  alumina. 

The  soils  of  Piedmont  are,  many  of  them,  undoubtedly  among  the  most  fertile 
known,  and  can  be  made  to  produce  a  great  variety  and  abundance  of  crops. 


82  VIRGINIA. 

They  are  loose  and  easily  worked,  but  care  must  be  exercised  in  their  manage- 
ment, since  they  are  easily  washed  away  by  heavy  rains.  If  neglected,  they  are 
soon  covered  by  a  growth  of  underbrush. 

The  BLUE  RIDGE  is  composed  of  much  the  same  materials  as  Piedmont,  only 
they  are  richer  in  their  abundance  of  greenstone  rocks,  which  impart  to  the  soils 
of  this  much  expanded  mountain  range  a  wonderful  fertility,  and  adapt  them  to 
the  growth  of  rich  grasses,  vines,  orchards  and  all  the  usual  crops  of  the  country, 
wherever  the  character  of  the  surface  admits  of  cultivation. 

The  soils  in  the  sandstone  belt  of  the  western  slope  of  this  range  are  sandy 
and  poor. 

The  soils  of  the  GREAT  VALLEY  are  quite  numerous.  They  are  generally 
called  limestone  soils,  as  this  is  a  limestone  region.  The  prevailing  soil  is  a  stiff, 
clayey  loam — a  durable  and  fertile  soil  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  grass  and 
grain.  In  the  slaty  belts  the  admixture  of  the  decomposed  aluminous  rocks 
makes  a  lighter  and  warmer  soil.  There  are  also  belts  of  sandy  or  gravelly  soil 
that  are  cold,  and  require  cultivation  and  fertilizers  to  make  them  productive,  but 
once  redeemed,  they  yield  very  well.  Much  the  larger  portion  of  the  Valley  has, 
naturally,  a  good  soil,  rich  in  the  elements  of  fertility.  The  soil,  like  the  rocks, 
runs  in  belts,  with  the  Valley,  and  the  lean  ones  are  the  smaller  number.  The 
streams,  as  in  all  limestone  regions,  are  very  winding;  so  there  is  here  a  consider- 
able area  of  bottom  lands. 

The  soils  of  the  APALACHIAN  REGION  are  very  marked  in  their  character. 
The  sandstone  ridges  and  mountains  are  very  poor,  while  those  made  up  of  lime- 
stones and  some  of  the  shales  are  very  rich.  Some  of  the  slate  valleys  have  a  thin 
and  poor  soil;  others  on  limestone  or  certain  red  sandstones  are  very  rich.  Indeed, 
the  natural  exuberant  fertility  of  some  of  these  broad  ridges  and  narrow  valleys 
is  something  wonderful.  Some  of  the  little  valleys  are  appropriately  called 
"gardens."  This  region  is  so  penetrated  by  streams  that  it  has  everywhere 
alluvial  lands. 

Thus  it  appears  that  there  are  soils  of  every  variety  in  Virginia  suited  to  all 
kinds  of  productions. 

In  TIDEWATER — peat-bottom,  or  swamp  and  savanna  lands,  for  cranberry 
culture ;  salt  marshes  and  meadows  for  grass  and  cheap  grazing ;  river  marshes 
that  reclaimed  are  fine  hemp  lands ;  plains,  with  soft  and  warm  soil,  for  great 
market  gardens  and  the  rearing  of  delicate  fruits;  river  bottoms — marly  alluvial 
lands — excellent  for  cotton,  corn,  wheat,  oats  or  meadows ;  thin,  sandy  uplands 
for  great  sheep  pastures  and  for  forest  planting. 

In  MIDDLE — clay  soils  that  produce  the  finest  of  wheat;  mixed  sand  and 
clay,  well  suited  to  general  agriculture ;  thin  lands,  where  fruit  growing  would  be 
remunerative;  rich  low  grounds,  where  great  crops  of  Indian  corn  and  rank 
tobacco  grow  from  year  to  year  without  exhausting  their  fertility ;  light  soils, 
where  the  finer  kinds  of  tobacco  are  produced ;  lands  for  swedes,  mangolds,  &c., 
and  improved  sheep  husbandry. 

In  PIEDMONT — rich  upland  loams  unsurpassed  as  wheat  or  tobacco  lands,  and 
producing  heavy  crops  of  cultivated  grasses ;  low  grounds,  where  the  corn  crop  is 
always  good,  and  where  heavy  shipping  tobacco  comes  to  perfection;  lighter  soils, 
where  the  vine  and  the  apple  produce  abundantly ;  the  best  of  lands  for  dairies, 
and  for  sheep  and  cattle  rearing. 

In  the  BLUE  RIDGE,  where  the  natural  grasses  invite  to  sheep  and  cattle 
grazing,  and  the  rich,  warm  soil  and  sunny  exposures  are  adapted  to  fruit  culture 
on  lands  that  elsewhere  would  be  too  valuable  for  the  plow. 

In  the  VALLEY — the  natural  blue-grass  lands,  the  home  of  the  stock-raiser 
and  dairyman ;  the  heavy  clay  lands,  fat  in  fertilizing  ingredients,  always  repaying 


VIRGINIA.  83 

the  labor  spent  on  them  in  crops  of  corn  or  wheat ;  the  lighter  slaty  lands,  famous 
for  wheat  crops;  the  poorer  ridge  lands,  where  sheep  rearing  should  be  followed; 
In  the  MOUNTAIN  REGION  are  great  cattle  ranges— lands  where  grass  grows 
naturally  as  soon  as  the  trees  are  cleared  away  and  the  sunlight  admitted;  rich 
meadow  lands  in  the  valleys  well  suited  to  dairying ;  fat  corn  or  tobacco  lands 
along  the  streams ;  lands  for  root  crops  along  the  slopes  and  on  the  plateaus. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

ANIMAL  PRODUCTS. — The  climate  of  Virginia  is  favorable  for  the  growth  and 
the  products  of  its  soil  for  the  sustenance  of  animal  life,  consequently  it  has  an 
abundant  and  vigorous  native  fauna  on  its  land  and  in  its  waters.  All  the  varie- 
ties of  domestic  animals  reared  in  temperate  climates  have  here  found  a  congenial 
habitation,  and  excellent  breeds  of  horses,  mules,  milch  cows,  working  oxen,  beef 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  goats  and  poultry  abound  in  all  sections  of  this  State. 

The  cost  of  producing  a  given  quantity  of  butter  and  cheese  is  much  less  in 
Virginia,  owing  to  its  milder  climate  and  longer  seasons,  than  in  many  other 
States  of  the  Union.  The  statistics  of  production  show  the  effects  of  elevation 
above  the  sea  of  portions  of  the  State,  giving  them  more  adaptability  to  natural 
grasses  and  to  the  dairy  business. 

Sheep  have  always  thriven  in  Virginia,  and  the  wool  here  grown  has  an  estab- 
lished reputation  for  excellence  of  quality.  Wherever  the  business  of  rearing 
sheep,  for  wool  or  for  mutton,  has  been  judiciously  conducted,  it  has  proven 
remunerative.  Few  States  have  as  many  special  adaptations  for  sheep  husbandry 
— extensive  areas  of  cheap,  elevated  lands,  covered  with  natural  grasses;  broad 
plains  suited  for  root  culture;  short  winters  and  a  comparatively  dry  climate, 
with  nearness  to  markets. 

Experience  has  shown  that  lambs  can  be  raised  in  Virginia,  in  the  spring,  and 
sent  to  the  great  Northern  markets  long  before  they  can  be  put  there  from  the 
farms  nearer;  consequently  good  prices  can  be  realized.  The  low  priced  lands  of 
Tidewater  and  Middle  Virginia  are  especially  well  situated  for  thus  supplying 
early  lambs,  and  large  areas  there  are  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  swedes, 
mangolds,  and  other  crops  that  are  so  extensively  cultivated  in  England  and  else- 
where for  fattening  sheep. 

Angora  Goats  have  been  successfully  and  profitably  raised  in  Piedmont  and 
Middle  Virginia,  furnishing  large  fleeces  of  the  valuable  cashmere  wool. 

Bees  find  in  the  sections  of  this  State  an  abundant  flora,  and  the  long  and 
comparatively  dry  seasons  are  peculiarly  favorable  for  apiculture ;  especially  does 
this  seem  to  be  the  case  in  Piedmont,  where  large  profits  are  reaped  by  those  that 
have  given  some  attention  to  this  pleasant  home  industry. 

Swine  are  easily  and  cheaply  raised  in  all  portions  of  Virginia,  especially  in 
the  portions  abounding  in  forests,  where  they  subsist  much  of  the  year  on  the 
nuts  of  the  beech,  oak,  chestnut,  and  other  trees,  at  no  cost  to  their  owners;  in 
fact,  they  are  often  fattened  entirely  on  "  mast."  These  animals  can  be  reared 
more  cheaply  here  than  in  almost  any  other  part  of  the  country ;  consequently 
they  are  kept  in  large  numbers,  and  "  Virginia  bacon  "  has  a  valuable  reputation 
in  the  markets.  The  climate  is  credited  with  aiding  in  the  "  cure  "  of  hog  meat. 

Stock  and  Beef  Cattle— the  "  other  cattle  "  of  the  census— including  all  horned 
cattle,  except  milch  cows  and  working  oxen,  are  reared  in  large  numbers  in  all 
parts  of  Virginia,  but  especially  in  Piedmont,  the  Blue  Ridge,  the  Valley  and 
Apalachia,  where  stock  raising  is  an  important  and  profitable  branch  of  husban- 
dry. Large  numbers  of  fat  cattle  are  annually  sent  to  the  Eastern  markets  from 
the  rich  grass  lands  of  the  sections  named,  especially  from  the  portions  where  the 
nutritious  and  fattening  "blue  grass"  grows.  Many  young  stock  cattle  are  also 
sold  to  the  farmers  of  the  country  near  the  large  cities,  where  they  are  stall  fecf. 


84  VIRGINIA. 

There  are  vast  tracts  of  mountain  land  in  Virginia  that  furnish  a  "  range"  for 
young  cattle,  enabling  the  grazier  to  rear  them  at  but  little  expense.  These  tracts 
of  land  are  covered  by  a  growth  of  timber,  more  or  less  heavy,  beneath  which  is 
an  undergrowth  of  rich-weed,  wild  grasses,  &c.,  that  are  highly  nutritious,  and  on 
which  cattle  can  subsist  from  April  to  November.  The  stock  raising  capacity  of 
the  State  can  hardly  be  estimated,  so  great  is  it. 

The  Scale  and  Shell  Fish  of  Virginia  furnish  not  only  a  large  portion  of  the 
animal  food  of  thousands  of  the  people  of  Virginia,  especially  in  the  Tidewater 
country,  but  immense  numbers  are  taken  from  the  waters  of  this  and  shipped  to 
other  States. 

The  thousands  of  square  miles  of  Virginia  territory  covered  by  tidal  waters 
abound,  in  the  proper  seasons,  in  shad,  herring,  rock,  perch,  sturgeon,  sheep's-head, 
bass,  chub,  spots,  hogfish,  trout,  tailor,  Spanish  mackerel  and  other  fish,  besides 
crabs,  lobsters,  terrapins,  &c.  The  fishing  season  opens  early,  and  while  the 
waters  near  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  other  cities  in  a  higher  latitude  are  yet 
frozen,  the  shad  and  other  spring  fish  can  be  caught  in  Virginia  waters  and  sent 
to  Northern  and  Northwestern  markets,  where  they  command  high  prices.  Many 
of  the  fresh  water  streams  of  the  State  abound  in  many  kinds  of  fish,  and  both 
the  State  and  the  United  States  authorities  are  stocking  them  with  other  varieties. 
No  country  has  more  or  better  streams  for  fish  breeding. 

Oysters  are  found  in  all  the  tributaries  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  along  the 
Atlantic  coast,  giving  to  Tidewater  an  extensive  territory  where  this  valuable 
shell  fish  grows  naturally  and  where  it  can  be  propagated  and  reared  in  almost 
any  desired  quantity. 

An  industry  that  is  receiving  some  attention  and  will  be  largely  developed,  is 
the  raising  of  oysters.  For  some  years  the  supply  of  oysters  from  the  Chesapeake 
has  been  growing  less,  and  the  demand  increasing.  Under  the  present  system  of 
depletion,  the  supply  will  soon  be  altogether  inadequate  to  the  demand,  and  prices 
will  necessarily  be  higher  even  than  at  present,  and  the  man  who  has  a  well- 
stocked  "oyster  shore"  can  always  find  ready  sale  for  all  his  oysters  at  good 
prices.  There  is  little  expense  attending  the  business,  and  the  difference  between 
the  cost  of  the  oysters  "  bedded "  when  small,  and  the  price  realized  for  them  as 
"  cove  "  oysters  a  year  or  so  afterwards,  will  leave  a  wide  margin  of  profit.  There 
is  no  reason  why  the  artificial  propagation  of  oysters  should  not  be  conducted  on 
an  extensive  scale.  In  France  there  are  oyster  farms  that  pay  an  annual  profit  of 
$500  to  $600  an  acre. 

Birds  for  food  are  abundant,  especially  water  fowl,  in  the  great  marshes  and 
rivers  of  Tidewater,  where  canvas-back,  mallard,  creek,  red-head,  bald-face,  teal 
and  other  ducks,  geese,  swans,  sora,  &c.,  swarm  abundantly.  In  all  portions  of 
the  State  are  found  partridges  or  quails,  pigeons,  wild  doves,  grouse  or  pheasants, 
wild  turkeys,  and  other  game  birds. 

Wild  Deer  are  found  in  all  portions  of  the  State,  especially  in  Tidewater  and 
the  Middle  and  Mountain  sections. 

The  statistics  give  Virginia  most  ample  resources  of  animal  food,  sufficient 
for  a  population  many  times  as  numerous  as  she  now  has.  Nowhere  is  this  kind 
of  food  better  or  cheaper. 

This  State  has  always  been  noted  for  the  general  excellence  of  the  horses  and 
mules  bred  in  it,  and  it  is  well  known  that  they  can  be  reared  cheaply  in  almost 
any  section. 

VEGETABLE  PBODUCTIONS. — Virginia  has  a  rich  and  abundant  native  flora, 
and  the  introduced  plants,  the  cereals,  grasses  and  others,  that  in  temperate 
climates  are  objects  of  cultivation,  here  have  found  favorable  soils  and  congenial 
climates.  Here  grow  and  yield  abundantly  the  "plants  good  for  food"  both  for 


VIRGINIA.  85 

man  and  beast,  and  those  employed  in  manufactures.    Timber  trees  of  many  kinds 
abound  in  all  sections  of  the  State. 

A  comparison  of  the  production  of  cereals  with  any  other  country  presents 
Virginia  in  a  most  favorable  light  as  a  grain-producing  region,  while  nearness  to 
markets  adds  largely  to  the  value  of  the  products. 

Indian  Corn  is  the  staple  bread  grain  of  most  sections  of  the  State,  except  the 
Valley ;  the  laboring  rural  population,  in  many  portions,  use  it  almost  exclusively. 

In  Tidewater  both  sweet  and  Irish  potatoes  are  a  staple  crop,  the  former  having 
a  high  reputation  in  market  for  their  superior  quality.  The  latter  are  sent  to 
market  very  early  in  the  season.  Except  in  the  Tidewater  section,  where  market 
gardening  has  become  a  leading  industry,  potatoes,  as  a  rule,  are  only  raised  in 
Virginia  for  family  consumption;  they  are  not  fed  to  stock,  nor,  except  from 
Tidewater,  sent  to  distant  markets.  There  is  no  question  but  that  more  use 
should  be  made  of  this  prolific  and  easily  raised  article  of  human  and  animal  food. 

Peas  and  Beans  are  not  cultivated  in  Virgina  to  the  extent  they  should  be 
when  account  is  taken  of  the  large  areas  so  admirably  adapted  to  their  cultivation, 
so  much  more  so  than  to  the  production  of  maize,  that  requires  a  strong  soil, 
which  it  rapidly  exhausts.  Only  in  Tidewater  and  parts  of  Middle  Virginia  are 
peas  and  beans  farm  products. 

Oats  and  Barley,  cereals  not  used  here  for  human  food,  are  important  Virginia 
crops,  especially  the  former.  Barley  is  only  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent,  though 
it  always  does  well,  and  it  could  be  most  advantageously  grown  for  exportation, 
since  the  climate  would  give  it  generally  the  quality  it  has  only  in  occasional 
seasons  in  England,  when  it  bears  a  high  price. 

TJie  products  of  orchards  and  market  gardens  in  Virginia  are  large  and  valu- 
able, much  more  so  than  is  indicated  by  the  returns  of  the  census.  Every  portion 
of  the  State  is  remarkably  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  fruits  of  the  warm- 
temperate  and  temperate  climates. 

In  Tidewater  Virginia,  apples,  pears,  peaches,  quinces,  plums,  cherries,  necta- 
rines, grapes,  figs,  strawberries,  raspberries,  gooseberries,  currants  and  other  fruits 
thrive  and  produce  abundantly,  the  quality  of  the  products  being  unsurpassed,  as 
the  awards  of  the  American  Pomological  Society  attest.  The  value  of  the  small 
fruits  alone  annually  sent  to  market  from  Tidewater  is  more  than  the  sums  for 
orchards  and  gardens.  The  trade  in  early  strawberries  is  one  of  large  proportions. 
Especial  mention  should  be  made  of  the  wild  Scuppernong  grapes,  peculiar  to  the 
Tidewater  Country  near  the  sea,  which  spread  over  the  forests  and  bear  large 
crops  of  excellent  fruit,  from  which  a  very  palatable  wine  is  made.  The  originals 
of  the  Catawba,  Norton's  Virginia  and  other  esteemed  American  grapes  grow 
wild  in  the  forests  of  Virginia. 

All  the  fruits  named  above  grow  in  every  section  of  the  State,  except, 
perhaps,  figs.  Piedmont,  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Valley  are  famous  apple  regions, 
'caches  nourish  in  all  sections,  but  Middle  and  Tidewater  may  claim  some  prece- 
lence  in  adaptability.  The  Blue  Ridge  is  entitled  to  the  name  of  the  "  fruit  belt," 
and  its  extensive  area  is  yet  to  become  the  most  noted  wine  and  fruit-producing 
section  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  All  the  fruits  of 
Virginia  nourish  there  in  a  remarkable  manner,  and  find  special  adaptations  of 
soil,  climate  and  exposure. 

No  country  can  be  better  situated  for  market  gardening  than  Tidewater 
Virginia.  It  is  from  14  to  36  hours  by  water  from  Baltimore,  Washington,  Phila- 
delphia, New  York  and  Boston,  the  centres  of  population  of  the  Atlantic  slope  of 
the  United  States.  At  the  same  time,  its  seasons  are  from  one  to  two  months 
earlier,  giving  an  advantage  of  fully  a  double  price  for  its  garden  products  over 
the  country  in  the  vicinity  of  those  cities. 


86  VIRGINIA. 

The  home  gardens  are  not  considered  in  any  of  the  "  returns  "  of  the  produc- 
tions of  Virginia,  where  potatoes,  Irish  and  sweet,  corn,  peas,  beans,  onions,  beets, 
parsnips,  radishes,  lettuce,  celery,  salsify,  asparagus,  melons  and  squashes  of 
numerous  kinds,  carrots,  okra,  tomatoes,  &c.,  &c.,  are  raised  in  the  greatest 
abundance,  and  form  a  portion  of  the  daily  food  of  the  entire  population. 

The  Peanut  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Tidewater.  Isle  of  Wight,  Surry  and 
Sussex  are  very  notable  counties  for  production  of  peanuts.  Sandy  and  light 
soils  are  suited  to  their  growth. 

Vegetable  Sweets  are  produced  in  Virginia  from  the  sugar  maple  and  the 
Chinese  sugar-cane. 

The  Wine  crop  of  Virginia  is  a  small  one,  compared  with  the  extensive  terri- 
tory here  found  that  is  especially  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  vine,  both  by  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  the  conditions  of  the  climate.  Fully  2,000,000  acres  of 
land  in  Virginia  have  soils  and  exposures  similar  to  those  of  the  most  noted  wine- 
producing  sections  of  Europe,  and  the  seasons  ,are  so  long  that  the  grape  has 
ample  time  to  fully  mature  and  develop  its  natural  juices,  fitting  them  for  the 
manufacture  of  pure  wine.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  vines  here  grown  are 
free  from  diseases,  and  that  they  may  be  relied  on  for  abundant  crops. 

The  Blue  Ridge  offers  great  advantages  for  viticulture.  One  vineyard  on  it 
in  Warren  County  of  75  acres  produces  from  20,000  to  30,000  gallons  of  wine  and 
from  6,000  to  10,000  gallons  of  brandy  annually,  the  yield  being  from  300  to  500 
gallons  per  acre.  The  "  red  lands  "  of  the  Piedmont  Section  are  famous  for  their 
fitness  for  this  pleasant  and  profitable  industry.  There  are  many  localities  in  the 
other  sections  of  the  State  where  the  vine  flourishes.  Early  grapes  are  sent  in 
considerable  quantities  from  Virginia  to  Northern  aud  Eastern  markets.  Mention 
has  been  made  of  the  Scuppernong  grape  of  Tidewater,  marvellous  for  the  space 
a  single  vine  will  cover  and  the  quantity  of  fruit  and  wine  it  will  produce.  There 
is  no  more  inviting  field  for  the  vigneron  than  Virginia. 

Tobacco  is  a  staple  product  of  Virginia.  The  "  Virginia  Leaf"  is  noted  the 
world  over  for  its  excellence,  the  result  of  manipulation  as  well  as  of  soil  and 
climate.  The  soils  of  the  Piedmont  and  the  Middle  Sections  are  among  the  best 
for  the  growth  of  good  tobacco ;  those  of  Middle  produce  the  finest  and  most 
valuable.  Tidewater  is  the  region  for  Cuba  and  Latukiah  varieties,  while  immense 
crops  of  coarse  and  heavy  tobaccos  are  grown  on  the  rich  lands  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  the  Valley  and  Apalachia. 

It  should  be  noted  that  tobacco  culture  is  not  an  exclusive  one  in  any  part  of 
Virginia.  Large  crops  of  grain  and  roots  are  raised  on  the  same  plantations. 

Cotton  is  grown  in  the  southeastern  counties  of  Virginia,  between  the  James 
River  and  the  North  Carolina  line.  The  State  ranks  twelfth  in  cotton  production, 
the  census  of  1880  showing  an  annual  product  of  19,595  bales. 

Grass  is  one  of  the  abundant  productions  of  Virginia,  much  of  its  territory 
being  inside  the  limits  of  "  natural  grasses,"  and  all  of  it  is  adapted  to  the  vigorous 
growth  of  the  "  artificial "  or  cultivated  ones.  But  the  character  of  its  climate 
does  not  require  a  large  stowing  away  of  hay;  therefore  it  does  not  "figure" 
largely  in  the  returns.  A  reference  to  the  number  of  cattle  in  each  section  of  the 
State  makes  the  quantity  of  hay  produced  appear  very  small  in  proportion,  but  it 
shows  that  the  pastures  can  be  relied  on  for  most  of  the  year,  owing  to-  the  mild- 
ness of  the  climate,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  stock-feeder.  It  is  true  that  a 
large  quantity  of  long  forage  is  obtained  from  the  "  tops,  blades  and  stalks "  of 
Indian  corn,  which,  where  this  is  a  staple  crop,  take  the  place  of  hay  for  home 
consumption,  and  leave  the  hay  for  market,  if  desired. 

Fine  crops  of  hay  are  made  from  cultivated  grasses  in  all  portions  of  the 
State,  but  the  natural  meadows  are  mostly  in  Piedmont,  Blue  Ridge,  the  Valley 


VIRGINIA.  87 

and  Apalachia.  The  "  Hay  Map  "  of  the  Statistical  Atlas  of  the  United  States 
shades  these  sections  the  same  as  it  does  most  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  &c.,  and  as  more  productive  than  most  of  Ten- 
nessee and  Kentucky. 

The  perennial  grasses  of  Piedmont,  the  Blue  Ridge,  the  Valley  and  Apalachia, 
including  the  noted  "blue  grass,"  are  famed  for  their  nutritious  and  fattening 
qualities,  and  place  these  among  the  most  highly  favored  grazing  regions  in  the 
world.  Nowhere,  save  on  the  great  plains  of  Texas  and  the  extreme  West,  or 
South  America,  can  cattle  be  reared  and  fattened  more  cheaply  than  in  these  sec- 
tions of  Virginia,  as  has  been  proven  by  the  investigations  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.  The  Valley  leads  in  the  production  of  hay  and  seeds ; 
Piedmont  follows.  The  meadows  of  the  low  country  in  Virginia  have  an  advan- 
tage in  the  early  "  haying  "  time,  and  where  not  too  remote  from  the  great  cities, 
much  profit  can  be  gained  by  being  early  in  market.  Tidewater  and  Middle 
Virginia  have  many  fine  alluvial  meadows,  and  the  salt  marshes  of  the  former 
yield  fine  crops  of  hay  and  perpetual  pastures. 

The  crops  of  clover  and  grass  seeds  are  unusually  large  where  they  are  made 
an  object ;  the  long  seasons  seem  to  give  a  larger  yield  of  good  seed.  The  first 
crop  of  clover  for  the  year  is  generally  cut  for  hay — it  has  so  large  a  growth;  and 
seed  is  taken  from  the  less  rank  second  growth. 

Flax  grows  well  in  all  portions  of  Virginia,  though  little  attention  is  now 
given  to  its  cultivation.  The  elevated  mountain  valleys  suit  it  admirably. 

Castor  Beans  are  raised  in  considerable  quantities,  especially  on  the  Eastern 
Shore  of  Tidewater. 

The  warm  thin  lands  of  Tidewater  and  the  Middle  country  offer  many  advan- 
tages for  growing  Garden  Herbs  and  Perfumery  Plants  and  Shrubs  on  an  extensive 
scale — the  requisite  heat  and  dryness  of  climate  can  there  be  found. 

Hops  are  only  raised  for  domestic  use,  except  in  a  few  cases.  When  planted 
the  vines  grow  luxuriantly  and  bear  well. 

Large  areas  of  land,  similar  to  the  hop  lands  of  Kent,  in  England,  and  to  those 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  can  be  found  in  Virginia,  and  hop  culture  could  be 
advantageously  undertaken  in  many  localities,  to  vary  the  industrial  productions. 
Ramie  and  Jute,  most  valuable  textile  plants,  could,  without  doubt,  be  most 
advantageously  and  successfully  cultivated  on  the  deep  and  rich  second  bottoms 
and  reclaimed  swamp  lands  of  Tidewater.  Ramie  is  a  perennial,  and  the  stalks 
are  cut  three  or  four  times  in  a  year.  Millions  of  bales  of  jute  are  now  annually 
consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  gunny-bags,  grain  sacks,  &c. 

The  products  of  the  forests  of  Virginia  are  large,  varied  and  important. 
TIDEWATER  VIRGINIA  has  extensive  forests  of  pine  (the  noted  yellow  Vir- 
ginia,) oak,  cypress,  cedar,  locust,  &c.,  from  which  large  quantities  of  sawed 
lumber  and  timber,  staves,  heading,  hoop-poles,  shingles,  railway  ties,  fire  wood, 
&c.,  are  constantly  shipped,  very  often  from  the  edges  of  the  forests,  since  sailing 
vessels  can  penetrate  all  portions  of  the  section — directly  to  all  the  seaboard 
markets  of  the  country.  Sumac  is  here  an  abundant  shrub. 

The  MIDDLE  SECTION  has  large  areas  of  superior  hard  pine,  black,  white  and 
other  oaks,  hickory,  locust,  persimmon,  gum,  cedar,  holly,  and  other  trees,  from 
which  much  excellent  lumber,  tan  bark,  &c.,are  sent  over  the  railways  and  canals 
that  penetrate  and  cross  it  to  various  markets.  Sassafras  and  sumac  are  plentiful, 
and  the  former  could  advantageously  be  made  a  staple  crop  on  the  ridge  lands. 

PIEDMONT  has  considerable  forest  land  with  many  varieties  of  oak,  hickory, 
tulip-poplar,  black  walnut,  locust,  cedar,  chestnut,  pine,  and  other  timber  trees, 
but  it  can  hardly  be  considered  a  source  of  supply  for  timber  for  exportation,  save 
in  a  few  localities.  Sumac  and  sassafras  abound. 


88  VIRGINIA. 

The  BLUE  RIDGE  is  mostly  covered  with  forests  of  oak,  white,  black,  red, 
rock,  &c.,  hickory,  chestnut,  locust,  birch,  some  excellent  yellow  pines,  and  other 
trees.  This  section  has  furnished  great  quantities  of  charcoal  for  the  manufacture 
of  iron  from  the  ores  of  its  western  margin,  and  it  will  long  be  a  source  of  supply, 
so  rapidly  do  its  forests  renew  themselves.  The  timber  supply  of  pine  and  other 
woods  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  Valley  is  drawn  from  the  Blue  Ridge.  Here  is 
found  much  valuable  hard  wood,  as  hickory  and  oak  for  wagon  and  agricultural 
implement  making.  This  is  yet  to  become  a  most  important  source  of  supply  for 
oak  tanbark  to  convert  into  quercitron  for  exportation,  or  to  be  used  in  the 
country  for  tanning.  Almost  any  quantity  of  oak  bark  can  be  obtained  from  this 
extensive  range. 

The  VALLEY  has  nearly  half  its  surface  covered  by  a  growth  of  oaks,  hicko- 
ries and  locusts,  interspersed  with  black  and  white  walnuts,  yellow  and  other  pines, 
all  having  a  uniform  age  of  150  to  200  years.  This  timber,  while  not  the  largest, 
is  of  the  very  best  quality,  and  no  well  settled  portion  of  the  Union  can  ofter  a 
larger  quantity  of  timber  suitable  for  wagon,  carriage,  railroad  car,  cabinet  and 
other  work,  for  which  hard,  sound  and  durable  woods  are  required.  The  slaty 
lands  abound  in  sumac. 

The  APALACHIAN  COUNTRY  is  both  rich  and  poor  in  forestal  wealth.  On  the 
sandstone  mountain  ranges,  and  in  the  slate  and  shale  valleys,  the  trees  are  small 
but  the  growth  is  dense,  consisting  of  oaks  and  other  hard  woods,  pines,  &c.,  good 
for  charcoal,  with  larger  trees  in  the  hollows  and  more  fertile  spots.  On  the  lime- 
stone ridges  and  adjacent  valleys,  as  also  in  the  calcareous  and  some  shale  valleys, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  oaks,  walnuts,  white  and  yellow  tulip-poplars,  birches, 
beeches,  locusts,  cherries,  sycamores,  and  other  timber  trees,  are  found  of  a  sound 
growth  and  very  large  size,  often  several  feet  in  diameter,  straight  and  without  a 
limb  for  fifty  to  eighty  feet  from  the  ground.  Only  portions  of  this  region  have 
been  reached  by  railroads,  and  extensive  forests  of  the  best  of  timber  for  nearly 
all  purposes  await  the  progress  of  internal  improvements  and  future  demands. 
There  are  some  extensive  forests  of  white  pine  and  of  the  more  common  varieties 
of  the  fir  tribe,  but  generally  the  Coniferae,  suitable  for  timber,  are  not  abundant 
in  the  forests  of  this  section.  It  is  fortunate  that  there  is  so  much  excellent 
coaling  timber  here  in  the  vicinity  of  large  deposits  of  easily  fused  ores  of  iron. 
It  is  from  these  mountain  forests  that  ginseng,  snake  root,  sarsaparilla  and  other 
medical  plants  are  obtained. 

Forest  Fruits,  such  as  blackberries,  whortleberries,  cranberries,  strawberries, 
dewberries,  haws,  persimmons,  service  berries,  thorn  and  crab  apples,  wild  plums 
and  cherries,  are  found  in  boundless  abundance  in  nearly  all  the  unoccupied  lands 
and  in  the  forests  of  Virginia,  where,  in  their  season,  they  may  be  had  for  the 
picking  by  any  one  that  is  inclined  to  gather  them.  Not  only  are  thousands  of 
bushels  of  these  wild  fruits  annually  gathered  for  home  use  and  sale  in  home 
markets,  but  they  are  dried  or  canned  for  exportation,  furnishing  important  and 
valuable  articles  of  commerce. 

Nuts  are  found  in  all  sections,  embracing  chestnuts,  chinquapins,  black 
walnuts,  white  walnuts  or  butter  nuts,  hickory  nuts  of  several  kinds,  hazel  nuts, 
beech  nuts,  acorns  of  many  varieties,  &c. 

MINERALS. 

The  mineral  resources  of  the  State  may  be  summed  up  as  consisting— 

In  TIDEWATER  VIRGINIA — of  several  kinds  of  marls,  greensancl,  &c.,  highly 
esteemed  as  fertilizers ;  of  choice  clays,  sands  and  shell-limestones,  for  building 
purposes. 

In  the  MIDDLE  SECTION — of  fine  granites,  gneiss,  brownstone,  sandstone, 
brick-clays, fire-clays,  soapstones,  marble,  slates,  &c.,  for  building  materials;  epidote 


VIRGINIA.  89 

in  various  forms  and  limestone  for  fertilizing  uses ;  gold,  silver,  copper,  specular, 
magnetic,  hematite  and  other  ores  of  iron  in  abundance;  bituminous  coal,  &c. 

In  PIEDMONT  VIRGINIA — granitic  building  stones,  marbles,  sandstones,  brick 
and  fire  clays;  epidotic  rocks  and  limestone,  for  improving  the  soil;  magnetic, 
hematite  and  other  ores  of  iron ;  barytes,  lead,  manganese,  &c. 

In  the  BLUE  RIDGE  DISTRICT — various  and  abundant  ores  of  copper ;  immense 
deposits  of  specular  and  brown  hematite  and  other  iron  ores;  greenstone  rocks, 
rich  in  all  the  elements  of  fertility ;  sandstones  and  freestones ;  glass  sand  and 
manganese ;  brick  and  fire-clays. 

In  the  VALLEY — limestones  of  all  kinds,  for  building  and  agricultural  uses; 
marbles,  slates,  freestones  and  sandstones ;  brick  and  fire-clays,  kaolin,  barytes ; 
hematite  iron  ores,  lead  and  zinc  in  abundance ;  semi-anthracite  coal,  travertine 
marls,  &c. 

In  the  APALACHIAN  COUNTRY — limestones,  marbles,  sand  and  freestones; 
slates,  calcareous  marls,  brick  clays,  &c.;  various  deposits  of  red,  brown  and  other 
ores  of  iron,  plaster,  salt,  &c.,  and  a  large  area  of  all  varieties  of  bituminous  coal. 

COAL. 

Prior  to  1883  comparatively  little  coal  was  mined  in  Virginia,  the  output  of 
1880  being  less  than  50,000  tons,  but  during  that  year  the  Flat  Top  coal  regions 
were  opened  up  mainly  by  the  Southwest  Virginia  Improvement  Company,  the 
Norfolk  and  Western  Railroad  having  been  extended  to  this  section.  In  1883  this 
company  mined  99,871  tons  of  coal,  and  in  1884,  283,252  tons.  There  are  now 
several  other  companies  developing  coal  mines  in  the  same  territory,  and  the  pros- 
pects are  good  for  a  very  important  coal  mining  interest  growing  up  in  that 
section.  The  coal  is  of  excellent  quality  both  for  steam  purposes  and  for  coke 
making,  and  as  the  Norfolk  and  Western  Railroad  Company  have  built  at  Norfolk, 
Va.,  one  of  the  largest  coal  piers  in  the  world  for  shipping  this  coal,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  there  will  be  a  large  increase  in  the  amount  of  coal  produced  at  these 
mines  during  the  next  few  years.  This  will  naturally  result  in  making  Norfolk 
an  important  coal  shipping  port,  and  coaling  station  for  foreign  steamships.  The 
distance  from  these  mines  to  Norfolk  is  about  378  miles.  For  coking  purposes, 
this  coal,  as  already  stated,  has  proved  very  satisfactory,  and  Col.  D.  F.  Houston, 
the  general  manager  of  the  Crozer  Steel  and  Iron  Company's  100-ton  furnace  at 
Roanoke,  writing  of  it,  says :  "  We  have  been  using  coke  made  from  the  Flat 
Top  coal  at  Pocahontas  for  the  past  ten  months,  and  find  it  equal  to  Connellsville 
coke,  which  we  used  the  first  two  months  of  our  blast." 

This  is  of  great  importance  in  the  future  development  of  Southwest  Virginia 
as  an  iron  making  region,  as  it  brings  the  necessary  cheap  and  good  fuel  within 
convenient  distance  of  the  large  supplies  of  iron  ore  accessible  on  New  River, 
Cripple  Creek  and  elsewhere. 

It  may  with  safety  be  predicted  that  in  a  few  years  Virginia  will  take  an 
important  rank  as  a  coal  producing  State.  And  she  will  moreover  have  two 
important  coal  ports:  Norfolk  receiving  and  shipping  the  steadily  increasing 
quantity  of  coal  brought  from  the  Flat  Top  coal  field  by  the  Norfolk  and  Western 
Railroad,  and  Newport  News,  already  doing  a  heavy  business  in  West  Virginia 
coal  mined  along  the  line  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Railroad,  and  carried  by 
that  road  to  tidewater  at  Newport  News. 

IRON  ORE. 

In  writing  of  the  iron-ore  resources  of  Southwest  Virginia,  Mr.  Andrew 
McCreath,  in  his  "  Mineral  Wealth  of  Virginia,"  says : 

"  The  most  important  development  of  the  brown  hematite  ores  along  the 
Norfolk  and  Western  Railroad  system,  and,  considering  their  richness  and  char- 


90  VIRGINIA. 

-acter,  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  country,  is  the  great  iron-ore  belt  which  is 
opened  up  by  the  Cripple  Creek  extension.  The  railroad  passes  for  miles  through 
rich  outcrops  of  iron  ore,  with  numerous  mines  now  opened  and  worked  to  supply 
the  small  charcoal  furnaces  of  the  region. 

"  This  iron-ore  region  is  for  the  most  part  embraced  in  Pulaski,  Wythe  and 
Smyth  Counties,  in  Southwest  Virginia.  The  ores  lie  on  both  sides  of  New  River 
and  Cripple  Creek,  and  the  railroad  line  following  these  streams  renders  the  whole 
ore  supply  practically  available  for  market. 

"The  limestone  ores  of  the  Cripple  Creek  region  show  as  high  a  general 
character  as  any  brown  hematite  ores  mined  in  the  country.  The  result  of 
numerous  analyses  shows  an  average  richness  in  metallic  iron  oif  over  54  per  cent, 
in  the  ore  dried  at  212°  F.,  with  about  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of  phosphorus. 
This  unusually  fine  character  is  found  to  be  very  uniform  through  all  the  numerous 
mines  and  outcrops  examined.  It  is  somewhat  extraordinary  that  not  only  is  there 
this  regularity  in  the  percentage  of  iron,  but  also  that  the  phosphorus  shows  a 
great  uniformity  in  specimens  taken  widely  apart ;  and  in  no  case  has  it  been 
found  to  exceed  two-tenths  of  one  per  cent.  The  quality  of  the  ore  is  such  that 
it  smelts  very  easily  in  the  furnace,  and  it  should  require  a  minimum  amount  of 
both  flux  and  fuel. 

"  The  mountain  ores  of  the  Cripple  Creek  region  have  been  but  little  worked, 
owing  to  the  greater  accessibility  of  the  limestone  deposits. 

"Geologically,  these  mountain  ores  represent  the  same  horizon  as  those  which 
have  been  extensively  worked  in  numerous  other  places,  which  have  so  frequently 
afforded  large  quantities  of  good  ore,  and  which  are  now  furnishing  the  regular 
supplies  to  the  Crozer  Furnace  at  Roanoke  and  to  the  Gem  Furnace  at  Milnes. 

"  The  quantity  of  iron  ore  in  the  Cripple  Creek  region  is  undoubtedly  very 
great.  The  limestone  deposits  occur  in  clefts  and  cavities  of  the  limestone  mixed 
with  clay,  but  in  this  district  rarely  with  any  flint.  The  method  of  occurrence  is 
such  that  the  banks  will  yield  widely  varying  quantities  of  ore.  Some  of  them 
have  been  worked  for  many  years,  and  shafts  are  reported  to  have  been  sunk  100 
feet  in  ore-bearing  clays  with  bottom  of  shaft  still  in  ore.  Frequently  the  ore- 
bearing  material  is  of  unusual  richness,  yielding  in  the  washer  fully  one-half 
clean  ore. 

"The  developed  mines  represent  but  a  part  of  the  limestone  ore  deposits,  as 
there  are  numerous  rich  and  widely  extended  outcrops  of  iron  ore  which  have 
either  as  yet  never  been  tested,  or  else  only  a  few  shallow  pits  have  been  sunk 
just  sufficient  to  show  that  the  ore  continues  below  the  surface,  without  deter- 
mining its  depth. 

"  Facilities  for  economical  mining  are  possessed  by  this  region  in  a  marked 
degree,  tor  the  limestone  ores  are  very  free  from  flint,  and  are  generally  found  in, 
a  loose  granular  clay  which  is  easily  washed  out;  there  is  abundance  of  water  for 
washing  purposes,  both  in  the  branch  streams  and  in  Cripple  Creek  itself;  the  ore 
deposits  are  geographically  and  topographically  well  situated  for  mining,  and  the 
ore-bearing  material  is  frequently  of  unusual  richness.  As  a  result  of  all  these 
favorable  circumstances,  the  region  is  to-day  producing  very  cheap  limestone  ore, 
and  the  amount  of  such  cheap  limestone  ore  can  be  quickly  and  largely  increased. 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  district  can  compare  favorably  in  the  cost  of  production 
with  any  other  brown  hematite  iron  ore  producing  region." 

PIG  IRON. 

The  production  of  pig  iron  in  Virginia  has  shown  a  very  rapid  increase  during 
the  last  five  years.  The  advantages  possessed  by  that  State  for  making  iron  are 
probably  not  surpassed  by  any  other  section  of  our  country,  when  the  cost,  trans- 
portation facilities  and  nearness  to  consuming  markets  are  taken  into  account. 
Since  1880  Virginia  has  increased  her  production  of  pig  iron  from  29,934  tons  to 
157,483  tons — a  rate  of  increase  that  is  surprisingly  large.  The  gain  has  been  steady 
from  year  to  year  without  any  fluctuation.  In  1880  the  production  was  29,934  tons ; 
in  1881, 83,711  tons;  in  1882, 87,731  tons;  in  1883, 152,907, and  in  1884, 157,483  tons, 
showing  an  increase  in  1884  even,  as  compared  with  1883,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  aggregate  production  of  pig  iron  in  the  whole  country  in  1884  was 
557,000  tons  less  than  in  1883,  owing  to  the  general  industrial  depression.  The 
cost  of  making  pig  iron  in  the  South  is  a  much  disputed  question.  There  are 
some  who  claim  that  it  can  be  produced  at  extremely  low  figures,  even  $8  and  $9 


VIRGINIA.  91 

a  ton  being  often  mentioned,  while  others  are  equally  as  positive  that  the  cost  is 
much  greater.  In  the  first  class  there  are  probably  some  who  are  interested  either 
in  selling  mineral  lands  or  in  seeking  to  develop  some  special  locality,  while 
among  the  second  class  would  doubtless  be  found  some  who  have  private  reasons 
for  making  the  cost  appear  larger  than  it  really  is.  There  is,  however,  a  middle 
ground  which  will  bring  us  very  near  to  the  truth.  Probably  the  most  reliable 
and  unbiased  statements  regarding  the  cost  of  pig  iron  making  in  Virginia  are 
those  of  Prof.  McCreath,  already  quoted.  Prof.  McCreath  is  chemist  to  the  State 
Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  and  consequently  can  hardly  be  accused  of 
being  partial  to  Virginia ;  moreover,  he  was  recommended  for  this  work  by  many 
of  the  leading  iron  makers  of  Pennsylvania.  After  a  thorough  examination,  he 
submitted  the  following  estimates  as  to  the  cost  of  making  pig  iron  in  Virginia 
and  in  Pennsylvania: 

COST  OP  MAKING  IRON  IN  VIRGINIA. 

AT   M1LNES. 

Ore $  4  So 

Coke 5  25 

Limestone 30 

Labor i  50 

Incidentals i  oo 

Total  cost  per  ton $12  55  $13  04  $12  58  $11  95  $11  03 

COST  OP  MAKING  IRON  IN  PENNSYLVANIA. 

MIDDLE  LOWER  LEHIGH 

PENNSYLVANIA.       HARRISBURG.       SUSQUEHANNA.       VALLEY.  PITTSBURGH. 

Ore $  7  75  $  7  5<>  £725  $800  $1000 

Fuel,  coal  and  coke..       4  62  4  50  4  95  5  oo  3  oo 

Limestone i  oo  85  56  77  77 

Sentals.  \ 3  25  325  325  325  3*5 


BUCHANAN. 

ROANOKE. 

PULASKI.          CRIPPLE   CREEK. 

$  4  73 

$  4  79 
3  69 

$  4  79 

$  3  40 
388 

60 

75 

60 

50 

2   00 

2    10 

2    00 

2   00 

I    25 

i  25 

I    25 

I    25 

Total  cost  per  ton..  $16  62        $16  10        $16  01      $17  02      $17  02 

The  figures  for  Milnes,  Virginia,  are  the  actual  cost  of  making  coke  pig  iron 
at  the  large  furnace  located  there ;  and  while  the  figures  for  Roanoke  were  given 
when  made  as  estimates,  they  are  confirmed  by  the  general  manager  of  the  Crozer 
Steel  and  Iron  Company  of  Roanoke,  who  puts  the  actual  cost  at  his  furnace  at 
$12.60.  It  is  possible— indeed,  quite  probable — that  the  economies  lately  intro- 
duced into  iron  making,  forced,  as  they  were,  upon  furnace  owners  by  the  extreme 
depression  of  1884,  have  made  somewhat  of  a  reduction  from  the  foregoing  figures 
as  to  the  cost  of  iron  making  in  Virginia.  Prior  to  the  severe  business  depression 
that  at  this  writing  appears  to  be  passing  away,  a  large  number  of  companies  had 
been  organized  and  chartered  to  erect  furnaces  in  different  parts  of  Virginia,  and 
but  for  this  depression,  probably  half  a  dozen  large  furnaces  of  an  aggregate 
capacity  of  150,000  to  200,000  tons  annually  would  now  be  under  construction  in 
that  State.  These  companies,  having  their  charters  already  secured,  will  no  doubt 
take  advantage  of  the  first  decided  improvement  in  the  iron  trade  and  commence 
the  erection  of  their  furnaces,  and  thus  add  to  the  steadily  increasing  production 
of  pig  iron  in  Virginia. 

MANUFACTURES. 

In  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  manufactures,  Virginia  at  the  taking  of 
the  census  in  1880,  was  surpassed  by  only  two  of  the  Southern  States — Maryland 
and  Kentucky.  Next  to  Virginia  came  Georgia  with  $20,672,410  invested  in 
manufacturing,  against  $26,968,990  in  the  former  State.  In  1880  Virginia  had 
5,710  manufacturing  establishments,  employing  30,184  hands,  and  producing 
manufactured  products  to  the  extent  of  $51,780,992.  These  figures,  however^give 
but  little  idea  as  to  the  extent  of  manufactures  in  this  State  at  present,  as  the  last 
four  years  have  been  very  active  ones  in  the  building  up  of  the  industrial  interests 
ot  Virginia.  In  1880  for  instance,  Virginia  produced  only  29,943  tons  of  pig  iron, 


92  VIRGINIA. 

while  in  1884  nearly  153,000  tons  were  made  in  that  State ;  in  1880  the  cotton 
mills  of  the  State  had  44,000  spindles,  while  in  1884  they  had  66,000.  These  are 
but  illustrations  of  the  general  industrial  progress  of  Virginia,  though  possibly  in 
other  interests  the  development  has  been  somewhat  less  rapid.  It  has  lately  been 
stated  by  a  good  authority  that  in  one  county  alone  $5,000,000  had  been  invested 
in  manufacturing  and  mining  industries  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  of  this  the 
bulk  has  been  invested  since  1880.  In  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  Virginia  takes 
a  high  rank,  the  product  of  her  immense  tobacco  factories  being  found  in  nearly 
if  not  every  civilized  country  of  the  world.  As  in  North  Carolina,  this  business 
is  rapidly  increasing,  and  lately  a  number  of  important  tobacco  manufacturing 
enterprises  have  been  organized  in  the  State.  The  flour  milling  interest  is  a  very 
large  and  flourishing  one,  the  excellent  quality  of  Virginia  wheat  enabling  the 
millers  to  produce  a  superior  quality  of  flour  in  much  demand  outside  of  the 
State,  and  especially  in  South  America,  where  very  large  quantities  of  Richmond 
flour  are  annually  consumed. 

The  manufacture  of  machinery  is  probably  carried  on  more  extensively  in 
Virginia  than  in  any  of  the  other  Southern  States,  excepting  Maryland  and  possi- 
bly Kentucky,  though  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  statistics  on  this,  later  than  the 
census  reports  of  1880,  and  they  are  of  little  value  so  far  as  the  present  industrial 
position  of  the  Southern  States  is  concerned.  At  Richmond  and  Roanoke  there 
are  machine  shops  of  enormous  size  and  capacity,  equalling  in  extent  and  in  the 
character  of  the  work  turned  out,  the  largest  machine  shops  to  be  found  in  the 
North.  These  shops  not  only  make  the  general  run  of  machinery  such  as 
engines,  boilers,  saw  mills,  &c.,  but  they  also  do  a  very  large  amount  of  railroad 
work,  some  of  the  locomotives  manufactured  by  them  being  equal  to  the  best 
made.  In  nearly  all  portions  of  the  State  manufactures  are  receiving  increased 
attention,  and  strong  efforts  are  made  by  the  press  and  the  people  to  encourage 
the  manufacturing  interests. 

OYSTER  INTERESTS. 

In  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributaries,  Maryland  and  Virginia  have  a 
magnificent  source  of  wealth.  This  bay  has  long  been  noted  as  containing  the 
most  extensive  and  valuable  oyster  beds  in  the  world.  It  is  true  that  these  oyster 
beds  are  gradually  being  depleted  by  excessive  dredging;  but  as  this  will  drive  the 
oystermen  into  the  regular  cultivation  of  oysters,  and  thus  increase  their  profits 
and  enlarge  the  annual  yield,  it  can  hardly  be  looked  upon  as  a  permanent  injury 
to  the  State.  There  are  few  industries  of  any  kind  that  offer  larger  returns  for 
the  capital  invested  and  are  as  safe  and  secure  as  oyster  planting.  It  is  an 
industry  which  needs  only  a  moderate  amount  of  attention,  and  does  not  require 
any  special  training  or  education,  and  yet,  if  intelligently  managed,  will  almost 
certainly  yield  very  liberal  profits.  The  oyster  planters  of  the  Chesapeake  almost 
without  exception  find  their  business  profitable.  It  is  a  business  in  which  either 
large  or  small  capital  can  be  invested  to  advantage — the  rate  of  profit  probably 
being  very  nearly  the  same  in  either  case. 

In  1880,  Mr.  R.  H.  Edmonds,  editor  of  the  Manufacturers'  Record,  Baltimore, 
at  the  request  of  the  United  States  Census  Department,  prepared  a  report  for  the 
census  upon  the  "  Oyster  Interests  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,"  from  which  the  fol- 
lowing statistics  are  gathered:  There  are  14,236  men  engaged  in  catching  oysters 
in  Virginia,  using  in  their  work  4,481  canoes  or  small  boats  averaging  about  two 
men  each,  and  1,317  larger  boats  running  from  10  to  20  tons  each  and  employing 
on  the  average  about  four  men  each.  Of  the  aggregate  number  of  oystermen, 
6,538  are  white  and  7,698  colored.  The  total  value  of  the  boats  engaged  in  this 
business  in  Virginia  is  $790,200.  There  were  in  1880  twenty-five  firms  in  Virginia 
engaged  in  canning  oysters,  their  capital  being  $119,350.  They  handled  in  that 


VIRGINIA.  93 

year  1,622,180  bushels  of  oysters,  valued  at  $726,693.  The  total  quantity  of 
oysters  taken  in  Virginia  waters  for  the  census  year  was  6,837,320  bushels.  The 
aggregate  amount  of  capital  invested  in  all  branches  of  this  business  was 
$1,361,100;  the  number  of  people  employed,  16,264,  and  their  wages  and  earnings 
were  $3,125,923. 

EDUCATIONAL  FACILITIES. 

The  State  has  an  excellent  system  of  public  schools,  as  complete,  except  in 
thinly-settled  districts,  as  in  any  other  State.  Private  schools,  academies  and 
colleges  are  numerous.  The  University  of  Virginia,  near  Charlottesville,  ranks 
with  the  best  universities  in  the  country.  The  Washington  and  Lee  University 
and  Virginia  Military  Institute  are  colleges  of  high  grade. 

TRANSPORTATION. 

Virginia  is  well  supplied  with  transportation  facilities.  The  State  has  a  large 
railroad  mileage,  and  through  its  enormous  extent  of  water  front  along  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay  and  its  numberless  tributaries,  the  whole  of  Tidewater  Virginia  is  kept 
in  close  and  cheap  communication  with  leading  markets  by  means  of  steamboats 
and  sailing  vessels. 

MINERAL  WATERS. 

Virginia  has  for  years  been  famous  the  world  over  for  the  number  and  value 
of  her  mineral  springs.  In  the  western  section  of  the  State  there  is  hardly  a 
neighborhood  without  its  springs  of  mineral  water.  There  is. probably  no  other 
State  in  the  Union  possessing  so  many  popular  resorts.  The  people  not  only  of 
the  South,  but  of  the  North  and  West  as  well,  gather  at  these  springs  in  the 
summer  in  enormous  numbers  to  drink  the  health-giving  waters  and  breathe  the 
invigorating  mountain  air.  The  furnishing  of  farm  products  to  the  hotels  is  a 
profitable  business  for  the  local  farmers  and  truck  raisers. 

Virginia  offers  many  inducements  to  the  investor  and  the  settler,  and  her 
advantages  for  industrial  or  agricultural  pursuits  and  her  attractions  as  a  place  of 
residence  are  well  worth  investigating. 


1  WEST  VIRGINIA. 


This  State  lies  south  of  Pennsylvania;  it  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Maryland, 
on  the  southeast  and  south  by  Virginia,  and  on  the  west  by  Kentucky  and  Ohio ; 
it  is  separated  from  Ohio  by  the  Ohio  River.  The  population  of  the  State  is 
given  in  the  last  census  report  as  618,457 — 600,192  native  and  18,265  foreign; 
592,537  white  and  25,886  colored. 

The  following  on  the  topography  of  the  State  is  by  Wm.  M.  Fontaine,  A.  M., 
Professor  of  Natural  History,  &c.,  at  the  University  of  West  Virginia: 

It  will,  perhaps,  give  a  better  general  idea  of  the  topography  of  the  country 
if  we  select  for  examination  one  of  the  streams  which  rise  on  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  State,  near  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  and  flow  westward  into  the  Ohio.  Such 
a  stream,  when  followed  from  its  mouth  to  its  source,  will  take  us  across  the 
entire  width  of  all  the  various  surface  features  to  be  seen  in  that  region ;  for  it 
must  be  noted  that  areas  with  similar  topographical  features  have  their  greatest 
dimensions  along  lines  running  northeast  and  southwest  here  as  elsewhere  in  the 
Apalachian  Region. 

For  our  present  purpose  no  stream  is  better  suitable  than  the  Kauawha,  and 
its  continuation  in  the  New  and  Greenbrier  Kivers.  The  features  seen  along  this 
line  are  to  be  found  on  any  of  the  streams  which  pursue  aeimilar  course  Such 
are  the  Big  Sandy,  Guyaudotte,  Gauley,  Elk  and  Little  Kanawha. 

Commencing  then  on  the  Ohio  and  proceeding  eastward,  we  note  the  follow- 
ing facts: 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  Ohio,  as  we  enter  the  Kanawha,  we  are  accompanied 
by  hills  of  moderate  height  (200-300  feet)  with  gentle  slopes,  and  placed  more  or 
less  widely  apart,  having  extensive  bottoms  along  the  river  and  other  indications 
of  a  surface  composed  of  soft  and  easily  worn-down  material.  These  features 
accompany  us  for  a  long  distance,  until  we  approach  Charleston.  As  we  near 
this  point  the  hills  become  higher  and  higher,  with  more  precipitous  slopes  and 
narrower  valleys.  At  the  same  time  they  close  down  on  the  river  nearer  and 
nearer. 

Passing  Charleston,  the  same  features  continue,  the  hills  gaining  in  height 
along  the  river  until  they  reach,  in  the  vicinity  of  Coalsburg,  the  altitude  of  800 
feet  above  the  stream.  They  continue  to  rise  gradually  until,  near  the  falls,  they 
attain  the  height  of  1,100  feet.  At  the  falls  the  river  passes  into  that  part  of  its 
course  marked  by  canon  features,  and  from  this  point  takes  the  name  of  New 
River.  A  little  back  from  the  immediate  banks  the  hills  rise  into  quite  lofty 
mountains,  attaining  in  Gauley  Mountain  the  height  of  1,800  to  1,900  feet  above 
the  river. 

The  canon  features  attend  New  River  to  beyond  Quinniniont,  a  distance  of 
more  than  40  miles.  These  are  caused  by  the  rise  above  the  water  level  of  the 
massive  sandstones  of  the  conglomerate  series.  Wherever  the  rivers  are  flowing 
through  and  over  this  series,  especially  its  upper  portion,  they  present  much  the 
same  character.  In  such  cases  they  are  walled  in  by  high  hills  or  precipitous  cliffs 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  95 

Which  rise  almost  immediately  from  the  water's  edge,  leaving  no  bottoms  or  low 
grounds.  The  beds  of  the  streams  are  rugged  and  choked  with  great  masses  of 
stone  fallen  from  the  cliffs  above,  while  continual  rapids  and  falls  combine  to  give 
them  still  more  of  the  character  of  mountain  torrents.  Such  a  conformation  has 
given  to  New  River  its  well-known  reputation  for  wildness  and  ruggedness.  But 
in  these  features  it  is  even  surpassed  by  its  southern  neighbors,  the  Guyandotte* 
and  Big  Sandy. 

While  such  wild  and  rugged  scenery  is  presented  along  the  immediate  banks 
of  the  streams  in  this  area  occupied  by  the  conglomerate,  the  case  is  very  different 
when  we  ascend  the  inclosing  hills.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  rivers  are  really 
flowing  in  deep  trenches  far  below  the  general  plane  of  the  country.  This 
general  plane  is  determined  by  the  upper  surface  of  the  conglomerate  series, 
which  continues  to  rise  to  the  east  at  an  average  rate  of  50  feet  to  the  mile.  As 
a  consequence  of  this  state  of  things,  the  conglomerate  rising  faster  than  the 
rivers  fall,  the  cliffs  which  border  them  become  higher  and  higher  and  the  general 
surface  more  elevated  as  we  proceed  east,  until  the  upper  surface  of  the  conglom- 
erate series  is  carried  so  high  in  the  air  that  it  has  been  broken  down  and  removed 
by  the  action  of  the  elements. 

This  plane,  determined  by  the  upper  surface  of  the  conglomerate,  is  dotted 
over  with  hills,  which  do  not,  in  their  general  aspects,  differ  from  those  seen  else- 
where over  most  of  the  State.  Many  of  them  rise  to  a  considerable  height,  owing 
to  special  agencies  which  have  acted  to  preserve  them.  Where  their  conglomerate 
base  has  risen  to  a  considerable  height,  they  attain  above  tide  an  elevation  which 
would  by  no  means  be  suspected  by  an  inspection  of  their  altitude  above  their 
bases.  Such  elevations  are  those  of  Big  Sewell,  Cherry  Pond  and  Guyandotte 
Mountains,  &c. 

The  conglomerate  base  continues  to  rise  as  above  described  until  it  makes  its 
last  appearance  on  the  east  in  the  Great  Flat  Top  and  White  Oak  Mountains. 
Here  it  has  attained  the  elevation  of  2,800  to  3,000  feet. 

Passing  beyond  the  line  of  these  mountains,  near  Hinton,  and  following  the 
Oreenbrier  River  eastward,  we  find  the  general  plane  of  the  country  greatly 
lowered,  the  canon  features  lost,  and  the  surface  presenting  general  features  like 
those  seen  below  Charleston.  This  continues  until  we  approach  the  White  Sul- 
phur, on  the  eastern  border  of  Greenbrier,  when  we  meet  for  the  first  time  the 
long  parallel  folds  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 

If  now  we  take  a  similar  course  from  west  to  east  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State,  we  will  find  a  different  topography.  There  is  no  rise  of  the  general  plane 
of  the  country  to  the  east  in  this  quarter,  for  the  conglomerate  is  too  deeply 
buried,  and  its  thickness  has  become  too  much  diminished.  Commencing  on  the 
Ohio  in  the  northern  part  of  Wetzel  and  proceeding  east  across  Monongalia  to 
the  west  border  of  Preston,  we  find  no  essential  difference.  On  the  Ohio  the  hills 
are  higher  here  than  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kanawha,  since  they  reach  the  height  of 
500  and  600  feet  above  the  river.  In  Wetzel  they  rise  still  higher  above  their 
valleys,  but  in  Monongalia  they  again  show  the  same  altitude  as  on  the  Ohio.  On 
the  west  border  of  Preston  we  meet  in  Laurel  Hill  the  most  westerly  of  the 
parallel  folds  of  the  Alleghany  system,  and  thence  these  are  continued,  growing 
oloser  and  higher  as  we  proceed  eastward. 

A  bird's-eye  view  of  the  Ohio  River  would  show  it,  throughout  much  of  its 
course,  flowing  between  high  sharp-backed  hills.  These  are  higher  in  the  north, 
lower  in  the  middle,  and  higher  again  in  the  southern  part  of  its  course. 

In  order  to  understand  the  topography  of  a  country  we  must  know  its 
geology,  for  the  rocks  which  underlie  the  soil  form  the  materials  out  of  which  the 
surface  features  have  been  carved,  and  their  varying  hardness  and  proneness  to 


96  WKST  VIRGINIA. 

disintegration  will  determine  the  shapes  finally  assumed.  "We  will  then,  in  this 
connection,  briefly  describe  some  of  the  more  important  geological  formations 
solely  in  their  topographical  relations.  The  formations  which  have  had  by  their 
presence  the  most  influence  on  the  topography  of  our  State  are  the  folio  whig, 
beginning  with  the  highest  and  latest  formed:  1.  The  upper  barren  measures 
and  productive  coals.  2.  The  lower  barren  measures  and  productive  coals.  3. 
The  conglomerate  series.  4.  The  umbral  shales  and  limestone.  5.  The  vesper- 
tine shales.  We  may  omit,  in  this  connection,  the  consideration  of  the  other 
formations,  reserving  their  description  for  another  topic,  since  they  compose  a 
comparatively  small  portion  of  our  area. 

The  upper  barren  measures  and  productive  coals  are  everywhere  in  the  State 
— mainly  soft  crumbling  rocks,  such  as  shales  and  shaly  sandstones,  which  are 
easily  worn  down  and  removed  by  rains  and  running  streams.  They  are  greatly 
thickened  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  but  in  passing  South  become  com- 
paratively unimportant.  Whenever  they  are  present,  owing  to  the  readiness  with 
which  they  are  worn  away,  they  produce  high  conical  or  rounded  n'lls,  with  deep 
narrow  valleys,  forming  an  irregular  net-work  of  streams.  These  streams  rarely 
have  much  bottom  laud,  but  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  hills  with  broad  flat 
summits. 

The  lower  barren  measures  and  productive  coals,  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State,  are  comparatively  thin,  and  do  not  differ  materially  in  their  structure  and 
topography  from  the  overlying  series  first  described ;  but  in  the  south  there  is  a 
very  material  change.  The  series  becomes  greatly  thickened,  and  there  is  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  firm  massive  sandstones  in  it,  especially  towards  the  lower 
portion.  As  the  topographical  effects  of  these  sandstones  are,  in  general,  the  same 
with  those  of  the  conglomerate  series,  we  need  not  consider  them  separately.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  say  that  the  change  in  the  topography,  described  above,  as 
seen  in  approaching  Charleston  from  the  Ohio  River,  is  due  to  the  rise  of  these 
rocks  above  water  level.  The  conglomerate  series,  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
State,  is  comparatively  quite  thin,  and  is  so  deeply  buried  under  the  productive 
coal  measures  that  it  has  no  effect  on  the  topography.  It  is  first  seen  in  Laurel 
Hill  rising  above  the  surface,  and  from  that  point  eastward  it  has  an  important 
influence  on  the  surface  contours,  entering  mainly  into  the  mountain  ridges.  It 
is  here  principally  massive  sandstone. 

In  the  south,  on  the  contrary,  we  find  it  greatly  thickened  and  elevated  to  the 
surface  over  broad  areas.  Along  New  River  and  southward  it  has  a  threefold 
structure,  being  massive  sandstone  at  bottom,  more  shaly  and  easily  eroded  strata 
in  the  center,  and  on  top  again  massive  sandstone  of  great  thickness.  Throughout 
the  series  massive  sandstones  predominate.  The  influence  of  this  series,  combined 
with  that  of  the  more  massive  portions  of  the  lower  productive  coals,  has  had  an 
exceedingly  important  effect  on  the  topography  of  the  central  and  eastern  por- 
tions of  the  State.  This  is  in  large  part  due  to  the  highly  siliceous  character  of 
many  of  these  sandstones,  which  has  enabled  them  to  resist  in  a  remarkable 
manner  degradation  and  removal  by  running  streams.  Such  sandstones  are  inde- 
structible, except  by  undermining  and  throwing  down  the  ledges ;  and  this  process 
of  undermining  is  what  has  filled  the  streams  flowing  in  this  formation  with  the 
huge  masses  of  stone  which  we  see.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  uppermost 
ledge,  which  is  usually  over  150  feet  thick. 

Underlying  the  conglomerate  series  we  have  the  umbral  shales  and  sand- 
stones, followed  below  by  the  umbral  limestone.  These  shales  and  sandstones  are 
generally  soft  and  easily  cut  away,  while  much  of  the  limestone  beneath  is  more 
resistant.  Hence  the  country  having  these  rocks  on  the  surface  is  usually  much 
lower  than  that  occupied  by  the  conglomerate,  they  having  been  cut  away  much 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  97 

more  rapidly.  We  find  these  strata  over  much  of  the  country  lying  to  the  east  of 
the  conglomerate,  which,  as  stated  above,  makes  its  last  appearance  in  White  Oak, 
Elk  Knob  and  Flat  Top  Mountains. 

The  last  formation  to  be  mentioned  here  is  the  upper  member  of  the  vesper- 
tine, which  is  formed  of  crumbling  red  shales,  and  these  even  more  readily  than 
the  shales  of  the  umbral  are  broken  down  and  removed.  These  form  the  only 
other  rock  composing  the  surface  of  Mercer,  Monroe  and  Greenbrier  besides  the 
above  named. 

For  the  purpose  of  topographical  description  we  may  divide  the  State  into 
two  regions,  in  which  the  surface  features  present  important  differences,  and  are 
due  to  the  action  of  essentially  different  causes.  Our  dividing  line  must  be  some- 
what arbitrarily  selected.  It  may  be  taken  as  follows : 

Beginning  in  the  north,  it  commences  in  Laurel  Hill,  on  the  west  border  of 
Preston,  and  is  thence  continued  south,  in  the  mountain  of  that  name,  on  the 
western  border  of  Barbour ;  thence  in  Rich  Mountain  in  Randolph ;  Gauley  and 
Greenbrier  Mountains  in  Pocahontas ;  the  Main  Alleghany,  near  the  White  Sul- 
phur; and  lastly,  Peter's  Mountain,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  The 
country  between  this  line  and  the  Ohio  River  may  be  styled  the  Hilly  Region, 
and  that  lying  to  the  east  of  it  the  Mountain  Region. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  division  is  not  founded  on  altitude  alone, 
but  also  on  considerations  which  will  be  presently  given.  Indeed,  contrary  to 
what  the  titles  might  suggest,  the  elevation  of  much  of  the  Hilly  Region  is  above 
that  of  a  portion  of  the  Mountain  Region. 

In  that  section  which  we  have  styled  the  Hilly  Region,  and  which  comprises 
much  the  larger  part  of  the  State,  are  to  be  found  those  peculiar  topographical 
features  which  have  given  our  State  considerable  celebrity.  Leaving  out  of  view 
for  the  present  the  special  features  which  mark  the  canon  portions  of  the  streams 
in  the  south,  and  the  country  wherever  the  conglomerate  has  attained  a  consider- 
able height  above  the  rivers,  we  may  briefly  describe  them  as  follows :  First,  we 
note  a  vast  multitude  of  hills,  sometimes  closely  placed,  and  rising  immediately 
from  the  V-shaped  depressions  in  which  the  streams  flow;  again,  sloping  more 
gently,  with  considerable  bottoms  at  their  base,  spreading  out  into  flat-topped, 
gently  undulating  plains  on  their  summits ;  or  again,  expanding  into  elevations 
attaining  the  dignity  of  mountains.  Looking  across  such  a  region,  it  often  pre- 
sents nothing  but  a  succession  of  such  hills  and  valleys.  As  a  rule,  these  succeed 
each  other  in  no  particular  order,  but  occur  just  as  the  streams,  turning  hither 
and  thither  to  avoid  some  harder  rock,  carved  them  out.  Occasionally  the  out- 
crop of  some  more  indestructible  stratum  has  determined  the  direction  of  a  line 
of  elevations,  or  a  remnant  of  a  harder  overlying  mass  has,  along  certain  deter- 
minate lines,  preserved  the  underlying  softer  material  from  erosion,  arid  so  left 
more  or  less  connected  ridges  and  mountains.  These  are  the  general  features 
presented  by  the  elevations  in  the  softer  strata  of  the  productive  coals,  and  in  the 
similar  rocks  underlying  the  conglomerate  series.  The  special  modifications  pro- 
duced by  this  latter  series  will  be  noted  further  on. 

Again,  as  might  be  inferred,  the  streams  in  the  above-described  districts  are 
marked  by  the  great  irregularity  of  their  courses.  They  flow  to  every  quarter  of 
the  compass,  but  all  finally  make  their  way  westward  or  northwestward  into  the 
Ohio.  These,  as  well  as  all  the  streams  in  the  State,  are  remarkable  for  the  great 
depth  to  which  they  have  cut  their  channels.  Here,  however,  although  the  valleys 
are  deep  and  narrow,  they  have  none  of  the  canon  features;  but  the  bordering 
hills  may  be  cultivated  to  their  tops,  though  often  too  steep  and  with  a  soil  too 
light  to  render  frequent  ploughing  advisable. 


98  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

In  all  this  Hilly  Region  the  surface  features  are  entirely  the  work  of  erosion. 
The  rains  and  running  streams  have  cut  lofty  hills  and  veritable  mountains  out  of 
the  gently  sloping  and  often  almost  horizontal  strata,  having  removed  a  truly 
astounding  mass  of  material  by  their  slow,  ever-wearing  flow.  Indeed,  when  one 
thinks  over  the  vast  amount  of  wear  that  the  surface  of  our  State  exhibits,  he  is 
tempted  to  speculate  about  a  period  when  the  rains  were  far  heavier  and  the 
streams  more  powerful  than  at  present — a  period  when  the  laud,  newly  raised 
from  the  carboniferous  seas,  was  exposed  as  a  lofty  barrier  to  the  sweep  of  west- 
erly winds  laden  with  moisture  from  extensive  seas  penetrating  into  the  land  far 
beyond  the  present  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

"We  will  now  turn  to  the  inspection  of  the  topography  of  the  Mountain 
Region.  Omitting  the  counties  of  Berkeley  (in  part)  and  Jefferson,  this  region 
includes  all  east  of  the  line  described  as  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Hilly  Region. 
Here  also  we  find  stupendous  monuments  of  the  leveling  powers  of  the  atmos- 
pheric agencies ;  but  these  have  not  been  the  only  forces  at  work  in  this  district 
in  modeling  the  hills  and  valleys,  as  was  the  case  in  the  Hilly  Region. 

The  surface  of  this  part  of  the  State,  when  first  upheaved  and  exposed  to 
denuding  forces,  was  thrown  into  long  parallel  elevations  and  depressions  running 
in  a  northeast  and  southwest  direction.  These  folds,  on  the  east  border  of  the 
State,  are  comparatively  close  together  and  narrow.  Going  west  they  widen  out 
and  become  more  distant,  until,  before  reaching  the  Ohio,  they  become  imper- 
ceptible. The  strata  which  compose  these  folds  are  alternations  of  soft  yielding 
rocks  and  massive  sandstones,  among  which  latter  the  conglomerate  series  above 
described  plays  no  unimportant  part. 

In  the  easternmost  and  more  sharply  folded  flexures  the  stiff,  unyielding  sand- 
stones were,  along  the  crest  lines  of  the  ridges,  where  the  strain  was  greatest, 
burst  asunder  and  broken  to  fragments,  exposing  the  next  succeeding  soft  strata 
below. 

When  now  these  elevated  ridges  or  anticlinals  were  exposed  to  the  wearing 
action  of  rains  and  torrents,  these  stripped  off  all  softer  material  from  the  sum- 
mits, and  left  bare  the  arches  of  massive  sandstone,  with  their  fractured  crowns. 
The  surface  waters  working  their  way  along  these  fractures  soon  reached  the 
softer  material  below.  Here  their  progress  was  more  rapid,  and,  by  cutting  down 
and  undermining  the  walls  on  either  side,  they  have  finally  excavated  channels  of 
greater  or  less  width. 

Such  has  been  the  history  of  the  formation  of  many  of  the  narrow  parallel 
valleys  in  the  northeastern  counties  of  the  State,  and  more  particularly  in  Ran- 
dolph and  Pendleton.  Where  the  process  above  described  has  been  carried  on  on 
an  extensive  scale,  we  see  the  river  now  flowing  in  a  narrow  valley  between  two 
mountain  walls.  This  is  the  case  with  Tygart's  Valley  River  in  Randolph. 
Where  less  complete,  we  find  the  stream  flowing  on  the  top  of  a  mountain,  and 
still  cutting  its  way  down  in  the  massive  sandstone,  as  in  the  case  of  some  of  the 
Forks  of  Cheat. 

Again,  in  the  originally  depressed  portions  or  synclinal  valleys,  which,  being 
less  elevated,  have  suffered  less  from  erosion,  we  find  streams  flowing,  in  like 
manner,  between  mountain  chains ;  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the  waters  would 
have  gathered  in  such  valleys.  Synclinal  valleys  may  be  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that  the  rocks  dip  from  both  sides  towards  them,  while  in  the  case  of  valleys  of 
the  former  class,  or  anticlinal  valleys,  they  dip  away  from  them  on  both  sides. 

It  often  happens  in  the  Mountain  Region  which  we  are  describing  that  the 
arches  and  folds  are  too  broad  to  be  cracked  along  their  crest  lines.  Then  they 
often  afford  on  their  summits  flat  or  gently  undulating  surfaces,  which  are  called 
Glades  by  the  inhabitants,  but  which  are  simply  table-lands  of  greater  or  less 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  99 

extent.  This  feature  is  more  common  when  the  huge  unyielding  masses  of  the 
conglomerate  series  enter  into  the  structure  of  the  country.  We  also  find  the 
anticlinal  valleys,  with  their  canon-like  features,  more  commonly  where  the  con- 
glomerate is  present.  This  rock  is  extensively  exposed  in  the  Mountain  Region. 
Such  are  the  general  features  presented  in  the  two  regions  into  which  we 
have  divided  the  State,  and  such  were  some  of  the  special  circumstances  which 
modified  erosions  in  the  Mountain  District. 

CLIMATE,  &c. 

In  considering  the  climate  of  the  State  we  may  divide  it  into  three  belts 
running  in  a  northeast  and  southwest  direction. 

The  first  belt  comprises  the  counties  along  the  Ohio  River,  and  may  be  taken 
to  coincide  with  our  first  topographical  belt.  This  comprises  the  lowest  land  in 
the  State.  The  second  climatic  belt  may  be  taken  to  include  all  the  rest  of  the 
State,  except  the  Mountain  Region.  The  third  half  includes  the  Mountain  Dis- 
trict. It  will  be  convenient  to  designate  the  first  belt  as  the  "  Ohio  counties;"  the 
second  belt  as  the  "Plateau  District,"  and  the  third  as  the  "Mountain  District," 
inasmuch  as  these  names  suggest  the  position  and  altitude  of  the  areas  which 
they  designate. 

For  all  of  these  there  is  a  great  lack  of  data  connected  with  the  climate,  but 
in  the  Ohio  counties  records  have  been  kept  for  a  much  longer  time  than  else- 
where. For  the  Plateau  District  we  have  a  few  details,  and  for  the  Mountain 
District  none  at  all. 

The  Ohio  River  Valley  is  often  spoken  of  as  possessing  features  of  climate 
distinct  from  those  shown  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  This,  taken  without  quali- 
fication, would  lead  to  erroneous  ideas  of  the  topography  of  the  stream.  The 
valley  proper  is  a  narrow  trench  cut  out  in  high  hills  for  most  of  the  wray. 

It  attains  at  most  the  width  of  only  a  mile  or  two,  and  cannot  exert  any 
important  influence  on  the  climate  of  the  country  in  general.  In  summer  it  may 
influence  to  some  extent  the  formation  and  course  of  showers,  or  it  may  facilitate 
the  passage  of  bodies  of  warm,  moist  air  from  the  southwest.  Apart  from  minor 
and  local  influence,  it  is  to  be  considered  merely  as  one  of  the  factors  influencing 
the  climate  of  the  belt  of  country  along  its  banks. 

If,  however,  we  apply  the  term  "  Ohio  Valley"  to  the  belt  of  comparatively 
low  country  along  the  west  border  of  our  State,  then,  no  doubt,  climatic  features 
somewhat  different  from  those  of  the  rest  of  the  State  do  exist  here. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  influence  of  altitude,  the  most  important 
general  causes  control  ling  the  climate  are  the  character  of  the  exposure  of  the 
surface,  the  direction  assumed  by  the  principal  elevations,  and  the  prevailing 
winds.  The  State  forms  a  sloping  surface,  inclining  in  a  northwesterly  direction, 
from  the  highest  ridges  of  the  Alleghany  to  the  hills  along  the  Ohio  River.  The 
principal  elevations,  even  in  the  Hilly  Region,  run  in  a  northeast  and  southwest 
direction. 

When  now  we  take  into  consideration  the  winds  which  prevail  along  the 
Apalachian  belt  of  the  United  States,  we  can  easily  see  that  these  topographical 
features  assume  great  importance.  In  our  latitude,  even  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge, 
easterly  winds  are  not  the  predominant  ones ;  but  in  Virginia,  especially  in  winter, 
they  often  blow  for  a  considerable  space  of  time,  bringing  with  them,  when  from 
the  northeast,  the  longest  spells  of  wet  weather.  Owing  to  our  protection  by  the 
Blue  Ridge  and  Alleghanies,  such  winds  do  not  reach  us,  and  hence,  in  West 
Virginia,  winds  with  an  easterly  element  are  extremely  rare.  If  they  do  reach 
us,  they  are  usually  drying  and  clearing  winds,  having  been  deprived  of  their 
moisture  by  passing  over  the  mountain  tops. 


100  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Our  winds  are  almost  exclusively  those  with  a  westerly  element,  such  as 
southwest,  west  and  northwest.  When  these  enter  our  State,  the  northeast  and 
southwest  direction  of  our  elevations  exert  such  a  guiding  influence  on  them  that 
instead  of  passing  directly  across  the  State,  they  are  forced  to  traverse  it  longitu- 
dinally. The  consequence  is  that  we  feel  the  full  effects  of  such  winds,  whatever 
they  may  be.  Southwest  winds  enter  freely  and  are  guided  unchecked  in  their 
original  direction;  hence  such  winds  the  year  round  predominate,  at  least  in 
influence.  Westerly  and  northwesterly  winds  are  partly  deflected,  so  as  to  pre- 
serve a  southeast  or  northeast  direction.  The  inclination  of  the  face  of  me 
country  also  exerts  an  important  influence. 

Such  winds  enter  the  State  on  its  lowest  side,  and  in  working  their  way  over 
it  they  rise  higher  and  higher.  The  consequence  is  that  they  become  cooled,  and 
their  moisture  is  condensed  if  they  be  moist,  warm  winds.  Thus  an  abundant 
rainfall  is  secured.  The  country  never  suffers  from  the  prolonged  dry  spells 
which  sometimes  occur  east  of  the  Alleghanies.  A  mere  inspection  of  the  map 
of  this  region  will  show,  by  the  enormous  number  of  perennial  streams  possessed 
by  it,  that  this  precipitation  is  not  only  abundant,  but  that  it  is  uniformly  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  year.  Our  State  contributes  no  small  proportion  of  the 
volume  of  water  carried  by  the  Ohio  into  the  Mississippi.  It  is  well  known  that 
this  surpasses  that  of  any  other  tributary  of  that  great  stream.  After  these 
general  considerations  we  may  turn  to  the  examination  of  the  individual  factors 
which  constitute  the  climate  of  a  country. 

TEMPERATURE. 

Temperature  is  influenced  both  by  latitude  and  elevation.  The  main  body  of 
the  State  of  West  Virginia  lies  between  the  parallel  of  37°  and  40°.  For  points 
at  the  same  elevation,  this  would  give  a  difference  of  about  3°  in  the  mean  annual 
temperature  of  the  southern  and  northern  portions  of  the  State.  According  to 
Dodge,  the  State  is  embraced  between  the  isothermals  of  50°  and  54°.  The 
isothermal  of  52°  passes  nearly  through  the  centre  of  it.  The  general  elevation 
of  the  surface  renders  the  mean  temperature  somewhat  lower  than  that  of  points 
on  the  same  parallel  of  latitude  in  the  States  further  west.  Within  the  State 
itself,  the  greater  altitude  of  the  plateau  and  mountainous  portions  renders  the 
mean  temperature  of  these  belts  lower  than  that  of  the  Ohio  counties.  This 
difference  of  altitude  may  be  taken  on  an  average  to  be  about  1,500  feet,  causing  a 
lowering  of  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  about  4^°  on  the  same  parallel  of 
latitude.  Hence  such  elevated  counties  as  Fayette,  Nicholas,  Raleigh,  &c.,  do  not 
possess  that  higher  mean  temperature  which  they  should  have,  in  consequence  of 
their  more  southerly  position.  The  isothermals  passing  through  the  Mountain 
and  Plateau  Districts  bend  strongly  up  northward.  The  mean  annual  temper- 
ature of  the  State  may  be  taken  as  52°. 

RAINFALL   AND  MELTED   SNOW. 

From  what  has  been  already  said  a  pretty  good  idea  of  the  precipitation  over 
the  State  may  be  gained.  The  following  statistics,  though  scanty  in  amount,  are 
offered.  For  Wheeling,  observations  for  17  years  ending  1871,  made  by  Dr.  E.  A. 
Hildreth,  give  us  the  following : 

Spring 10.9    inches.  Autumn 9.57  inches. 

Summer 12-93      "  Winter 9.36       " 

Year 41. 95  inches. 

By  the  same  observer  at  the  same  place  the  following  annual  average  of 
rainy,  snowy,  &c.,  days  are  given  during  a  period  of  27  years : 

f  Rainy  and  snowy  days 119.81 

For  each  year. .  <  Clear  and  fair 170. 16 

(.Cloudy 76.28 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  101 

He  also  deduces  the  mean  annual  rainfall  for  the  State  from  observations 
amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  103  years  to  be  39.89  inches.  While  the  above 
estimates  for  Wheeling  may  represent  fairly  the  precipitation  along  the  Ohio  in 
the  north,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  for  the  Plateau  and  Mountain  Sections  the 
precipitation  is  greater;  but,  unfortunately,  details  from  these  elevated  parts  of 
the  State  are  mostly  wanting.  The  rainfall  deduced  from  the  records  at  Morgan- 
town,  a  point  more  inland,  and  near  the  foot  of  Laurel  Hill,  show  an  unusual 
average  of  49.22  inches.  As  the  year  1874  was  noted  for  the  heavy  summer  rains, 
no  doubt  this  is  too  high,  and  a  mean  annual  precipitation  of  45  inches  may  be 
taken  as  near  the  mark  for  the  more  elevated  districts. 

The  following  record  from  Kanawha  Salines  was  taken  for  three  years  and 
three  months— from  April,  1857,  to  February,  1861 : 

Spring 12. 92  inches.  Autumn 16.18  inches. 

Summer 12.03       "  Winter ^.71       " 

Year 35-75  inches. 

This,  without  doubt,  is  above  the  average,  but  it  would  seem  that  the 
Kanawha  River  Valley  has  usually  an  exceptionally  high  rainfall. 

For  Lewisburg,  records  kept  during  six  years  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
show  the  following  results : 

Spring 7.39  inches.  Autumn 9.60  inches. 

Summer 9.21       "  Winter 9.55       " 

Year 35-75  inches. 

Records  kept  at  the  White  Sulphur  Springs  for  five  years  and  six  months 
show  a  mean  annual  rainfall  of  37.54  inches.  Both  of  these  results  are  below  the 
average  of  places  of  the  height  of  Lewisburg  and  the  White  Sulphur,  which  are 
each  about  2,000  feet  above  tide.  This  is  due  to  the  position  of  these  localities. 
They  are  situated  between  the  Alleghany  Mountains  on  the  east  and  the  high 
country  of  the  eastern  part  of  Fayette  and  Raleigh  on  the  southwest.  These 
latter  highlands  lie  in  the  direct  path  of  the  southwest  winds,  which  bring 
moisture  into  the  country,  and  in  passing  over  them  these  winds  are  deprived  of 
much  of  their  temperature  and  vapor. 

AGRICULTURAL  FEATURES. 

The  following  on  the  soil  and  productions  of  West  Virginia  is  from  the 
author  quoted  above : 

The  following  are  the  principal  soils  existing  in  the  State : 

Clay  Soils. — These  contain  75  per  cent,  and  over  of  clay.  The  remaining  25 
per  cent,  is  composed  of  sand,  calcareous,  ferruginous,  vegetable  and  other 
matters.  In  their  physical  character,  when  moist,  they  are  stiff  and  tenacious. 
They  dry  with  difficulty,  and  are  rather  slowly  warmed  by  the  sun's  rays.  When 
dry  they  become  baked  to  a  more  or  less  hard  mass,  and  are  also,  in  freezing  and 
thawing,  more  apt  to  injure  the  roots  of  plants  than  other  soils.  With  these 
disadvantages,  however,  they  combine  many  advantages,  and,  when  properly 
managed,  make  the  best  lands  for  certain  crops.  Stiff  clays  such  as  those  just 
described  do  not  make  a  large  proportion  of  our  soils.  They  are  chiefly  to  be 
found  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  State. 

Sandy  Soils  contain  75  per  cent,  and  over  of  sand.  The  remaining  compo- 
nents are  clay  and  the  other  constituents,  except  sand,  mentioned  as  occurring  in 
clay  soils.  In  their  physical  characters  they  are  the  opposite  of  clay  soils,  and 
are  much  inferior  to  them.  They  are  loose,  thirsty  in  nature,  and  do  not  hold 
manures  well.  Hence,  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  in  land  is  beneficial,  the  one 
correcting  the  defects  of  the  other.  Such  strictly  sandy  lands  are  comparatively 
rare,  and  are  mainly  found  in  the  northeast  mountain  counties  and  in  the  outcrops 
of  the  sandstones  of  the  conglomerate  series. 


102  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Loams. — These  are  composed  of  clay  and  sand  mixed  in  about  equal  propor- 
tions. They  contain  also  various  other  substances  like  those  found  in  the  two 
above-mentioned  soils,  making  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  When  clay 
predominates  they  are  called  clay  loams;  when  sand,  sandy  loams;  when  lime 
forms  a  large  proportion,  calcareous  loams  or  marls.  These  make  usually  the 
most  fertile  lands  known,  since  they  contain  all  the  elements  needed  by  the  plant, 
combined  with  the  best  physical  condition,  uniting  as  they  do  the  good  qualities 
of  sandy  and  clay  soils,  so  fur  as  these  arise  from  the  texture  and  condition  of 
the  land. 

West  Virginia  is  fortunate  in  having  a  large  proportion  of  such  lands. 
Indeed,  they  may  be  said  to  be  the  characteristic  soils  of  the  country,  and  to  form 
the  larger  part  of  the  surface.  The  strata  of  the  coal  measures  above  the  con- 
glomerate, which  covers  so  large  a  portion  of  the  area  of  the  State,  are  peculiarly 
fitted  to  produce  the  best  class  of  these,  since  they  consist  of  shales,  argillaceous 
sandstones  and  layers  of  limestone  or  calcareous  strata  intimately  mixed.  These 
readily  break  down  under  the  action  of  the  elements,  and  give  a  deep  light  earth. 
It  will  not  be  necessary  to  specify  localities.  Even  where  the  rocks  under  the 
coal  strata  furnish  the  material,  they  are  usually  so  compounded  of  sandstones 
and  shales  as,  by  their  disintegration,  to  produce  such  soils. 

Calcareous  Soils. — These  are  soils  in  which  lime  forms  a  large  constituent, 
mixed  with  clay,  sand  and  other  matters.  Such  soils  are,  from  their  chemical 
composition,  among  the  best  that  are  known. 

In  their  physical  character  they  resemble  more  nearly  the  loams,  and  are 
especially  suited  for  the  production  of  grass.  Of  these  the  State  has  a  large  pro- 
portion. As  localities  where  they  occur  may  be  mentioned  Jefferson  and  a  part 
of  Berkeley,  which  contain  the  lower  Silurian  limestone  of  the  "  Great  Valley," 
with  Pocahontas,  Greenbrier,  Mercer  and  Monroe  containing  the  sub-carbonif- 
erous limestone  and  shales.  The  northern  counties  on  the  Ohio  with  the 
limestone  of  the  upper  coal  measures  belong  here  also. 

Alluviums. — The  alluviums  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  according  as 
they  are  produced  by  deposits  from  turbid  streams  or  by  slow  surface  action. 
We  may  call  the  first  stream  alluvium,  and  the  second  upland  alluvium. 

Stream  alluvium,  as  is  well  known,  is  produced  by  deposits  from  streams  in 
seasons  of  flood.  Such  soils  are  generally  mixtures  of  all  the  kinds  of  matters 
found  along  the  watercourses  which  deposit  them. 

If  such  deposits  are  subject  to  occasional  overflow,  they  receive  by  this 
means  a  renewal  of  their  fertilizing  components,  and  will  then  last  indefinitely. 
If  not  overflowed,  such  soils  must,  under  continued  cultivation,  eventually  be 
exhausted,  provided  no  return  by  means  of  manures  be  made  to  them. 

Magnificent  soils  of  this  class  are  found  in  the  Stnte.  The  "bottom  lands" 
along  the  principal  rivers  are  widely  celebrated  for  their  productiveness  and  for 
the  great  length  of  time  during  which  they  have  been  cultivated.  Some  of  these 
have  continued  without  intermission  for  more  than  100  years  to  make  heavy 
yields  of  that  most  exhausting  of  all  crops,  Indian  corn. 

Upland  alluvium  is  produced  by  the  slow  action  of  the  surface  waters 
on  the  hill  slopes.  Such  action  tends  to  accumulate  in  the  valleys  much  of  the 
fertilizing  constituents  of  the  hills,  and  to  carry  down  to  the  lo\ver  levels  much  of 
the  vegetation  which  year  after  year  falls  and  decays  on  the  higher  grounds. 

This  has  gone  on  for  ages,  and  has  finally  produced  in  the  bottoms  a  soil  of 
from  one  to  ten  feet  and  more  in  depth,  which  combines  in  the  highest  degree  all 
the  elements  of  fertility.  Were  the  hillsides  formed  of  slowly  decomposing  rocks, 
this  process  would  soon  leave  them  bare.  In  fact,  however,  the  rapidity  with 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  103 

which  they  break  down  and  renew  the  earth  prevents  this  denudation,  while  not 
checking  the  accumulation  of  deep  soils  in  the  valleys. 

Upland  alluvium  is  generally  more  productive  than  even  stream  alluvium, 
since  it  retains  nearly  all  the  fertilizing  matters  which  have  been  slowly  accumu- 
lating. On  the  other  hand,  stream  alluvium,  being  a  deposit  from  water,  has  lost 
most  of  its  soluble  enriching  matters  from  the  greater  or  less  length  of  time 
during  which  it  has  been  suspended  in  water.  In  consequence  of  this,  these  have 
been  dissolved  and  carried  off.  This  superior  fertility  of  the  upland  alluviums 
explains  the  great  size  of  the  timber  which  grows  on  them. 

The  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter  which  they  contain  is  one  of  the  most 
important  enriching  agents.  The  humus  of  the  hill-slopes  gradually  works  its 
way  down,  in  the  first  place,  into  the  bottoms ;  and  then,  in  the  second  place,  the 
conditions  of  moisture,  &c.,  found  in  such  places  specially  favoring  luxuriant 
vegetation,  cause  large  additions  from  growth  on  the  spot.  This,  in  the  dense 
shade,  moulders  away  with  extreme  slowness. 

From  the  immense  number  of  hills  in  this  State,  the  amount  of  bottom  land 
of  this  kind  is  very 'large,  that  of  the  streams  and  uplands  together  being  put  by 
some  at  30  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area. 

The  present  conditions  and  the  prospects  of  agriculture  in  West  Virginia 
cannot  be  understood  without  some  explanation.  Any  present  exhibit  of  her 
productions  from  the  soil  would  not  give  a  fair  idea  of  her  capabilities.  It  will 
be  readily  seen  that  the  capacity  of  no  new  country  can  be  fairly  judged  by  her 
productions  at  any  given  time.  Census  reports  and  statistics  may  afford  us  data 
to  determine  the  resources  of  old  and  well-populated  regions,  where  all  the 
branches  of  industry  have  adjusted  themselves  into  harmonious  working  order, 
and  each  pursuit  is  maintained  by  a  sufficient  body  of  laborers  trained  for  their 
special  calling.  This  is  far  from  being  the  case  in  West  Virginia.  Almost  every 
condition  requisite  for  the  present  full  development  of  her  abundant  resources  is 
wanting.  Her  population  is  sparse;  much  of  her  land  is  still  in  the  primeval 
forests,  and  her  people  have  not  confined  their  attention  to  special  fields  of  labor 
and  striven  to  perfect  them.  There  has  also  been  a  great  deficiency  of  labor  and 
capital.  Last,  but  not  least,  railways  and  roads,  until  of  late,  have  been  rare 
within  her  borders.  With  respect  to  this  last  feature,  much  has  recently  been 
done  and  very  much  more  is  projected,  so  that  we  may  soon  hope  to  see  generally 
introduced  into  our  State  that  great  stimulus  to  active  farming— a  ready  and  cheap 
transportation  to  market. 

For  the  general  and  thorough  working  of  our  lands  we  greatly  need  an  immi- 
gration of  industrious  settlers.  Thousands  pass  yearly  through  our  State  to  the 
far  West,  not  knowing  that  here  they  can  find  an  abundance  of  untouched  virgin 
land  at  nominal  prices,  and  with  a  fertility  not  surpassed  by  any  which  they  can 
hope  to  gain  in  the  remote  West.  But  suppose  that  lands  were  higher  and  poorer 
here,  our  climate  and  proximity  to  the  great  markets  must  ever  give  us  a  great 
advantage  over  farmers  who,  when  they  make  a  good  crop,  find  it  destroyed  at 
one  blow  by  the  ravages  of  insects,  by  tornadoes  or  floods  of  rain,  and  who,  if 
successful  in  escaping  their  numerous  enemies,  find  all  profits  swallowed  up  in 
charges  for  transportation  to  markets  which  lie  at  our  doors. 

But  these  are  not  the  only  or  chief  causes  which  have  lessened  the  amount  of 
farm  products  with  us.  The  way  in  which  the  State  was  settled  and  the  conse- 
quent habits  of  her  inhabitants  have  been  unfavorable  to  the  existence  of  exten- 
sive or  skilled  farming,  and  have  directed  the  industry  of  the  people  into  almost 
every  other  channel.  The  original  settlers  were,  to  a  large  extent,  men  without 
means,  who,  on  entering  this  country,  then  cut  off  from  all  exit  to  market,  were 
content  to  clear  small  patches  of  ground,  whose  generous  response  to  even  poor 


104  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

cultivation  yielded  returns  sufficient  to  supply  their  limited  wants.  His  little 
"  clearing,"  selected  in  the  most  convenient  spot,  was  cultivated  by  the  pioneer 
year  after  year  in  corn  and  vegetables,  which  served  to  support  his  family  along 
with  a  hog  or  two  and  possibly  a  horse  and  a  cow.  With  fowls  and  the  abundant 
game  in  the  forests  around,  there  was  abundance  of  meat  and  bread.  Even  now 
in  many  parts  of  the  State  this  is  the  mode  of  life. 

When  the  original  clearing  was  exhausted  by  long  tillage,  an  addition  was 
made  by  felling  more  timber.  Thus  the  cleared  lands  gradually  grew  around  the 
cabins  until  extensive  openings  were  made,  but  still  without  causing  attempts  at 
establishing  communication  with  the  outside  world.  This  independent  mode  of 
life  impressed  upon  the  people  habits  of  thought  and  action,  which,  though  calcu- 
lated to  foster  industry,  frugality  and  hardiness,  were  not  most  favorable  for  the 
promotion  of  undertakings  which  require  communication  with  and  dependence 
upon  other  countries. 

We  see  at  the  present  day  the  influence  of  this  training.  Until  of  late  West 
Virginians  have  paid  but  small  attention  to  the  raising  of  agricultural  products 
for  exportation.  They  are  usually  content  with  the  production  of  a  sufficiency 
for  home  consumption.  But  rarely  is  an  improved  system  of  farming  employed, 
and  the  cultivation  is  of  the  rudest  kind.  The  tendency  is  to  look  to  other  sources 
than  the  farm  for  products  of  exchange.  As  an  example,  this  spirit  lias  led  our 
people  along  all  the  streams  which  can  float  a  raft,  to  denude  the  forests  of  the 
magnificent  timber  which  they  afford,  often  sacrificing  it  in  the  most  prodigal 
manner.  So,  too,  they  turn  their  attention,  when  the  finer  timber  has  been 
removed,  to  the  getting  of  tan-bark,  hoop-poles,  &c.,  &c.,  which  business  occupies 
a  very  important  position  among  our  industries.  All  of  these  causes  have  led  to 
a  neglect  of  agriculture  and  stock  farming — industries  for  which,  especially  the 
latter,  our  State  is  peculiarly  fitted.  Of  course,  there  are  important  exceptions, 
especially  along  the  Ohio  and  in  the  older  counties,  as  in  Greenbrier,  in  the  South 
Branch  District,  &c.;  besides,  we  are  speaking  rather  of  what  has  been.  Of  late 
years  there  has  been  a  marked  improvement,  and  we  are  being  forced  into  those 
industrial  channels  which  nature  intended  that  we  should  follow.  The  opening 
of  important  lines  of  railroad  has  brought  capital  to  develop  our  coals  and  iron, 
and  the  established  value  of  these  bids  fair  to  bring  other  lines  within  our  limits. 
The  increased  amount  of  cleared  land  has  given  greater  impetus  to  stock  raising, 
which  has  been  still  farther  increased  by  the  dictates  of  a  sounder  system  of  agri- 
culture. This  has  taught  us  to  keep  our  hillsides,  with  their  easily  washed  soils, 
as  much  in  grass  as  possible,  and  the  ready-money  returns  which  our  sheep,  wool 
and  the  cattle  purchased  in  the  fields  bring  us  tend  strongly  in  the  same  direction. 
Again,  our  people  are  no  longer  satisfied  with  the  miserable  roads,  which  have 
been  no  small  obstacle  in  the  way  of  farming.  More  attention  also  is  paid  to  sys- 
tematic farming,  although  much  yet  remains  to  be  done  in  that  direction. 

This  State  at  present  pays  more  attention  to  corn  than  any  other  crop.  To 
the  production  of  this  the  soil  and  climate  are  well  adapted.  When  the  lands  pro- 
duce grass,  and  especially  on  the  calcareous  soils,  the  following  rotation  has  been 
found  advantageous:  First  corn,  one  or  two  years;  then  oats,  then  wheat,  then 
grass — clover,  timothy,  or  both  mixed.  The  land,  if  productive  enough,  may  be 
grazed  during  the  whole  time  it  is  in  grass.  When  the  blue-grass  grows  sponta- 
neously, as  it  does  over  most  of  the  State,  it  tends  to  overrun  meadows,  and  hence 
foreign  grasses,  such  as  clover  and  timothy,  cannot  be  maintained  for  any  great 
length  of  time.  The  farmers  on  the  calcareous  soils  of  the  Panhandle  say  that 
their  hills  grow  grass  almost  as  well  as  the  bottom  lands,  but  on  neither  can  they 
keep  timothy  longer  than  five  years  as  the  predominant  grass.  After  this  period 
blue-grass  takes  the  ground,  and  this  being  indigenous,  maintains  possession 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  105 

indefinitely,  forming  excellent  pastures.  It  is  claimed  that  the  land  improves  so 
long  as  it  is  in  either  grass.  The  blue-grass  pasture  is  again  broken  up  and  the 
same  routine  takes  place.  The  same  rotation  essentially  is  followed  in  other  grass 
lands  with  beneficial  results.  Rye  and  barley  may  be  substituted  as  small  grain 
crops. 

In  the  uplands  of  the  South  Branch  District  of  the  northeast  counties,  which 
is  a  fine  grazing  region,  and  produces  fine  grain  and  hay  in  the  bottoms,  the  rota- 
tion of  crops  is  corn,  wTheat,  clover,  and  occasionally  rye  or  buckwheat.  This 
rotation  may,  perhaps,  be  taken  to  represent  a  good  succession  for  any  highland 
grain  district. 

As  to  the  character  of  the  crops,  fruits,  etc.,  that  may  be  raised  within  the  State, 
it  will  be  easily  seen  that  it  must  be  very  varied.  No  State  has  a  greater  variety 
of  soil  within  certain  limits,  and  few  have  a  greater  range  of  elevation,  varying, 
as  that  of  West  Virginia  does,  from  500  feet  to  4,000  feet.  Between  the  summits 
of  the  mountains  in  the  northeast  and  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  in  the  southwest 
there  is  a  climatal  difference  of  at  least  14°. 

Stock  raising  is  an  industry  of  considerable  importance,  and  in  some  sections 
is  carried  on  on  a  large  scale — a  market  for  beef  cattle  being  found  at  Washing- 
ton, Baltimore,  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 

COAL. 

The  coal  area  of  West  Virginia  covers  16,000  square  miles,  or  4,000  square 
miles  more  than  the  entire  coal  area  of  Great  Britain,  and  a  few  hundred  square 
miles  more  than  the  combined  coal  area  of  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  France. 
It  is  also  over  3,000  square  miles  greater  than  the  coal  area  of  Pennsylvania. 
These  figures  will  give  some  conception  of  the  magnitude  of  the  coal  territory  of 
West  Virginia.  The  development  of  these  interests  has  been  very  great  within 
the  last  few  years,  during  which  time  several  railroads  have  been  constructed  to 
open  up  new  coal-fields,  and  others  that  have  been  planned  with  the  same  object 
in  view  will  shortly  be  built.  In  1876  about  800,000  tons  coal  were  mined  in  the 
State;  in  1881  this  had  increased  to  1,500,COO  tons,  and  again  in  1883  to  2,805,000 
tons.  The  official  statistics  for  1884  are  not  at  this  writing  available,  though  the 
output  is  estimated  by  Saward  at  3,000,000  tons.  This  is  probably  too  small  by 
several  hundred  thousand  tons.  Thus  the  amount  of  coal  mined  in  the  State 
doubled  from  1876  to  1881,  and  again  doubled  from  1881  to  1884  At  the  present 
time  there  are  about  140  to  150  mines  being  worked,  wbile  new  companies  with 
large  capital  are  being  organized  almost  every  week.  The  coal  mined  in  this 
State  reaches  tidewater  over  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Railroad,  which  has  erected 
fine  coal-piers  at  Newport  News,  Va.,  where  a  large  coal  trade  is  now  carried  on, 
and  over  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  to  Baltimore.  A  large  amount  of  West 
Virginia  coal  is  made  into  coke  in  the  State  and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron. 

The  following  is  from  M.  F.  Maury,  Esq  : 

The  coal  raining  advantages  of  West  Virginia  arise  from  the  great  number  of 
seams  found  accessible  above  water  level,  and  from  the  fact  that  they  contain 
coals  of  various  compositions  adapted  to  all  the  requirements  of  trade  and  manu- 
facture. The  fat  coking,  gassy  bituminous,  the  hard  and  valuable  splint  and  the 
rich  and  oily  cannel  in  this  highly  favored  region  are  found  in  great  purity,  and 
made  easily  accessible  to  the  miner  through  the  agency  of  running  water,  which 
has  exposed  the  seams  in  thousands  upon  thousands  of  places,  and  in  consequence 
of  this  and  their  size,  coal,  as  a  general  rule,  can  be  mined  cheaper  and  with  more 
economy  under  the  same  rates  of  labor  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  Alleghany 
Coal-field. 


106  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

In  fact,  when  the  northern  portion  of  the  State  was  wrinkled  into  folds,  and 
the  southern  tilted  gently  from  its  original  horizontal  position,  water,  with  its  vast 
planing  and  eroding  power,  washed  off  the  superincumbent  strata  and  cut  and 
counter-cut  the  country  by  deep  and  narrow  valleys,  thus  preparing  this  field  with 
numerous  objective  points  for  safe  and  economical  working,  for  it  left  vast  areas 
of  the  coal  measures  above  water,  accessible  at  many  points  by  simply  removing 
from  the  outcrops  of  the  seams  the  alluvium  that  has  formed  there  by  the  decay- 
ing work  of  ages. 

This  will  more  clearly  appear  by  a  comparison  of  the  position  of  the  coals 
here  and  in  Great  Britain  in  this  respect.  There  the  coal  is  deep  below  water 
level,  and  to  reach  it  requires  years  of  labor  and  vast  sums  of  money.  In  its 
great  northern  coal-field  the  shafts  are  rarely  less  than  150  feet  deep,  and  many 
have  the  great  depth  of  1,800  feet,  sunk  at  an  expense  in  some  cases  of  $240,000, 
while  the  Dukinfield  colliery  was  taken  down  2,600  feet  at  a  cost  of  $500,000r 
mainly  to  reach  the  "Black  Mine  Coal,"  a  seam  4  feet  8|  inches  thick. 

Here  mighty  natural  forces  have  sunk  pits  which  need  neither  repair  or 
renewal.  The  inclination  of  the  strata,  coupled  with  the  laws  of  gravity,  have 
provided  the  most  costless,  perfect  and  permanent  pumping  machinery;  and  the 
perfect  ventilation  of  the  mines  is  but  a  matter  of  the  most  simple  and  ordinary 
care,  as,  except  in  one  or  two  instances  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  State,  there 
are  none  of  those  noxious  gases  to  be  dealt  with  which  oftentimes  render  coal 
mining  so  dangerous. 

There  are,  however,  many  districts  where  the  seams  are  below  the  surface, 
though  easily  reached  by  shafting ;  but  when  we  consider  the  number  that  are 
over  three  feet  thick,  and  that  such  an  one  is  workable  and  yields  about  4,800  tons 
per  acre,  it  will  be  seen  that  we  need  not  treat  of  the  deeper  ones,  for  we  have  no 
need  to  sink  shafts  at  all,  as  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  the  cost  of  winning  coals 
from  day  levels  will  be  so  far  raised  as  to  necessitate  other  styles  of  working;  and 
West  Virginia  can  justly  be  proud  of  the  numerous  advantages  it  holds  in  this- 

respect. 

IRON. 

The  iron  to  be  found  in  "West  Virginia  may  be  divided  into  two  classes : 

1.  Those  ores  which  belong  to  and  are  found  in  the  Apalachian  Coal 
Measures,  consisting  of  brown  oxides,  carbonates  and  black  bands,  and  in  some 
places  nodular  red  hematite. 

2.  Those  which  belong  to  the  region  lying  between  the  eastern  escarpment 
of  the  coal  formation  and  the  eastern  border  of  the  State,  forming  a  part  of  the 
great  iron  belt  of  the  Atlantic  States,  and  consisting  of  the  brown  and  red  hema- 
tites, which  are  much  more  rich  and  abundant  than  those  of  the  first  class. 

IRON  ORES  OF  THE   COAL  MEASURES. 

Little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  iron  of  this  geological  horizon,  except  in 
the  northern  counties,  where  a  few  small  blast  furnaces  have  worked  the  native 
ores.  With  these  exceptions,  as  there  was  generally  no  cheap  and  convenient 
outlet,  and  consequently  no  great  value  for  this  mineral  or  its  product,  it  has  not 
possessed  much  attraction  for  the  people  at  large,  and  but  little  attention  has  been 
paid  to  it. 

A  careful  geological  survey  may  and  no  doubt  will  show  that  there  are  more 
workable  beds  of  it  than  are  now  known,  and,  in  fact,  within  the  last  few  years 
most  valuable  seams  of  black  band  ores  have  been  uncovered,  the  presence  of 
which  was  not  thought  of  before. 

With  but  one  exception,  (in  Jackson  County,)  so  far  as  examinations  go,  it  is 
only  the  lower  coal  measures  and  the  lower  barren  measures  that  in  West  Vir- 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  107 

ginia  contain  workable  beds  of  ore,  which  may  be  divided  into  carbonates  and 
black  bands. 

Black  Band  Iron  Ore. — This  is  nothing  more  than  a  carbonate  of  iron  of  a 
more  or  less  black  color,  by  reason  of  an  admixture  of  bituminous  matter.  So 
far  as  yet  known,  it  is  confined  entirely  to  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  where 
it  has  been  discovered  only  within  the  last  few  years.  From  the  fact  of  its  very 
often  resembling  black  slate  in  its  structure,  it  may  often  have  been  passed  over 
unnoticed,  and  careful  search  will  no  doubt  show  it  in  many  places  where  it  is  not 
now  suspected. 

It  is  a  class  of  material  that  makes  an  excellent  iron  and  from  which  much 
of  the  celebrated  Scotch  pig  is  smelted.  It  possesses  an  especial  value  from  the 
fact  that  in  many  cases  a  low  grade  ore  can  be  roasted  into  a  higher  grade.  For 
instance,  take  that  from  Davis  Creek,  in  Kanawha  County.  Where  mined  it  con- 
tains 33  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron  and  26  per  cent,  of  carbonaceous  matter.  By 
piling  it  in  heaps  and  setting  fire  thereto,  the  carbonaceous  matter  is  burnt  out, 
and  in  the  process  of  combustion,  generates  enough  heat  to  convert  tne  carbonate 
of  iron  in  the  ore  into  a  richer  oxide,  so  that  the  mass,  after  being  thus  roasted, 
analyzes  65  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron. 

Unfortunately,  we  can  never  reckon  or  depend  upon  any  seam  of  it  continu- 
ing of  a  uniform  value,  for  in  one  place  it  will  contain  an  ore  well  worth  working, 
while  half  a  mile  off  it  may  become  so  mixed  with  slate  or  earthy  impurities  as  to 
be  utterly  valueless.  As  an  example:  On  Bell  Creek,  Fayette  County,  an  excel- 
lent bed  about  four  feet  thick  was  found  by  Mr.  L  Bemelmans,  of  Charleston. 
Some  two  or  three  miles  from  this  place,  up  a  ravine  a  short  distance  below  the 
mouth  of  Bell,  the  same  seam  showed  only  12  to  14  inches  of  the  good  material ; 
while  on  Little  Elk  Run  of  Gauley  River,  some  three  miles  to  the  north,  the 
results  of  two  analyses  from  the  same  seam  gave  only  5  and  7  per  cent,  respect- 
ively of  metallic  iron.  If  we  search  for  it  in  another  direction,  it  may  open  to  a 
very  valuable  deposit.  From  this  irregularity  and  from  the  fact  that  it  has  been 
well  proven  in  this  field,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  careful  search  may  find 
it  in  many  places  where  it  has  never  yet  been  noticed,  and  wherever  it  is  found  in 
workable  quantity  its  presence  adds  great  value  to  the  land. 

Carbonate  of  Iron. — Under  this  head  may  also  be  classed  the  brown  hematites 
of  the  coal  measures,  as  they  are  merely  the  results  of  the  decomposition  of  the 
carbonates,  and,  in  fact,  when  a  seam  of  the  former  is  discovered,  we  may  expect 
it  to  turn  into  the  latter  as  soon  as  we  go  far  enough  under  ground  to  get  beyond 
atmospheric  influences. 

We  see  the  result  of  this  decomposition  in  the  pieces  of  brown  oxide  that  are 
found  on  the  hills  in  every  portion  of  the  State.  These  have  led  to  many  erro- 
neous ideas  as  to  the  richness  of  certain  localities  in  this  mineral,  which  came 
originally  from  the  carbonates  of  iron  existing  in  the  beds  that  were  once  super- 
imposed upon  the  present  strata,  and  have  long  since  been  worn  away  by  eresion. 
As  this  took  place  the  lighter  materials  were  washed  off  by  the  currents,  While  the 
heavier  ore  settled  down  and  was  left  resting  on  our  hillsides.  Sometimes  a  great 
deal  was  deposited  in  one  place  and  the  soil  is  full  of  it,  while  in  others  but  a 
single  lump  was  left,  and  hence  it  is  that  on  many  of  our  mountains  we  find  the 
"  blossom  "  of  good  ore,  and  yet  have  no  bed  of  it  near  by. 

Like  the  black  band,  the  seams  of  carbonate  of  iron  are  quite  variable,  so  that 
in  one  locality  they  will  be  workable,  while  in  another  they  may  have  thinned 
down  or  degenerated  so  much  from  an  admixture  of  earthy  impurities  as  to  be 
worthless.  They  usually  contain  more  or  less  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  of  much 
importance  in  the  blast  furnace  in  helping  to  flux  out  any  earthy  impurities  that 
may  be  present. 


108  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

By  roasting,  the  carbonic  acid  of  this  ore  is  driven  off,  and  the  mass  is  con- 
verted into  the  red  oxide.  As  the  former,  when  pure,  contains  48.3  per  cent,  of 
iron,  and  the  latter  70  per  cent.,  it  will  at  once  be  perceived  that  a  thorough  burn- 
ing will  raise  the  percentage  so  that  an  ore  of  low  grade  can  often  be  roasted  to  a 
higher  one — a  very  fortunate  circumstance,  as  otherwise  inaiiy  of  our  seams  would 
be  too  poor  to  be  of  value. 

SALT. 

Rich  as  is  West  Virginia  in  coal,  iron,  timber,  &c.,  she  is  scarcely  less  rich  in 
that  indispensable  necessity  to  human  health  and  comfort  and  to  animal  life — 
common  salt.  Fossil  or  rock  salt  has  not  been  found  in  the  State,  but  salt  brines 
of  greater  or  less  strength  and  in  greater  or  less  abundance  are  found  by  artesian 
borings  at  greater  or  less  depth  throughout  the  Apalachian  Coal-field,  which 
underlies  the  greater  portion  of  our  State. 

The  strength  of  these  brines  varies  in  different  localities  and  in  different  wells 
in  the  same  locality.  The  range  may  be  stated  at  say  6°  to  12°  by  the  salometer, 
Baunie  scale,  (distilled  Water  being  0°,  saturation  25°,)  but  the  average  strength  of 
the  brines  from  which  salt  is  now  made  is  about  8°  to  10°.  The  value  of  these 
brines  depends,  of  course,  upon  their  location  as  regards  accessibility  and  cheap 
transportation  of  the  products  to  market,  as  well  as  the  convenient  proximity  of 
cheap  coal  for  fuel  and  timber  for  barrels.  Only  locations  on  the  navigable  rivers 
or  lines  of  railways  at  present  fulfill  these  indications ;  but  as  population  increases 
and  new  routes  of  travel  and  traffic  are  opened  up,  it  is  probable  that  new  salt 
manufacturing  localities  will  be  developed. 

The  principal  points  at  which  salt  has  been  manufactured  in  the  State  are 
Charleston,  on  the  Great  Kanawha  River ;  from  West  Columbia  to  Hartford  City, 
on  the  Ohio  River;  at  Bulltown,  on  the  Little  Kanawha;  at  Louisa,  on  the  Big 
Sandy ;  in  Mercer  County,  on  New  River ;  near  Birch  of  Elk  River,  and  at  some 
other  less  important  points,  for  local  use. 

TIMBER. 

The  following  on  the  Timber  Resources  of  West  Virginia  is  from  "The  Vir- 
ginias,' of  Lynchburg,  Va  : 

The  forests  of  West  Virginia,  with  the  exception  of  the  belt  of  pine  and 
spruce  confined  to  the  high  ridges  of  tho  Alleghany  Mountains,  is  principally 
composed  of  broad-leaved  trees,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  white  and 
chestnut  oak,  the  black  walnut,  the  yellow  poplar  and  the  cherry.  The  white  pine 
and  spruce  forests  reach  within  this  State  their  southern  limit  as  important 
sources  of  lumber  supply. 

The  forests  have  been  largely  removed  from  the  counties  bordering  the  Ohio 
River,  and  the  most,  valuable  hard-wood  timber  adjacent  to  the  principal  streams, 
especially  black  walnut,  cherry  and  yellow  poplar,  has  been  culled  in  nearly  every 
part  of  the  State.  But  slight  inroads,  however,  have  yet  been  made  into  the 
magnificent  body  of  hard-wood  timber  covering  the  extreme  southern  counties, 
which  still  contain  vast  quantities  of  oak,  cherry  and  poplar. 

The  black  walnut  found  scattered  everywhere  in  West  Virginia  is  least  plen- 
tiful in  the  northwestern  and  Ohio  River  counties,  and  most  abundant  along  the 
upper  waters  of  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Ohio  through  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  State.  Yellow  poplar  is  found  throughout  the  State,  and  is  still  abundant 
about  the  headwaters  of  nearly  all  the  principal  streams.  Large  bodies  of  cherry 
are  found  in  Greenbrier,  Nicholas,  Webster  and  other  counties  immediately  west 
of  the  mountains,  and  a  large  amount  of  hemlock  is  scattered  through  the  valleys 
and  ravines  of  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State  and  along  the  western  slopes  of 
the  Alleghanies.  The  area  still  occupied  by  the  white  pine  is  estimated  to  extend 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  109 

over  310  square  miles  and  to  contain  about  990,000,000  feet  of  merchantable 
lumber.  The  principal  centers  of  lumber  manufacture  are  along  the  Kaiiawha 
River,  at  Ronceverte,  in  Greenbrier  County,  at  Parkersburg,  and  along  the  upper 
Potomac. 

Partial  returns  of  the  hoop-pole  industry  gave  a  production  during  the  census 
year  of  3,549,000,  valued  at  $140,000. 

During  the  census  year  476,775  acres  of  wood  were  reported  destroyed  by 
fire,  with  a  loss  of  $155,280.  Of  these  fires  the  largest  number  was  traced  to  the 
careless  clearing  of  land  for  agricultural  purposes,  although  many  had  their  origin 
in  sparks  from  locomotives. 

The  manufacture  of  cooperage  stock  is  fast  increasing  in  importance,  and 
seems  destined,  with  the  exhaustion  of  more  accessible  hard-wood  forests  of  the 
country,  to  assume  a  much  greater  development  than  at  present.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  black  walnut,  yellow  poplar  and  oak  in  the  log  are  shipped  to  Northern 
markets  and  to  Europe. 

The  following  notes  upon  the  forests  of  West  Virginia  are  extracted  from 
Mr.  Pringle's  report :  "  Entering  West  Virginia  at  Keyser  (New  Creek)  by  way  of 
Cumberland,  Md.,  we  find  ourselves  in  one  of  the  narrow  valleys  lying  among  the 
low,  abrupt  ridges  of  the  northern  Alleghanies,  among  which  we  have  been  trav- 
eling since  we  reached  the  vicinity  of  Williamsport,  Pa.  Coming  south  from 
Middle  Pennsylvania,  however,  the  forest  growth  covering  the  long  mountain 
chains  within  view  of  the  railroad  becomes  heavier  and  heavier,  the  evidence  of 
fire  and  axe  largely  disappearing.  On  the  hills  above  Keyser  fewer  evergreens 
appeared  than  I  had  previously  seen.  A  few  slopes  were  principally  occupied  by 
pine  in  variety,  but  the  mountains  of  this  region  were  covered  with  a  growth  of 
deciduous  trees — white,  black,  red,  Spanish  and  chestnut  oaks,  hickories,  butter- 
nuts, black  walnuts,  yellow  poplars,  locusts,  elms,  sugar  maples,  etc.  At  Piedmont 
some  $200,000  have  been  expended  in  the  construction  of  a  boom  on  the  North 
Branch  of  the  Potomac.  At  this  point,  as  well  as  at  Swanton  and  Deer  Park,  on 
the  Maryland  side,  there  are  mills  sawing  chiefly  white  oak,  and  also  considerable 
white  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  poplar,  white  ash,  etc.  Some  spruce  which  had  not 
been  seen  or  heard  of  in  the  timber  belt  of  Pennsylvania  is  found  20  miles  above 
Piedmont.  The  market  for  lumber  manufactured  here  is  chiefly  eastward.  Much 
of  the  oak  is  sent  to  Europe,  partly  in  the  form  of  squared  timber,  partly  cut  5  by 
12  inches  and  from  15  to  20  feet  long.  The  mills  at  Swanton  and  Deer  Park  are 
located  on  the  railroad,  and  cut  timber  is  hauled  to  them  from  the  vicmity.  The 
mills  at  Piedmont  are  fed  by  logs  driven  down  the  river  from  the  western  portion 
of  Mineral  and  Grant  Counties,  W.  Va.  This  lumber  is  chiefly  spruce,  oak  and 
hemlock.  Great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  driving  this  part  of  the  Potomac,  as 
it  is  a  swift  and  rocky  stream.  Logs,  especially  oak,  constantly  lodge  on  the  rocks 
or  bank,  and  there  has  been  great  difficulty  in  maintaining  the  boom  and  dam  at 
this  point. 

"Rowlesbnrg,  in  Preston  County,  owes  its  existence  as  a  lumber  depot  to  the 
fact  that  the  Cheat  River,  upon  which  it  is  situated,  as  it  passes  through  the  Briery 
Mountains  for  a  distance  of  25  miles  below  this  point,  has  so  narrow  and  rocky  a 
channel  and  so  swift  a  current  that  it  is  not  possible  to  get  the  logs  further  down 
the  stream.  Above  Rowlesburg  the  stream  is  good  to  drive,  and  any  one  of  its 
branches  can  be  driven  from  a  point  125  miles  above  that  point.  From  the  mouth 
of  Black  Fork,  30  miles  above,  the  timber  is  brought  down  in  rafts  rather  than  as 
separate  logs.  This  is  because  there  is  no  boom  as  yet  at  Rowlesburg  to  stop  the 
logs.  There  are  small  booms  on  Black  and  Shaver  Forks,  many  miles  above 
Rowlesburg.  Scattered  along  the  river  above  Rowlesburg  there  are  a  few  small 
mills,  the  product  of  which  is  floated  down  the  stream  on  rafts.  The  timber  of 


110  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Preston  County,  between  Rowlesburg  and  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
is  oak,  poplar,  chestnut,  ash,  beech,  birch,  hemlock,  basswood  and  hickory. 

"  The  timber  of  Canaon  Valley,  in  Tucker  and  Randolph  Counties,  is  largely 
hemlock  on  the  lower  lands ;  on  the  higher  situations  and  slopes,  sugar  maple  and 
beech,  and  as  soon  as  a  suitable  elevation  is  reached,  spruce  is  mingled  with  black 
cherry.  In  other  portions  of  Tucker  County  and  on  the  tributaries  of  Cheat 
River  flowing  out  of  Randolph  County,  the  timber  is  chiefly  oak,  poplar,  ash, 
spruce,  cherry,  black  walnut,  white  pine,  etc.  This,  however,  is  not  a  black 
walnut  region,  and  there  are  here  nowhere  more  than  scattered  trees ;  a  careful 
search  has  failed  to  find  any  great  body  of  this  timber  here.  It  is  estimated  that 
2,500,000  feet  of  yellow  poplar  are  still  standing  in  the  valleys  of  the  Cheat  and 
its  tributaries. 

"  Shaver  Fork  is  heavily  timbered  with  spruce.  A  boom  has  been  constructed 
at  Grafton,  on  Tygart  Valley  River,  a  main  branch  of  the  Monongahela.  It  is  a 
rough  stream,  unfavorable  for  lumber  operations,  and  for  a  distance  only  of  10 
miles  above  Grafton  is  it  smooth  enough  to  admit  of  the  passage  of  rafts.  All 
lumber  has,  therefore,  to  come  doMni  in  separate  logs,  and  only  such  kinds  as  are 
light  enough  to  float  well  can  be  got  down.  For  this  reason  there  is  very  little 
except  poplar  sawed  at  Grafton.  Oak  is  too  heavy  to  be  driven  successfully,  and 
as  it  cannot  be  tied  up  in  rafts  with  poplar,  as  is  done  on  the  Cheat,  the  stores  of 
oak  timber  growing  in  the  valleys  drained  by  this  river  must  wait  for  the  building 
of  a  railroad  to  bring  them  to  market.  The  yellow  poplar  still  standing  in  this 
region  is  estimated  at  300,000,000  feet,  and  on  the  higher  grounds,  especially  about 
the  headwaters  of  streams,  there  are  fine  bodies  of  black  cherry  mixed  with 
other  trees. 

"At  Parkersburg  are  located  the  mill  and  shops  of  the  Parkersburg  Mill 
Company,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Little  Kanawha,  a  short  distance  above 
the  confluence  with  the  Ohio.  This  is  the  only  company  operating  in  lumber 
within  the  city  of  Parkersburg.  It  manufactures  about  6,000,000  feet  of  lumber 
annually,  mostly  poplar,  some  oak,  and  a  quarter  of  a  million  feet  of  beech. 
Little  black  can  be  now  obtained  here,  and  that  of  inferior  quality.  Rough 
lumber  and  manufactured  articles  of  wood  find  a  ready  market  in  every  direction 
West,  North  and  East.  I  was  astonished  and  delighted  to  see  how  closely  the 
lumber  was  worked  up,  and  the  great  variety  of  articles  manufactured  from  slabs, 
edgings,  calls,  etc.,  which  are  in  other  mills  so  generally  thrown  into  the  waste 
pile.  Broom  handles,  corn-popper  handles,  brush  handles,  brush  heads,  tool 
handles  of  many  descriptions  and  fly-trap  bottoms  are  but  a  few  of  the  articles 
that  are  turned  out  by  millions  from  odd  bits  of  wood,  few  of  which  are  too  small 
to  make  something  or  other  from.  The  company  executes  orders  for  articles  used 
in  manufactories  widely  distributed  over  the  country  from  Cincinnati  and  Chicago 
to  Boston  and  New  York.  Poplar  is  used  for  broom  handles,  and  beech,  niaple, 
sycamore,  black  walnut,  cherry,  etc.,  for  the  smaller  articles.  This  company  does 
not  own  and  operate  timber  lands,  but  buys  its  logs  from  parties  who  deliver  rafts 
at  its  mills.  Formerly  much  lumber  wras  wasted  in  this  region  in  clearing  farms, 
but  now  proprietors  of  land  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  cut  and  saw  their  logs, 
which  they  bring  down  in  rafts  themselves,  or  sell  to  parties  who  make  a  business 
of  rafting.  Once  out  of  the  small  streams,  the  logs  are  easily  rafted  down  the 
Little  Kanawha  during  favorable  seasons.  There  are  no  booms  on  the  Little 
Kanawha,  except  temporary  constructions  for  special  purposes,  which  are  broken 
up  by  every  flood.  Several  years  ago  it  was  supposed  that  the  timber  on  this  river 
was  nearly  exhausted,  but  it  continues  to  come  down  in  undiminished  quantities 
to  the  value  of  some  hundred  thousand  dollars  annually,  in  addition  to  railroad 
ties,  staves,  etc.  It  is  only  about  40  miles  up  the  main  river  and  no  great  distance 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  Ill 

back  from  the  stream  that  the  supplj  of  oak  is  exhausted.  The  river  is  100  miles 
long,  and  about  its  upper  waters  and  those  of  its  tributaries  the  oak  is  compara- 
tively untouched. 

"  Much  of  Wirt  County  and  the  greater  part  of  Roane,  Calhoun  and  Gilmer, 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  valley  of  Little  Kanawha,  is  a  vast  virgin  forest  of  oak 
and  poplar,  containing  a  good  deal  of  black  walnut  and  sugar  maple  and  some 
black  cherry.  Braxton  County  is  magnificently  timbered,  as  is  Webster,  although 
the  timber  here  is  as  yet  inaccessible. 

"  The  Guyandotte  is  a  good  river  for  lumbering  operations.  Rafts  can  come 
down  from  a  point  100  miles  from  its  mouth.  There  are  yet  no  booms  on  this 
river,  except  strings  of  logs  occasionally  stretched  across  it  for  temporary  pur- 
poses. On  its  course  above  Guyandotte  Station  are  four  or  five  mills  doing,  for 
the  most  part,  a  local  business,  their  product  for  export  being  only  about  1,000,000 
feet  of  sawed  lumber.  The  rafting  of  this  sawed  lumber  is  attended  with  some 
risk  of  loss,  and  therefore  a  greater  amount  is  brought  down  in  uusawed  logs 
bound  together  in  rafts,  which  are  taken  down  the  Ohio  and  sold  to  the  various 
mills  along  its  course.  These  rafts  are  usually  made  11  logs  wide,  and  three  or 
four  of  these  courses  are  placed  end  to  end.  White  oak  is  made  up  into  rafts  with 
a  poplar  log  in  the  center  of  each  course,  and  the  raft  is  made  light  enough  to 
float  easily.  Along  the  Guyandotte,  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  oaks  and 
poplars  have  been  cut  for  a  distance  of  from  one  to  two  miles  from  the  stream, 
the  black  walnut  for  some  five  miles  back ;  but  nine-tenths  of  the  area  drained  by 
this  river  is  still  in  original  forest,  composed  of  white,  chestnut  and  other  oaks, 
poplar,  walnut,  several  hickories,  beech,  sugar  maples,  sycamore,  ash,  etc.  In  this 
region  there  is,  in  the  aggregate,  a  good  deal  of  black  walnut,  but  it  exists  as  scat- 
tered trees  rather  than  in  groves  or  tracts. 

"  Coal  River  is  160  miles  long,  and  for  36  miles,  or  to  Pletona,  is  navigable  for 
barges.  The  valley  of  this  river  is  covered  with  truly  magnificent  forests,  in 
which  the  trees  of  the  several  species  composing  them  attain  remarkable  dimen- 
sions. Poplar  and  white  oak  here  exist  in  nearly  equal  proportions,  and  together 
constitute  about  a  third  of  the  timber.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  black 
cherry,  lin  and  locust,  as  well  as  hemlock,  the  latter  not  being  considered  valuable 
in  this  country.  Black  walnut  appears  more  abundant  in  this  region  than  in  any 
other  of  similar  extent  of  which  I  have  yet  heard.  But  little  timber  has  yet  been 
removed  from  the  valley  of  this  river,  and  it  is  chiefly  the  lower  portion  and  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  banks  which  have  been  lumbered. 

"  The  Elk  River  empties  in  the  Kanawha  at  Charleston.  About  two  miles 
above  its  mouth  are  located  a  boom  and  several  saw  mills,  and  here  are  also  a  dam 
and  lock  which  secure  slack  water  for  some  2)  miles.  The  river  is  about  180 
miles  in  length.  Logs  have  been  driven  from  a  point  150  miles  above  its  mouth, 
but  its  valley  has  only  been  lumbered  to  any  great  extent  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity of  the  main  river,  and  to  a  distance  of  some  110  miles  from  its  mouth.  Most 
of  the  original  growth  of  the  forest  of  the  Elk  basin  still  remains,  and  is  composed 
largely  of  white  oak,  hickory,  chestnut  and  poplar.  Black  walnut  here,  as  every- 
where else  in  this  State,  is  scattered,  although  it  is  estimated  that  10,000,000  feet 
of  lumber  still  remain  in  this  region.  Above  a  certain  altitude  and  about  the 
upper  waters  of  this  river  considerable  black  cherry,  sugar  maple  and  birch  is 
found ;  here  also  beech  and  basswood  abound ;  by  the  streams  hemlock  occurs, 
and  on  the  mountains  a  little  black  spruce.  About  the  upper  settlements  on  this 
river  miles  of  fence  constructed  with  boards  of  black  cherry  and  farms  fenced 
with  black  walnut  rails  may  be  seen.  Formerly  large  numbers  of  coal  boats  and 
salt  boats  were  built  up  Elk  River.  Once  also  the  salt  works  of  the  Kanawha 
required  vast  numbers  of  barrels »  these  were  made  of  black  as  well  as  white  oak. 


112  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Now  but  five  of  the  sixty  furnaces  once  boiling  brine  in  this  vicinity  are  in  opera- 
tion, and  there  is  little  demand  for  black  oak  for  staves.  The  country  along  the 
Kanawha  between  the  Elk  and  the  Gauley  Rivers  has  been  lumbered  for  five  or 
six  miles  back  from  the  streams,  and  about  one-fourth  of  the  timber  has  been  cut 
from  these  valleys. 

"  The  Gauley  River,  with  its  several  large  tributaries,  drains  a  valley  which 
covers  nearly  5,000  square  miles.  Its  length  is  about  110  miles — much  less  than 
that  of  Elk.  which  is  a  long  slender  stream — but  it  occupies  a  much  broader  valley 
and  has  twice  the  volume  of  water  of  the  Elk.  Unlike  the  rivers  just  considered, 
which  wear  out  for  themselves  smooth  channels  through  the  soft  sandstone,  the 
Gauley  is  a  rough  stream,  tumbling  rapidly  over  hard  conglomerate,  its  bed  being 
full  of  bowlders  and  ledges.  For  the  first  10  miles  from  its  mouth  the  fall  averages 
four  feet  to  the  mile,  while  its  upper  waters  are  so  swift  and  rough  as  to  be 
unnavigable  even  for  small  boats.  For  these  reasons  the  Gauley  does  not  admit 
of  the  passing  of  rafts,  and  it  is  a  difficult  river  upon  which  even  to  drive  single 
logs.  Its  valley  is  but  little  settled,  except  on  Meadow  River  and  along  its  right 
bank  below  that  stream.  Above  a  point  15  miles  from  its  mouth  no  timber  has 
been  touched  except  by  the  few  settlers.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  of  the 
Gauley,  for  15  or  more  miles,  the  timber  is  chiefly  oak,  poplar,  walnut,  etc.  The 
Gauley  and  its  large  affluents,  the  Cherry,  Cranberry  and  Williams  Rivers,  all  head 
back  in  the  forests  of  black  spruces,  which  sometimes  take  entire  possession  of 
the  mountain  tops.  A  little  lower,  yet  often  mingled  with  the  spruce,  cherry  trees 
so  predominate  over  others  as  to  have  given  their  name  to  the  stream.  Here  are 
trees  often  four  feet  in  diameter.  The  region  intermediate  between  the  lower 
and  the  upper  districts  of  the  Gauley  thus  described  contains  much  beech,  sugar 
maple  and  black  cherry.  The  white  oak,  which  abounds  in  the  lower  basin  of 
this  river,  disappears  above  an  altitude  of  2,000  feet.  I  was  informed  that? 
although  lumbering  operations  were  but  lately  begun  on  the  Gauley,  nearly 
1,000,000  feet  of  poplar  were  brought  out  of  the  river  in  1879,  and  that  it  had 
yielded  50,000  feet  of  black  walnut  in  1880,  while  there  were  now  in  the  river 
poplar  logs  enough  to  make  3,000,000  feet  of  lumber.  About  one-fourth  of  the 
cut  of  late  years  has  been  sawed  at  mills  near  the  falls;  the  rest  is  rafted  to 
Charleston. 

"  The  valley  of  the  New  River  is  only  lumbered  for  from  three  to  five  miles 
from  the  stream,  although  the  walnut  has  been  gathered  10  miles  farther  back. 
This  is  a  rough  country  in  which  to  lumber,  since  the  streams  cut  deep  into  the 
earth,  and  New  River  cannot  be  driven. 

"  Ronceverte  is  situated  on  the  Greenbrier  River  at  a  point  where  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Ohio  Railway  first  meets  this  stream  as  it  descends  from  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  Here  is  the  St.  Lawrence  Boom  Company,  and  here  are  located  three 
or  four  lumber  firms  operating  steam  mills.  One  of  these,  the  New  York  Hoop 
Company,  uses  2,000,000  hoop  poles  per  annum,  chiefly  hickory,  manufacturing 
hoops  for  flour  barrels,  pork  barrels,  hogsheads  and  tierces,  besides  hoops  for 
boxes,  etc.  The  process  of  manufacturing  hoops  was  explained  to  me  as  follows: 
The  poles  of  assorted  lengths  and  sizes  are  passed  through  machines  which  split 
each  of  them  into  two,  three  or  four  pieces,  and  these  are  put  through  other 
machines  which  plane  flat  the  inner  side  of  each  strip,  leaving  the  bark  intact. 
The  hoops  thus  made  are  tied  into  bundles  and  shipped  to  New  York. 

"  The  Greenbrier  River  rises  in  the  limestone  sinks  of  Pocahontas  County, 
whence  it  flows  southwesterly  through  the  fertile  limestone  valley  between  the 
Alleghany  and  the  Greenbrier  Mountains  for  a  distance  of  120  miles,  emptying 
into  the  New  River  at  Hinton.  Flowing  through  such  a  valley  it  is  not  a  rapid 
stream,  but  from  a  point  13  miles  below  Travelers'  Rest,  on  its  headwaters,  it  is. 


WEST  VIRGINIA.  113 

fine  for  rafting.  Yet  the  stream  needs  some  improvement,  especially  by  the  closing 
lip  of  back  channels  into  which  the  logs  are  borne  by  high  water,  to  be  left  in. 
swamps  when  the  flood  recedes. 

"  Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  timber  of  the  Greenbrier  River  has  been, 
removed  as  yet,  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  in  its  valley  white  oak,  white  pine, 
poplar,  cherry,  hemlock,  walnut  and  ash  enough  remain  to  make  1,000,000,000  feet 
of  boards,  and  that  there  are  not  less  than  500,000,000  feet  of  white  pine  in  this 
region,  occupying  a  belt  through  the  center  of  both  Greenbrier  and  Pocahontas 
Counties.  The  eastern  limit  of  the  black  spruce  belt,  on  the  headwaters  of  Elk 
and  Gauley  Rivers,  the  most  extensive  and  valuable  in  West  Virginia,  coincides 
with  the  western  limits  of  the  white  pine  belt  lying  in  Pocahontas  County.  From 
this  point  its  western  line  runs  through  the  center  of  Webster  County  to  the 
vicinity  of  Huttonville,  in  Randolph  County,  the  northern  end  of  the  belt  cover- 
ing the  upper  waters  of  Shaver  Fork  of  the  Cheat  River.  Over  this  belt  black 
spruce  is  scattered  more  or  less  densely,  sometimes  occupying  almost  exclusively 
the  high  slopes,  particularly  the  northern  slopes  and  the  summits  of  the  mountains, 

"  It  is  believed  that  over  10,000,000  feet  of  black  walnut  in  paying  quantities 
could  still  be  gathered  in  this  part  of  the  State,  and  that  there  would  then  be  left 
an  equal  amount  so  scattered  that  it  could  be  profitably  collected  at  present 
prices." 

MANUFACTURES. 

The  natural  resources  and  advantages  for  manufacturing  possessed  by  West 
Virginia  can  hardly  be  surpassed  by  any  State  in  the  Union.  The  mineral  and 
timber  wealth  of  the  State  is  enormous — coal,  iron  ore  and  the  most  valuable 
kinds  of  timber  being  found  in  almost  inexhaustible  abundance.  These  vast 
resources  are  attracting  increased  attention  from  year  to  year,  and  the  industrial 
progress  of  the  State  is  very  rapid,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  transportation 
facilities  are  still  too  limited,  although  there  is  a  steady  improvement  going  on  in 
this  direction  through  the  building  of  new  railroads.  West  Virginia  seems 
destined  to  be  the  center  of  enormous  manufacturing  and  mining  interests  within 
the  next  few  years,  so  boundless  are  her  mineral  and  timber  interests,  and  Penn- 
sylvania itself  will  hardly  be  more  widely  known  for  its  industrial  interests  than 
West  Virginia. 

In  1880,  according  to  the  census  reports,  there  were  2,375  manufacturing 
establishments  in  this  State,  having  an  aggregate  capital  of  $13,883,390,  which 
turned  out  in  that  year  $22,867,127  of  manufactured  products.  The  three  leading 
industries  in  the  State  were  iron  and  steel  manufacture,  flour  and  grist  mills  and 
lumber  mills.  These  figures,  however,  give  but  little  idea  of  the  present  position 
of  manufactures,  for  during  the  last  five  years  since  the  census  figures  were  gath- 
ered there  has  been  a  wonderful  development  of  the  State's  industrial  interests. 
In  the  manufacture  of  nails  West  Virginia  ranks  as  one  of  the  leading  States  in 
the  Union,  Wheeling  being  the  center  of  a  great  nail-making  district.  The  sub- 
stitution of  steel  for  iron  nails,  now  going  on  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  has 
necessitated  the  changing  of  a  number  of  the  Wheeling  mills  into  steel  nail  mills, 
and  the  erection  of  very  expensive  steel-making  plants.  The  Wheeling  nail 
makers  have  been  among  the  leaders  in  this  great  change,  and  have  made  heavy 
outlays  for  the  new  plants  needed.  West  Virginia  probably  turns  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  the  pig  iron  made  within  her  borders  into  manufactured  products  than 
any  of  the  States  south  of  her.  As  already  stated,  the  timber  wealth  of  the  State 
is  enormous,  and  while  lumbering  operations  are  being  carried  on  quite  exten- 
sively, yet  the  vast  forests  of  hard  woods  have  been  but  very  slightly  depleted, 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  State  they  are  still  untouched.  In  the  aggregate  value 


114  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

of  manufactured  products,  however,  the  lumber  mills  probably  rank  second,  being 
exceeded  only  by  the  iron  and  steel  interests. 

When  the  great  natural  resources  of  the  State  are  considered,  West  Virginia 
is,  comparatively  speaking,  very  backward  in  manufacturing  interests;  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  population  of  the  State  is  not  large,  and  that 
many  of  the  inhabitants  live  in  sections  purely  agricultural  and  not  yet  pene- 
trated by  railroads.  In  this  view,  West  Virginia  has  really  already  accomplished 
wonders  in  the  manufacturing  line,  and  her  future  progress  will  assuredly  be  very 

rapid. 

MINERAL  WATERS. 

As  a  scientist  might  infer  from  the  general  geological  character  of  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  especially  from  the  chemical  character  of  her  abounding  minerals, 
numerous  medicinal  waters  are  found  to  exist  in  the  State,  some  of  which  have 
been  well  and  fully  tested  for  many  years,  and  are  equal  or  superior  to  any  other 
waters  of  their  class  found  in  any  portion  of  the  world. 

West  Virginia  comprises  within  her  southern  and  southeastern  border  a  large 
portion  of  the  celebrated  mineral  spring  plaza  long  known  as  the  "Spring  Region 
of  Virginia,"  and  which  for  the  last  80  or  90  years  has  been  greatly  resorted  to  by 
the  seekers  of  health  and  pleasure  of  every  great  section  of  the  United  States. 
The  widely  known  White  Sulphur  Springs  are  located  in  Greenbrier  County,  in 
this  State. 

EDUCATIONAL. 

The  State  has  an  efficient  system  of  free  schools,  the  teachers  of  which  are 
trained  by  State  Normal  Schools.  Numerous  private  schools  of  a  high  order  are 
located  at  different  points  throughout  the  State. 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


The  State  of  North  Carolina  has  a  population,  according  to  the  estimate  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1883,  of  1,500,000.  Classified  by  the  census 
according  to  sex,  there  were  in  1880,  687,908  males  and  711,842  females;  by  race, 
867,242  whites,  531,267  colored  people,  1,230  Indians,  and  one  Japanese.  The 
aggregate  population  consisted  of  270,994  families,  living  in  264,305  dwellings. 
The  number  of  persons  to  a  square  mile  was  28.81,  the  number  of  families  5.58, 
dwellings  5.44;  the  number  of  acres  of  land  to  a  person  22.21,  to  a  family  114.73; 
the  number  of  persons  to  a  dwelling  5.30,  to  a  family  5.17.  Distributed  according 
to  topography,  421,157  of  the  population  live  on  the  South  Atlantic  coast,  743,739 
on  the  interior  plateaus  and  table-lands,  and  233,654  in  the  mountain  districts. 
According  to  the  same  distribution,  203,711  colored  people  live  on  the  South 
Atlantic  coast,  300,236  on  the  interior  table-lands,  and  27,270  in  the  mountain  dis- 
tricts. The  area  of  the  State  is  48,580  square  miles.  There  are  94  counties  in  the 
State.  The  county  of  least  area  is  New  Hanover,  with  80  square  miles  and  21,376 
population.  There  are  two  counties  that  are  equal  in  the  number  of  square 
miles — Wake  and  Robeson — the  largest  areas  in  the  State.  The  population  of  the 
former  is  47,939;  of  the  latter,  23,880.  The  capital  of  the  State— Raleigh— is 
situated  in  Wake.  Towns  of  population  of  4,000  and  upward  are:  Charlotte, 
7,094 ;  New  Berne,  6,443 ;  Raleigh,  9,265 ;  Wilmington,  17,350— the  latter  a  seaport 
of  considerable  consequence. 

The  State  of  North  Carolina  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Virginia,  east  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  south  by  South  Carolina,  and  west  by  Tennessee.  It  is  included 
nearly  between  the  parallels  34°  and  36^°  north  latitude,  and  between  the  meri- 
dians 75|°  and  84|°  west  longitude.  The  extreme  length  of  the  State  from  east 
to  west  is  503J  miles.  Its  average  breadth  is  100  miles ;  its  extreme  breadth  is 
187i  miles.  Its  topography  may  be  best  conceived  by  picturing  to  the  mind's  eye 
the  surface  of  the  State  as  a  vast  declivity,  sloping  down  from  the  summits  of  the 
Smoky  Mountains — an  altitude  of  7,000  feet — to  the  level  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  Smoky  Mountains  constitute  a  part  of  the  great  Apalachiau  chain,  which  here 
attains  its  greatest  height — the  greatest,  indeed,  in  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  This  slope  is  made  up  of  three  wide,  extended  terraces,  if  that 
term  may  be  allowed.  The  first,  a  high  mountain  plateau,  distinguished  as  the 
Western  or  Mountain  Section ;  the  second,  a  sub-montane  plateau,  distinguished 
as  the  Middle  Section,  of  which  the  western  half  is  further  distinguished  as  the 
Piedmont  Section;  the  third,  the  Atlantic  plain,  distinguished  as  the  Low  Country 
or  Eastern  Section,  and  that  part  from  the  head  of  the  tides  downward  as  the 
Tidewater  Section.  From  the  first  to  the  second  section  there  is  a  sharp  descent 
through  a  few  miles  only  of  not  less  than  1,500  feet ;  from  the  Middle  to  the  Low 
Country,  a  descent  of  about  200  feet ;  through  the  two  latter,  however,  there  is  a 
constant  downward  grade. 

The  State  is  traversed  by  two  ranges  of  mountains.  The  first,  the  Blue 
Ridge,  a  grand  and  lofty  chain,  which,  conforming  to  the  trend  of  the  Smoky 


116  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Mountains  and  that  of  the  coast  line,  runs  in  a  direction  N.  E.  and  S.  W  entirely 
across  the  State.  The  Brushy  and  the  South  Mountains  are  bold  offshoots  of  this 
chain.  The  second,  the  Occoneeche  and  Uwharrie  Mountains,  a  range  of  much 
inferior  elevation,  whose  rounded  summits  and  sloping  outlines  present  them- 
selves in  forms  alike  graceful  and  pleasing,  crosses  the  State  in  a  parallel  direction 
near  its  centre. 

The  State  is  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  many  of  which  have  their  rise  on 
the  flanks  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  Those  which  flow  west  empty  into  the  Mississippi, 
breaking  their  way  through  the  Smoky  Mountains,  plunging  headlong  for  miles 
through  chasms  from  8,000  to  4,000  feet  in  depth,  the  walls  of  which  are  perpen- 
dicular to  the  height  of  1,000  feet.  Of  those  which  rise  on  the  eastern  flank,  only 
one — the  Roanoke— reaches  the  sea  within  the  borders  of  the  State.  The  rest, 
following  the  line  of  the  softest  rock,  meander  first  towards  the  northeast,  then 
sweeping  round  with  bold  curves,  flow  to  the  sea  through  South  Carolina.  The 
principal  rivers  which  reach  the  sea  within  the  State  limits  take  their  rise  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Middle  Section,  and  on  the  eastern  flank  of  the  Occoneeche 
range,  near  its  northern  termination;  and  of  these,  only  one— the  Cape  Fear — 
flows  directly  into  the  ocean.  Many  of  the  rivers  in  every  part  of  the  State  are 
noble  streams  in  their  middle  course.  Some  of  those  that  flow  into  the  sounds 
swell  to  majestic  proportions,  spreading  out  to  a  width  of  from  three  to  five  miles. 
The  eastern  rivers  are  navigable  from  50  to  150  miles. 

By  reference  to  the  mean  parallels  of  latitude  of  the  United  States,  it  will  be 
seen  that  North  Carolina  is  situated  nearly  midway  of  the  Union ;  and  inasmuch 
as  those  States  lie  entirely  within  the  temperate  zone,  it  follows  that  North  Caro- 
lina is  situated  upon  the  central  belt  of  that  zone.*  This  position  gives  to  the 
State  a  climate  not  excelled  by  any  in  the  world.  The  average  rainfall  throughout 
the  State  is  53  inches,  which  is  pretty  uniformly  distributed  through  the  year. 

Dr.  Kerr,  in  his  geological  report,  classes  the  climate  of  the  different  sections 
of  North  Carolina  with  reference  to  their  isothermal  ranges,  as  follows :  "  Middle 
and  Eastern  North  Carolina  correspond  to  Middle  and  Southern  France,  and 
Western  North  Carolina  to  Northern  France  and  Belgium ;  and  all  the  climates 
of  Italy,  from  Palermo  to  Milan  and  Venice,  are  represented." 

For  a  thorough  understanding,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  a  survey  of  the 
different  sections  more  in  detail.  It  has  been  seen  that  the  divisions  of  the  State 
are  founded  on  natural  and  physical  peculiarities. 

EASTERN  SECTION. 

The  whole  eastern  portion  of  the  State  belongs  to  the  quarternary  system, 
with  frequent  exposure  along  the  rivers,  ravines  and  ditches  of  the  eocene  and 
miocene  epochs  of  the  tertiary.  It  consists  of  a  vast  plain  stretching  from  the 
sea  coast  into  the  interior  of  the  country — a  distance  of  from  100  to  125  miles. 
Traversing  this  section  from  north  to  south  are  tracts  of  country  which  vary  little 
from  a  perfect  level.  The  Wilmington  and  Weldon  Railroad  has  a  stretch  of  40 
miles  where  there  is  neither  curve,  excavation  nor  embankment.  From  east  to 
west  the  surface  rises  by  easy  gradations  at  the  rate  of  a  little  more  than  a  foot  to 
the  mile.  The  rise,  however,  is  not  perceptible  to  the  traveler.  But,  though  level 
in  parts,  it  is,  in  general,  relieved  by  slight  undulations.  In  its  extreme  western 
part — in  the  county  of  Moore — it  attains  an  elevation  of  above  500  feet. 

The  western  boundary  may  be  roughly  defined  by  a  line  extending  from  the 
western  part  of  Warren  through  Franklin,  Wake,  Cumberland,  Chatham,  Moore, 
Montgomery  and  Anson.  This  line  marks  what,  at  an  early  period  of  the  earth's 
history,  was  a  line  of  sea  beach.  Over  this  whole  section  the  primitive  rocks  are 
covered  with  a  deep  stratum  of  earth,  principally  sand.  Along  the  western  border 


NORTH  CAROLINA  117 

there  is  a  broad  belt  of  unequal  width,  but  generally  from  30  to  40  miles  across, 
where  granite,  slate  and  other  rocks  are  sparingly  distributed ;  they  are  also  found 
near  watercourses  in  the  exterior  of  this  section. 

The  upland  soil  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  sandy  loam,  easily  accessible  to  the 
sun's  rays,  easily  worked,  and  very  productive  in  the  crops  there  cultivated. 
There  are,  however,  extensive  areas  of  country  where  sand  predominates  to  such 
a  degree  that  the  surface,  to  a  considerable  depth,  is  a  bed  of  white  sand ;  yet  this 
kind  of  laud  is  the  favorite  habitat  of  the  long-leaf  pine.  When  cleared  it  yields 
good  crops  of  corn  and  cotton  for  a  few  years  without  manure,  and  always  with 
slight  help  from  proper  commercial  fertilizers.  There  are  other  extensive  areas 
where  clay  enters  so  largely  into  the  soil  as  to  form  a  clay  loam.  The  counties  on 
the  north  side  of  Albemarle  Sound — a  very  fertile  tract  of  country — are  examples 
of  this  class.  The  alluvial  lands  of  this  section — hinds  always  in  the  highest 
degree  productive,  from  the  fact  that  all  the  'elements  of  fertility  are  intimately 
intermingled  by  having  been  once  suspended  in  water — are  of  unusual  extent  and 
importance.  The  grain  grown  there  supplies  food  not  only  for  people  of  other 
parts  of  the  State,  but  large  populations  in  other  States. 

Another  class  of  land  remains  to  be  mentioned  which  will  be  a  resource  of 
inestimable  value  in  time,  perhaps  not  Distant.  Bordering  on  the  sea  and  sounds 
are  extensive  tracts  of  country  designated  as  swamps.  Though  so  called,  they 
differ  widely  in  their  characteristic  features  from  an  ordinary  swamp.  They  are 
not  alluvial  tracts;  neither  are  they  subject  to  overflow.  The  land  covered  by 
many  of  them  lies,  for  the  greater  part,  quite  low.  But  this  remark  seldom  applies 
wholly  to  any  of  them ;  to  some  it  does  not  apply  at  all.  On  the  contrary,  many  of 
them  occupy  the  divides  or  water-sheds  between  the  rivers  and  sounds,  and  are 
elevated  many  feet  above  the  adjacent  rivers,  of  which  they  are  the  sources. 
These  latter  are  susceptible  of  drainage,  and,  when  reclaimed,  have  every  element 
of  the  most  exuberant  and  lasting  fertility. 

Throughout  this  entire  section,  cotton,  corn,  oats,  sorghum,  peas,  potatoes, 
(especially  sweet  potatoes,)  are  the  staple  crops.  Upon  the  rich  alluvions  and  the 
reclaimed  lake  and  swamp  lands,  corn,  with  peas  planted  in  the  intervals  between 
the  corn,  forms  the  exclusive  crop.  Occasionally,  on  the  broad  low-grounds  of 
the  Roanoke,  wheat  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent.  In  the  counties  on  the 
north  of  Albemarle  Sound  it  is  one  of  the  staple  crops.  On  the  low-grounds  of 
the  lower  Cape  Fear  rice  has  long  been  the  staple  crop,  and  during  recent  years 
its  culture  has  been  extended  northward  along  the  low-lying  lands  of  the  rivers 
and  sounds.  The  upland  variety  of  rice  has  been  introduced  within  a  few  years 
past  with  entire  success.  The  cultivation  of  jute  also  has  been  the  subject  of 
experiment  with  like  success,  and  it  only  needs  proper  encouragement  to  be 
grown  to  any  extent.  This  section  is  everywhere  underlaid  with  marl — a  mixture 
of  carbonate  of  lime  and  clay,  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  imbedded 
shells — sufficient  in  quantity,  when  raised  and  applied  to  the  surface,  to  bring  it 
to  a  high  pitch  of  fertility  and  maintain  it  so.  Its  metallic  substances  will  be  else- 
where noticed. 

If  the  indications  of  nature  are  to  be  relied  on,  North  Carolina  was  plainly 
marked  out  as  the  land  for  vineyards.  Some  of  the  finest  wine  grapes  of  the 
United  States — the  Scuppernong,  the  Isabella,  the  Catawba  and  the  Lincoln — are 
native  to  this  State. 

All  the  cultivated  fruits  and  berries  grow  here  in  great  perfection,  with  the 
exception  of  the  apple.  This,  though  by  no  means  an  inferior  fruit,  is  yet  not 
equal  in  size  and  flavor  to  that  of  the  Middle  and  Western  Sections.  Among  the 
swamps  the  cranberry  is  found  in  profusion.  The  melons  are  of  every  variety 
and  of  peculiar  excellence. 


118  NOETH  CAROLINA. 

An  industry  peculiar  to  this  section  is  what  is  known  as  the  "  trucking  busi- 
ness." It  consists  in  rearing  fruits  and  vegetables  for  the  Northern  markets.  The 
principal  centres  are  Goldsboro  and  Newbern ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  farmers 
along  the  line  of  the  Norfolk  and  Edenton  Railroad  will  become  successful  com- 
petitors for  this  business.  All  the  conditions  for  success  are  found  there — a  fertile 
soil  and  quick  transportation. 

Each  section  of  the  State  embraces  a  great  number  of  trees  largely  used  in 
building  and  the  domestic  arts  not  mentioned  here.  In  speaking  of  the  timber 
trees  of  this  section,  the  first  place  is  due  to  the  long-leaf  pine.  It  is  the  most 
valuable  of  all  trees.  The  cypress  is  next  in  importance.  It  is  found  everywhere 
in  the  swamps  of  the  eastern  part  of  this  section.  The  margins  of  the  swamps 
only  have  been  cleared.  Beyond  this  margin  is  an  immense  forest  of  these  trees 
which  has  been  scarcely  encroached  upon.  Its  height  is  from  60  to  100  feet,  with 
a  circumference  above  its  swollen  base  of  from  20  to  30  feet— often  much  larger. 
The  white  cedar,  commonly  called  juniper,  is  also  abundant  in  the  swamps.  The 
live  oak,  so  highly  prized  for  ship-building,  is  found  all  along  the  coast,  though 
most  abundant  from  Hatteras  southward.  It  is  commonly  40  to  50  feet  high  and 
one  to  two  feet  through  the  trunk. 

The  mainland  terminates  not  at  the  sea,  but  at  large  bodies  of  water  termed 
sounds.  These  sounds  are  properly  narrow  seas.  They  are  separated  from  the 
ocean  by  a  barrier  of  sand  called  "  The  Banks,"  which  stretches  along  the  whole 
coast,  except  at  Beaufort  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cape  Fear.  Between  these 
sounds  and  the  ocean  are  a  few  narrow  passes  termed  inlets.  The  largest  of  these 
sounds  are  Pamlico  and  Albemarle — the  former  about  75  miles  long  and  15  to  25 
miles  wide ;  the  latter  in  length  about  50,  and  in  breadth  from  five  to  fifteen  miles. 
These  sounds  abound  in  fish  of  the  finest  varieties;  but  the  principal  fishing 
stations  are  in  Albemarle  Sound.  An  immense  business  in  catching  fish — her- 
rings, shad,  etc. — is  done ;  and  salting  them  is  also  a  large  business.  The  sounds 
are  the  resort  also  of  vast  quantities  of  water-fowl,  notably  ducks  and  geese ;  but 
it  is  in  Currituck  Sound  that  they  are  found  in  greatest  quantity.  A  number  of 
small  islands  dot  the  shallow  waters  of  the  eastern  side  of  this  sound,  where  the 
wild  celery  and  many  kinds  of  grasses  flourish  in  profusion.  These  are  the 
favorite  haunts  of  the  mallard,  red-head  and  canvas-back  clucks.  They  frequent 
these  islands  and  shallow  waters  in  incredible  numbers.  This  region  is  the  para- 
dise of  the  amateur  sportsman,  and  clubs  of  Northern  gentlemen  have  lodges 
here,  to  which  they  regularly  repair  at  the  proper  season  for  hunting. 

A  canal  connects  the  waters  of  Albemarle  Sound  with  Chesapeake  Bay,  and 
steamers  ply  to  every  point  fi-om  Newbern  to  Norfolk.  This  region  of  country, 
though  once  locked  up,  is  now  fully  laid  open  to  commerce.  Few,  indeed,  possess 
such  ample  facilities  for  transportation.  In  addition  to  this  line  of  steamers,  there 
is  another  by  the  Chowan  and  Blackwater  Rivers,  connecting  with  the  Seaboard 
and  Norfolk  Railroad.  Lastly,  a  line  of  railway  has  recently  been  constructed 
from  Edenton  to  Norfolk. 

"The  Banks"  girdle  the  whole  coast  of  the  State — a  distance  of  over  300 
miles.  Though  they  shoot  out  from  the  northern  extremity  as  a  long  narrow 
peninsula,  they  are  broken  in  their  course  into  a  number  of  islands.  They  vary 
in  breadth  from  one  hundred  yards  to  two  miles,  and  in  height  from  a  few  feet 
above  the  tide-level  to  25  or  30  feet.  Consisting  as  they  do  of  pure  sand,  there  is 
little  cultivation  of  any  sort.  The  subsistence  of  the  inhabitants  is  generally 
derived  from  fishing,  in  which  they  are  bold  and  expert.  The  possessions  of  these 
islanders  consist  mainly  of  flocks  and  herds. 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  119 

MIDDLE  AND  PIEDMONT  SECTION. 

The  Middle  Section  extends  from  the  western  boundary  of  the  tertiary  forma- 
tion 01  Eastern  Section  to  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  the  western  half  of  which, 
as  already  said,  is  distinguished  as  the  Piedmont  Section.  It  comprises  nearly 
one-half  of  the  territory  of  the  State. 

In  passing  from  the  Eastern  to  the  Middle  Section  there  is  a  marked  change 
in  the  general  aspect  of  the  country  in  its  natural  and  cultivated  productions  and 
in  other  respects.  The  great  Atlantic  plain  is  left  behind,  which,  on  account  of 
the  uniformity  of  its  surface,  partakes  of  monotony,  even  where  most  fertile. 
Here,  on  the  contrary,  is  an  endless  succession  of  hills  and  dales.  Every  step 
brings  to  view  some  new  charm  in  the  landscape — some  new  arrangement  of  the 
rounded  hills,  some  new  grouping  of  the  tracts  of  forest  which  still  cover  so  large 
a  part  of  the  country.  The  hills,  indeed,  in  their  gracefully  curving  outlines, 
present  lines  of  beauty  with  which  the  eye  of  taste  is  never  satiated.  These  are 
attractions  which  depend  upon  permanent  features  of  the  landscape,  and  which, 
though  infinitely  heightened  in  their  effects  by  the  verdure  of  spring  and  summer, 
are  only  brought  into  fuller  relief  by  the  nakedness  of  winter.  The  variations  of 
surface,  though  less  defined  at  first,  become  more  marked  towards  the  west,  and 
towards  the  Blue  Ridge  the  country  assumes  a  bold  and  even  rugged  aspect.  The 
long-leaf  pine,  so  conspicuous  in  the  Eastern  Section,  disappears,  and  is  replaced 
by  all  that  range  of  forest  growth  for  which  the  State  is  so  noted — a  range  in 
which  there  is  scarce  a  tree  that  belongs  to  the  temperate  zone  proper  that  is  not 
only  found,  but  found  in  abundance.  If  the  two  sections  are  viewed  at  the  season 
when  the  crops  are  growing,  the  contrast  is  striking.  Along  with  the  long-leaf 
pine,  the  cotton  crop,  except  on  the  eastern  and  southern  borders,  has  nearly 
disappeared  also.  "Wheat,  corn,  sorghum,  oats,  buckwheat,  barley  and  tobacco 
occupy  the  cultivated  fields.  In  the  Eastern  Section,  hay  and  pasture  crops  have 
not  been  enough  cultivated  to  impart  any  distinguishing  aspect  to  the  country. 
In  the  Middle  Section,  clover  and  other  grasses  clothe  the  hills  more  or  less;  the 
larger  bottoms  are  laid  down  in  meadows;  and  commonly,  the  narrow  flats 
between  the  hills,  made  by  the  little  branches  or  rivulets,  are  sown  in  grass,  and 
present  belts  of  richest  verdure.  The  change  is  seen  in  the  streams.  Those  of 
the  lowlands  are  dyed  to  a  sable  hue  by  the  decaying  vegetation  with  which  the 
soil  there  is  charged ;  those  of  this  section  are  as  clear  and  pure  as  they  flowed 
from  their  fountains,  mirroring  in  their  pools  and  longer  reaches  every  object  on 
their  banks.  A  difference  in  the  summer  and  autumn  is  felt  in  the  air  of  the  two 
sections.  That  of  the  lowlands,  though  kindly  and  not  unhealthy,  disposes  some- 
what to  lassitude  and  inaction ;  that  of  this  section  is  invigorating  and  wholesome, 
(being  kept  in  perpetual  motion  at  that  season  by  gentle  gales,)  and  favors  active 
exertion.  . 

The  hand  of  improvement  is  more  visible  in  this  than  in  any  section  of  the 
State.  In  this  section  nature  has  distributed  her  blessings  with  a  bounteous  hand. 
Its  salubrity,  the  variety  and  value  of  its  productions,  its  mineral  wealth,  its 
manufacturing  facilities,  mark  it  out  as  one  of  the  most  desirable  abodes  for  man 
and  a  future  centre  of  great  wealth  and  population.  Nowhere  do  the  conditions 
which  are  friendly  to  health,  to  the  finest  physical  development,  to  the  successful 
exertion  of  industries  of  every  kind,  and  to  rational  enjoyment,  exist  in  greater 
abundance  than  here.  Those  bounties  are  visible  only  in  part.  The  earth  is 
stored  with  coal,  iron,  gold  and  other  metals,  ores  and  minerals.  Explorations 
have  demonstrated  that  these  exist  in  such  quantity  that  localities  in  this  section 
will  become  the  seats  of  mining  and  manufacturing  industries  on  a  large  scale 
when  population  and  capital  shall  favor  their  full  development. 


120  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

The  descent  of  the  slope  formed  by  the  surface  of  the  State  is  greatest  in  this 
section — through  its  entire  extent,  from  1,000  to  1,200  feet.  The  rivers,  in  their 
eastward  flow  down  this  descent,  make  their  way  with  a  lively  current,  varied 
with  long  reaches  of  comparatively  tranquil  water.  Oftentimes  they  force  their 
way  through  large  barriers  of  primitive  rock,  and  there  occur  rapids  and  falls 
which  afford  the  finest  water-powers.  These  have  been  utilized  to  some  extent  by 
the  erection  of  grist  and  flouring  mills  in  every  neighborhood,  and  cotton  mills  on 
some  of  the  rivers.  Within  the  last  few  years  the  number  of  cotton  mills  has 
largely  increased.  Woolen  mills  have  also  been  established  in  this  section,  and, 
though  this  branch  of  manufacture  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  the  success  which  has 
attended  the  experiments  that  have  been  made  cannot  fail  to  invite  investments 
in  this  direction.  Sheep  husbandry  cannot  be  said  to  have  made  even  a  beginning 
in  this  State.  Sheep  are  a  part  of  the  domestic  animals  on  every  farm,  but  are 
reared  for  domestic  supplies  of  meat  and  wool.  The  surplus  only  is  sold.  Yet  the 
supply  of  wool  would  suffice  for  scores  of  such  factories  as  are  here.  No  pursuit 
would  pay  better  than  sheep  husbandry  in  this  State.  The  natural  pasturage  of 
the  Mountain  Section  cannot  be  surpassed,  particularly  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  the  State.  Some  of  the  most  valued  cultivated  grasses  are  indigenous  there,  and 
all  flourish  with  the  greatest  luxuriance. 

The  wild  range  of  the  forest  trees  of  North  Carolina  long  since  attracted  the 
attention  of  botanists.  It  includes  all  those  employed  in  the  useful  and  many  of 
those  employed  in  the  ornamental  arts.  Indeed;  nearly  all  the  species  found  in 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  found  in  North  Carolina.  Her 
wealt  a  in  this  respect  will  be  appreciated  when  the  fact  mentioned  by  that  eminent 
botanist,  Dr.  Curtis,  is  brought  to  mind,  that  there  are  more  species  of  oaks  in 
North  Carolina  than  in  all  the  States  north  of  it,  and  only  one  less  than  in  all 
the  Southern  States  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Of  these  the  white  oak  is  the  most 
prominent  as  being  in  most  general  use  and  most  extensively  serviceable.  It  is 
found  from  the  coast  to  the  mountains,  but  it  is  most  abundant  in  the  Middle 
Section.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  70  or  80  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  two  or  three 
feet.  The  white  hickory,  too.  is  found  in  the  forests  from  the  coast  to  the  moun- 
tains; but  that  of  the  Middle  Section,  for  weight,  tenacity,  strength,  and  for  its 
capacity  for  receiving  a  high  polish,  is  pronounced  by  experts  to  be  superior  to 
any  in  the  world.  There  are  large  establishments  here  for  the  manufacture  of 
spokes,  rims  and  handles,  which  are  sent  everywhere.  The  mature  tree  is  about 
60  feet  high  and  18  or  20  inches  in  diameter.  The  white  ash  is  found  in  both  the 
Mountain  and  Middle  Sections,  but  is  manufactured  for  exportation  chiefly  in  the 
latter.  It  is  50  to  70  feet  high  and  two  to  three  feet  through.  The  elm  is  found 
in  each  section,  though  most  abundant  in  the  Middle.  It  is  from  30  to  50  feet 
high  and  12  to  18  inches  through.  The  maple  is  found  throughout  the  State,  but 
from  its  superior  facilities  for  transportation,  the  timber  is  chiefly  obtained  in  this 
section.  The  wood  in  old  trunks  is  full  of  minute  irregularities  like  knots. 
These,  if  cut  in  one  direction,  exhibit  a  spotted  surface,  to  which  the  name  of 
bird's-eye  maple  is  given  ;  while  if  cut  in  "another  direction,  they  produce  a  wavy 
or  shaded  surface,  called  curly  maple.  The  tree  attains  a  height  of  50  to  80  feet 
and  a  diameter  of  two  to  three  feet.  The  beech  is  common  here  and  grows  luxu- 
riantly, but  is  most  abundant  in  the  Mountain  Section.  The  tulip  tree  or  poplar 
is  native  to  all  parts  of  the  State,  but  is  not  so  common  in  the  lower  section  as  the 
others.  The  persimmon  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  but  it  is  here  only  that 
it  is  obtained  to  any  considerable  extent.  The  black  walnut  is  most  abundant  in 
this  section.  The  yellow  pine  is  sparingly  found  in  the  Eastern  Section,  but 
enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  upland  forest  through  the  Middle  and 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  121 

Mountain  Sections.  Its  uses  are  so  familiar  and  universal  as  to  need  no  enumera- 
tion. It  is  from  40  to  60  feet  high,  with  a  circumference  of  four  or  five,  and  even 
six  feet.  The  mulberry  tree,  though  not  valued  for  its  timber,  is  so  important  in 
another  respect  as  to  deserve  mention.  It  grows  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  but  is 
least  abundant  in  the  lower  section.  In  the  Middle  Section  it  occurs  so  commonly 
that  nature  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  broadest  foundation  for  the  cultivation  of 
silk  there.  This  does  not  exhaust  the  list,  but  it  will  serve  to  give  a  clearer  idea  of 
the  timber  resources  of  this  section.  But  though  the  materials  for  this  branch  of 
manufacturing  abound  here,  a  beginning  only  has  been  made.  There  are  establish- 
ments for  making  wagons  and  pleasure  vehicles,  excellent  both  for  material  and 
workmanship,  but  great  numbers  of  these  are  still  brought  in  from  other  States. 
One  branch  of  wood  manufacture  is  prosecuted  here  with  spirit  and  success — that 
of  spokes  and  rims  for  carriages,  and  bobbins  and  similar  implements  used  with 
the  machinery  of  cotton  and  woolen  mills.  These  are  sent  off  in  great  quantities 
to  distant  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  to  Europe  and  Australia. 

The  branch  of  manufacture  which  has  been  most  fully  developed  here  is  that 
of  tobacco.  The  kind  of  tobacco  chiefly  used  in  these  factories  is  known  as  the 
golden  leaf.  Villages  and  towns  have  grown  up  at  short  intervals  within  a  few 
years  on  the  principal  lines  of  railroad,  where  the  large  warehouses  and  factories, 
the  handsome  churches,  school-houses,  residences  and  stores,  give  evidence  of 
high  prosperity.  In  some  of  these  towns  almost  the  whole  business  consists  in 
prizing  and  manufacturing  this  commodity  into  different  forms  for  the  markets  of 
the  world.  Of  the  productions  of  the  State,  none  are  manufactured  at  home  to 
the  same  extent  as  tobacco. 

The  cultivation  of  fruits  of  all  kinds  has  been  long  pursued  in  this  section 
with  skill,  energy  and  judgment.  Its  wonderful  adaptation  for  fruits  was  early 
discovered,  and  many  nurseries  were  established  for  rearing  the  young  trees. 
Here  the  native  fruits  were  perfected,  choice  foreign  kinds  introduced,  and  new 
kinds  originated.  The  enterprise  of  the  nurserymen  has  planted  the  finest  fruit 
trees — as  the  apple,  the  peach,  the  pear,  the  apricot  and  the  cherry — about  every 
dwelling  in  this  section,  and  widely  beyond  it.  Nor  have  the  garden  fruits — as 
the  fig,  the  currant,  the  raspberry  and  the  like — received  less  attention.  The 
supply  of  every  kind  for  home  consumption  is  unlimited — that  of  peaches  and 
apples  such  that  large  quantities  are  fed  to  hogs.  Here,  too,  as  in  the  Eastern 
Section,  the  grape  is  an  object  of  special  culture.  They  are  grown  for  the  table 
at  home  and  for  the  market.  There  are  in  this  section  several  vineyards,  some  of 
which  have  an  established  reputation  for  their  wines  and  brandies.  Grapes  are, 
however,  grown  mainly  for  the  market.  The  genial  soil  and  climate  of  this  State 
enables  the  growers  to  put  this  and  other  fruits  in  the  Northern  markets  some 
weeks  in  advance  of  the  same  fruits  grown  there,  and  at  a  season  when  the  appe- 
tite for  fresh  fruit  has  been  whetted  by  abstinence,  and  when  they  bring  the  highest 
price.  When  dried,  also,  they  are  a  staple  article  of  export.  Wild  berries,  whose 
bushes  spring  spontaneously  and  cover  every  cleared  spot  not  in  cultivation,  have 
given  rise  to  an  important  industry  here.  The  business  of  gathering  and  drying 
blackberries  gives  employment  to  many  persons,  especially  children,  whose  ser- 
vices would  not  be  available  on  the  farm.  They  are  shipped  in  quantities 
inconceivable  by  those  unacquainted  with  this  branch  of  trade.  The  demand 
for  them  is  large  and  increasing,  and  the  incomes  derived  from  this  source  are  in 
the  aggregate  very  considerable. 

The  different  areas  over  which  the  cultivated  crops  of  this  section  grow  are 
"well  defined.  Tobacco  is  the  staple  crop  in  the  northern  counties,  though  the 
cereals  enter  into  the  rotation ;  in  the  central  counties  the  cereals  are  the  principal 


122  NORTH  CAROLINA 

crops ;  in  the  southern  counties  cotton  is  the  staple  crop ;  but  in  all  of  them  the 
cereals  are  also  cultivated.  There  are  many  watering-places  in  this  section  which, 
have  long  been  favorite  resorts  for  health  and  recreation. 

WESTERN  SECTION. 

The  Western  Section  is  commonly  called  the  Mountain  Section — a  name 
which,  on  account  of  its  prominent  physical  features,  is  strictly  applicable.  It 
lies  enclosed  between  the  Smoky  range  on  the  west  and  the  Blue  Ridge  on  the 
east ;  on  the  north  and  south  it  extends  to  the  Virginia  and  South  Carolina  lines. 
In  form  it  resembles  an  ellipse.  Its  width  is  from  25  to  50  miles ;  its  length  i& 
about  150  miles.  It  consists  of  a  lofty  plateau,  the  general  level  of  which  is  from 
2,000  to  2,700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  plateau  forms  a  base,  upon 
which  is  clustered  together  a  great  number  of  the  loftiest  mountains  to  be  found 
in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  mountains  which  reach 
a  height  of  6,000  feet  can  be  counted  by  scores ;  the  number  of  those  of  an  eleva- 
tion but  little  inferior  is  almost  countless.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  plateau  the 
mountains  are  massed  together  without  any  of  that  orderly  arrangement  common 
to  most  mountain  systems.  They  are  scattered,  indeed,  in  wild  disorder.  On  the 
western  side  a  definite  arrangement  may  be  observed.  The  Watauga,  the  Nole- 
chucky,  the  French  Broad,  the  Big  Pigeon  and  the  Hiawassee  flow  nearly  at  right 
angles  to  and  through  the  Smoky  range.  Between  each  of  these  rivers  runs  a 
chain  of  mountains  parallel  to  them,  and  forming  the  divide  between  them.  The 
mountains  are  clothed,  with  few  exceptions,  with  trees  to  their  tops.  The  excep- 
tions mark  a  singular  caprice  of  nature.  Through  these  chains  of  mountains  are 
found  many  upon  whose  broad  summits  not  a  tree  is  to  be  seen,  and  hence  desig- 
nated as  "Balds."  They  are  covered  to  the  height  of  a  horse's  knee  with  grasses 
that  afford  the  finest  pasturage.  This  section  is  a  land  where  all  the  elements  of 
beauty  and  grandeur  are  everywhere  combined  in  a  way  to  astonish  and  delight 
the  beholder. 

The  forests  of  this  section  include  most  of  the  trees  of  the  Middle  Section  and 
many  that  belong  to  high  Alpine  latitudes — the  same  timber  trees  and  some  that 
are  peculiar  to  this  section.  The  wild  cherry  is  found  in  each  section,  but  here 
only  does  it  acquire  its  full  dimensions  or  occur  in  quantity.  On  the  rich  and 
cool  declivities  of  the  mountains  it  attains  a  height  of  from  60  to  80  feet  and  a, 
diameter  of  two  to  three  feet.  The  white  pine  is  found  in  this  section  of  the 
State,  and  in  this  only.  It  forms  peculiar  and  handsome  forests  in  the  rich 
elevated  valleys  of  Ashe  and  Yancey.  It  is  from  60  to  70  feet  high,  with  a 
proportional  diameter.  The  cucumber  tree  in  this  State  grows  only  on  the 
mountains,  particularly  of  Ashe,  Yancey  and  Burke,  in  moist,  fertile  soils  of 
declivities  and  on  the  banks  of  torrents.  It  is  from  60  to  80  feet  high  and 
from  four  to  five  feet  in  diameter.  The  hemlock  is  also  confined  to  this  section. 
It  grows  on  the  borders  of  torrents  and  cold  swamps,  but  extends  down  to  the 
very  base  of  the  mountains.  The  black  birch  or  mountain  mahogany  is  found  in 
this  State  only  in  the  Mountain  Section.  It  affords  a  firm,  compact,  dark-colored 
wood,  much  valued  for  furniture,  and  is  sometimes  used  for  screws  and  imple- 
ments requiring  strength.  The  white  walnut  is  found  upon  bottom  land  and 
river  banks  in  the  valleys  of  the  mountains.  It  attains  a  height  of  50  feet,  with  a 
diameter  of  three  feet  or  more.  The  chestnut,  though  found  sparingly  in  the 
Middle  Section,  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  mountains  from  Ashe  to  Cherokee.  It& 
usual  height  is  from  50  to  70  feet,  and  stocks  are  sometimes  met  with  which,  at 
six  feet  from  the  ground,  measure  15  or  16  feet  in  circumference.  The  beech, 
though  found  in  the  Middle  Section,  occurs  here  in  greatest  abundance,  and  here 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  123 

only  attains  its  proper  size.  It  rises  from  50  to  80,  and  even  100  feet,  with  a 
diameter  of  two  and  three  feet.  The  locust  extends  along  the  mountains  from 
the  northern  to  the  southern  boundary  of  the  State.  It  is  largely  used  by  turner* 
instead  of  box.  The  linn  or  lime  tree  is  common  in  this  section.  It  seldom 
exceeds  40  feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter  of  12  or  18  inches.  In  respect  to  those 
timber  trees  found  here  in  common  with  the  other  sections,  the  mountain  section 
has  the  advantage  of  possessing  an  unbroken  forest.  In  comparison  writh  the 
extent  of  forest  lands,  the  clearings  here  are  mere  patches.  There  is  little  hazard 
in  saying  that  there  is  nowhere  in  any  of  the  States  an  equal  area  of  land  covered 
with  timber  trees  of  such  various  kinds  and  of  such  value.  The  walnut,  tulip 
trees  (poplars)  and  oaks  attain  a  size  that  would  hardly  be  credited  by  one  who 
had  not  seen  them.  The  preservation  of  this  magnificent  forest  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  has  hitherto  been  inaccessible  to  transportation.  Within  the  past  two 
years  much  of  it  has  been  brought  into  connection  with  the  markets  of  the  world. 
One  railroad  line  passes  entirely  through  this  section,  and  another,  branching  off 
at  Asheville,  and  leading  to  the  extreme  southwest  of  the  State,  is  under  con- 
struction. Into  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State  also  a  railroad  has  been 
completed  and  others  projected,  of  which  two  are  partially  graded. 

The  cultivated  productions  of  this  section  are  the  same  with  those  of  the 
Middle  Section,  cotton  and  rice  excepted.  Its  garden  vegetables  are  the  same; 
but  the  cabbage  and  the  Irish  potato  grow  here  to  a  degree  of  perfection  that 
cannot  be  excelled  anywhere.  Among  the  fruits,  its  apples  are  noted  for  size  and 
flavor.  Peaches  and  grapes  grow  well  generally,  but  for  their  highest  perfection 
nature  has  made  provisions  by  a  suspension  to  some  extent  of  her  ordinary  laws. 
Throughout  the  mountains  in  certain  localities  and  at  certain  elevations  there  are 
horizontal  belts  where  frost  is  never  known.  Such  localities  are  found  not  only 
in  this  section,  but  in  the  South  Mountains  and  in  the  Brushy  range.  They  con- 
stitute an  unfailing  source  of  supply  of  these  fruits,  and  in  process  of  time  will 
be  occupied  by  establishments  for  canning  fruits  for  the  markets  of  the  world. 

The  climate  of  this  section  differs  less  from  that  of  the  Middle  Section  than 
would  be  inferred  from  its  higher  altitude.  The  difference  is  more  perceptible  in 
summer  than  in  winter.  In  the  former  season,  its  cool  and  bracing  air,  together 
with  its  varied  scenery,  its  mineral  waters — sulphur,  chalybeate  and  thermal — 
made  this  section  one  of  the  favorite  resorts  of  the  people  of  the  South  and 
Southwest  when  it  could  only  be  reached  by  private  conveyances.  Since  it  has 
been  penetrated  by  railroads,  the  influx  of  health  and  pleasure  seekers  haa 
increased  an  hundred  fold,  and  in  the  future  will  add  very  largely  to  its  resources. 
It  is  the  resort,  too,  of  people  from  the  far  North  in  wrinter.  It  is  protected  by 
the  range  of  mountains  which  form  its  boundaries  from  all  the  cold  winds — the 
northeast,  north,  and  the  northwest.  The  degree  of  cold  is  therefore  temperate. 
A  pinching  season  may  come  at  long  intervals ;  it  is,  however,  of  short  duration* 
being  quickly  succeeded  by  weather  of  a  moderate  temperature.  Such  seasons 
are  not  unwelcome  by  wTay  of  contrast.  The  quantity  of  snow  that  falls  here 
very  little  exceeds  that  of  the  Middle  Section.  Even  in  the  high  mountain 
ranges,  cattle  are  excluded  from  pasturage  by  the  snow  only  once  in  about 
seven  years. 

The  soils  of  the  basins  of  the  great  rivers  of  this  section  and  its  mountain 
valleys  are  noted  for  their  fertility.  The  capacity  for  the  production  of  cereals 
and  hay  grasses  is  equal  to  those  of  any  lands.  As  might  be  inferred  from  the 
heavy  forest  growth  with  which  the  entire  surface  is  covered,  the  mountain  sides 
are  susceptible  of  profitable  cultivation  up  to  their  summits. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  this  section  is  varied  and  abundant.  Marbles  of  the 
finest  quality  and  of  various  colors  compose  whole  mountains,  so  to  speak,  in 


124  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Macon  and  Cherokee.  Corundum  abounds  in  Macon,  Clay,  and  many  other 
counties.  Mica  is  abundant  in  Mitchell  and  Yancey,  and  those  counties  yield  a 
large  part  of  the  world's  supply.  The  largest  and  finest  sheets  of  it  seen  at  the 
World's  Fair  at  Vienna  were  from  Yancey.  This  section  is  rich  in  iron  ores  of 
the  best  grade.  Copper  also  is  prominent  among  the  metals  of  this  region.  The 
most  noted  mine  is  in  Ashe.  It  has  been  extensively  developed,  and  the  business 
in  all  its  branches  is  conducted  with  intelligence,  skill  and  energy.  The  effect  of 
these  mining  enterprises  upon  the  prosperity  of  this  section  has  been  marked. 
Labor  has  found  profitable  employment,  a  home  market  has  been  furnished  to  the 
farmer,  and  there  has  been  a  general  appreciation  of  property  of  every  kind. 

Railroads  are  now  entering  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State  in  several 
directions.  The  completion  and  connection  of  these,  and  the  opening  up  of  this 
region,  so  rich  in  elements  of  undeveloped  wealth,  is  now  regarded  as  the  first 
and  most  imperative  duty  of  the  statesmen  of  North  Carolina. 

The  soils  of  the  Middle  and  Mountain  Sections  may  be  treated  of  in  one 
view,  since  they  owe  their  origin  to  the  same  cause.  The  rocks  of  this  part  of 
the  State  were  brought  into  the  position  they  now  occupy  at  an  early  period  of 
the  earth's  history.  The  soils  that  have  been  formed  upon  them  have  resulted 
from  their  disintegration  and  decay.  No  stratum  of  foreign  matter  has  been 
brought  in  from  abroad  in  either  of  these  sections,  that  which  has  been  caused  by 
rain-water  rushing  down  the  sides  of  hills  and  flowing  along  the  beds  of  streams 
alone  excepted.  The  rocks  are  chiefly  of  the  primitive  formation — granites, 
schists,  slates,  &c.  The  soils  vary  in  chemical  composition  and  fertility  according 
to  the  character  of  the  rocks  from  which  they  are  derived.  The  rocks  range  with 
the  seashore  and  the  mountain  chains,  and  run  uniformly  in  a  direction  from 
northeast  to  southwest.  A  brief  notice  of  the  principal  formations  of  rocks  is 
here  subjoined,  and  the  characters  of  the  soils  of  each  discriminated  in  a  gen- 
eral way. 

West  of  the  Eastern  Section,  (in  our  early  geological  reports  termed  tertiary, 
and  by  the  later  distinguished  as  the  quaternary,)  there  occurs,  in  the  counties 
of  Northampton,  Halifax,  Johnston,  Nash,  Franklin,  Warren,  Granville,  Wake 
and  Cumberland,  a  body  of  ancient  primitive  rock  largely  covered  by  sand. 
Amongst  these,  granite  prevails  more  extensively  than  any  other,  and  when  the 
tertiary  sand  is  absent,  there  is  a  fertile  soil. 

The  next  formation  of  rocks  going  west  is  the  sandstones.  It  commences  in 
Granville,  three  or  four  miles  southwest  from  Oxford,  and  passes  through  Orange 
and  Wake,  Chatham  and  Moore,  Montgomery,  Richmond  and  Anson,  but  through 
a  part  of  Moore,  Montgomery  and  Richmond  it  is  covered  by  tertiary  sand  and 
clays.  The  principal  constituent  of  this  formation  is  a  fine-grained  greenish  or 
reddish  sandstone,  whose  particles  are  connected  together  by  a  mixture  of  clay 
and  oxide  of  iron.  This  produces  by  its  decomposition  a  soil  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  corn,  cotton,  oats,  and  especially  sweet  potatoes,  but  is  'not  so  well 
adapted  to  that  of  wheat. 

The  next  formation  is  that  of  the  transition  and  slate  rocks.  These  occupy  a 
large  space  in  North  Carolina.  The  principal  body  of  these  rocks  traverses  the 
State  in  a  northeasterly  and  southwesterly  direction,  immediately  west  of  the 
great  sandstone  formation,  occupying  a  breadth  of  about  30  miles.  This  forma- 
tion includes  the  western  part  of  Grauville,  the  eastern  part  of  Person,  the  central 
part  of  Orange,  more  than  half  of  Chatham,  nearly  the  whole  of  Randolph,  the 
whole  of  Montgomery,  (what  is  called  sandstone  excepted,)  the  whole  of  Stanly, 
the  southern  corner  of  Davidson  and  Rowan,  the  northwestern  part  of  Anson 
and  southwestern  part  of  Mecklenburg.  The  most  common  and  abundant  con- 
stituent of  this  formation  is  a  compound  of  silica  and  alumina — a  simple  argelite 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  125 

or  clay  slate.  This  prevails  especially  near  its  two  extremities — in  Granville  and 
Person  on  its  northern,  ami  in  Anson,  Mecklenburg  and  Stanly  on  its  southern 
extremity.  The  slate  undergoes  decomposition  slowly,  and  has  not  to  this  day 
covered  itself  with  any  great  depth  of  earth.  The  soil  is  never  of  a  very  high 
degree  of  fertility,  but  with  good  cultivation  excellent  crops  are  obtained.  The 
adaptability  of  these  lands  to  the  growth  of  fine  yellow  tobacco  has  very  much 
enhanced  their  value.  Throughout  this  body  of  slate,  nowhere  very  thick,  the 
granite  occasionally  penetrates  and  rises  to  the  surface  in  tracts  larger  or  smaller. 
In  the  southern  part  of  Person,  in  Orange,  Chatham,  Randolph  and  Davidson, 
there  are  large  patches  of  granite,  and  there  results  a  much  higher  degree  of  fer- 
tility in  the  soil. 

West  of  the  slate  formation  a  vast  body  of  granite  rock  traverses  the  State, 
including  in  its  area  a  large  part  of  the  counties  of  Person,  Caswell,  Orange,  Guil- 
ford,  Randolph,  Davidson,  Rowan,  Cabarrus,  Mecklenburg,  Lincoln,  Iredell,  Davie, 
Stokes  and  Rockingham.  Throughout  this  region,  mica,  one  of  the  usual  con- 
stituents of  granite,  is  rare,  and  is  replaced  by  chlorite  or  hornblende.  The  whole 
mass  of  rock,  with  a  structure  more  or  less  granitic,  has  an  earthy  aspect,  indicating 
a  recent  origin.  In  consequence,  it  decomposes  readily  and  into  a  fertile  soil.  Two 
of  the  three  constituents  of  the  granite — mica  and  felspar — furnish,  by  its  disinte- 
gration, valuable  ingredients  to  the  soil.  Both  contain  a  considerable  percentage 
of  potash,  though,  from  the  refractory  nature  of  the  mica,  the  potash,  that  element 
so  essential  to  tobacco  and  the  smaller  cereals,  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  felspar. 
When  chlorite  replaces  the  mica,  it  adds,  upon  the  decomposition  of  the  granite, 
another  element — magnesia,  its  chief  ingredient — an  element  indispensable  to  the 
.healthy  growth  of  the  corn  plant,  (maize.)  When  mica  is  replaced  by  hornblende, 
.the  latter  supplies  from  its  ingredients  both  magnesia  and  lime,  and  the  presence 
of  lime  is  a  fundamental  condition  of  fertility  in  all  soils ;  and  it  is  observable 
that,  of  the  region  occupied  by  this  formation,  which  is  the  great  grain-growing 
region  of  the  State,  the  tracts  where  hornblende  predominates  in  their  composi- 
tion— as  in  Cabarrus  and  Mecklenburg — are  superior  to  the  rest. 

West  of  this  formation  are  the  most  ancient  primitive  rocks.  Here  every 
form  of  granite  is  met  with.  The  tertiary  compound  of  quartz,  felspar  and  mica 
is  most  common,  but  with  endless  diversities,  depending  upon  the  proportion, 
color,  size  of  the  grains  and  other  character  of  the  constituent  minerals.  There 
occur  here  also  indefinite  alternations  of  gneiss,  hornblende  and  micaceous  schists, 
and  occasionally  chloritic  and  talcose  slates.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  soil, 
subordinate,  however,  to  that  general  uniformity  which  characterizes  the  same 
formation,  for  most  of  the  above  rocks  are  essentially  granitic. 

There  is  another  body  of  transition  slate  in  the  western  and  northwestern 
part  of  the  State,  adjacent  to  Tennessee.  It  ranges  along  the  western  half  of  the 
border  counties ;  but  through  Yancey  and  Mitchell  shoots  off  a  long  projection, 
extending  quite  across  the  Blue  Ridge  to  the  Catawba,  in  Burke. 

COAL. 

The  coal  fields  of  North  Carolina  are  referred  by  Dr.  Ermnons  and  Prof.  Kerr 
to  the  triassic  system.  There  are,  says  the  latter,  in  this  State  two  narrow  fringes 
of  an  eroded  and  obliterated  anticlinal  which  belong  to  this  system — the  smaller, 
or  Dan  River  Belt,  from  two  to  four  miles  wide,  following  the  trough-like  valley 
of  that  stream  (about  N.  65°  E.)  for  more  than  30  miles,  to  the  Virginia  line;  the 
other— the  Deep  River  Belt — extending  in  a  similar  trough  five  to  fifteen  miles 
wide,  (and  depressed  100  to  200  feet  below  the  general  level  of  the  country,)  from 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  State,  in  Anson  County,  in  a  N.  E.  direction,  to  the 
middle  of  Granville  County,  within  15  miles  of  the  Virginia  line. 


126  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

The  most  important  and  conspicuous  member  of  the  series  is  a  large  body  of 
black  shales,  which  encloses  seams  of  bituminous  coal  two  to  six  feet.  This  coal 
lies  near  the  base  of  the  system  in  both  belts,  and  is  underlaid  on  Dan  River  by 
shales  and  on  Deep  River  by  sandstones  and  conglomerates— the  latter  constitu- 
ting the  lowest  member  of  the  series,  and  being  in  places  very  coarse.  The  black 
shales  near  the  base  of  the  system  contain  beds  of  fire  clay  and  black  band  iron 
ore  inter  stratified  with  the  coal. 

Emmons  reports  five  seams  of  coal,  separated  by  black  slates,  shales,  black 
band  iron  ore  and  fire  clay ;  and,  in  general,  he  finds  a  remarkable  similarity  to 
the  coal  deposits  of  the  carboniferous  formation.  The  coal,  with  its  shales,  out- 
crops along  the  northern  margin  of  the  belt  at  various  points  for  more  than  15 
miles ;  and  many  shafts  having  been  sunk  to  and  through  the  main  seam,  which 
is  the  upper  one,  it  is  ascertained  to  be  very  persistent  in  all  its  characteristics 
and  associated  beds.  The  area  of  this  coal  field  is  given  by  Emmons  as  about  300 
square  miles.  The  quality  of  the  coal  is  also  discussed  by  him  and  by  Admiral 
Wilkes,  and  various  analyses  are  published — the  three  following  by  the  latter,  of 
.samples  from  different  parts  of  the  field : 

Carbon 60.7  59.25  84.56 

Volatile  Matter 32.7  30.53  7.42 

Ash 5.3  10.21  7.89 

Sulphur 1.3 

100.0  99.99  99.87 

Specific  Gravity 1.28  1.41  1.49 

The  first  analysis  (by  Schaeffer)  represents  the  coal  at  the  Egypt  shaft,  the 
second  (by  Prof.  Johnson)  the  outcrop  at  Farmersville,  and  the  third  (by  the 
same)  the  Wilcox  seam.  Wilkes  says,  in  his  report  to  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, "  the  three  upper  seams  of  the  bituminous  coal  are  well  adapted  for  fuel, 
cooking,  gas  and  oil.  It  is  a  shining  and  clear  coal,  resembling  the  best  specimens 
of  Cumberland.  It  ignites  easily,  and  burns  with  a  bright,  clear  combustion,  and 
leaves  a  very  little  purplish  gray  ash.  It  swells  and  agglutinates,  making  a  hollow 
fire.  It  yields  a  shining  and  very  porous  coke,  and  is  an  excellent  coal  for  making 
gas  or  for  burning.  The  dry  or  debituminized  coal  exists  in  but  small  quantities 
in  the  basin,  and  contains  less  than  one-quarter  of  the  volatile. matter  that  the 
bituminous  coal  contains. 

In  regard  to  the  value  of  the  Chatham  coal  for  gas-making,  the  reports  of  the 
superintendents  of  the  gas-works  of  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth  are  highly  favor- 
able, "  both  as  to  the  quality  of  the  gas  produced  and  the  quantity  which  a  given 
amount  of  the  coal  yielded." 

It  is  worth  while  to  mention  here  also  the  bituminous  shales,  which  show 
themselves  in  so  strong  force  above  the  coal  in  the  Egypt  Section.  Dr.  Emmons 
estimated  the  thickness  of  the  oil-bearing  strata  at  70  feet,  and  pronounced  them 
capable  of  yielding  30  per  cent,  of  their  weight  in  kerosene  oil ;  so  that  here  is  an 
inexhaustible  resource  for  fuel  over  and  above  that  furnished  by  the  coal  seams. 

On  Dan  River  the  coal  first  shows  itself  on  the  surface  about  three  miles  east 
of  Germanton,  being  imperfectly  exposed  in  a  ravine.  The  coal  is  about  three 
feet  thick.  Some  six  to  seven  miles  further  east,  at  Stokesburg,  there  are  outcrops 
of  three  seams  in  succession— the  upper  about  three  feet  thick,  with  a  heavy  body 
of  bituminous  shales.  The  other  two  were  not  well  enough  exposed  for  measure- 
ment, but  they  were  explored  by  a  very  intelligent  gentleman,  who  reports  one 
-of  them  as  much  thicker  than  the  top  seam.  The  black  shales  and  slates  crop  out 
at  various  points  about  the  town  of  Madison ;  and  near  Leaksville  a  slope  was 
driven  some  60  feet  on  the  coal  seam,  which  is  here  three  feet  thick  and  with  a  dip 
of  34°,  and  considerable  quantities  were  mined  during  the  war.  It  is  classed  as  a 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  127 

semi-bituminous  or  dry  coal.    The  outcrops  show  that  the  coal  is  continuous 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  belt  in  this  State,  which  is  above  30  miles. 

COPPER. 

Dr.  Genth,  the  eminent  mineralogist,  says,  in  regard  to  copper  ores :  "  Copper 
ores  have  been  found  in  many  localities  throughout  the  State  in  the  veins  of  the 
old  gneissoid  rocks,  as  well  as  in  the  more  recent  slates,  and  even  in  the  triassic 
formation.  The  principal  ore  is  chalcopyrite  or  copper  pyrites,  and  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  many  of  the  mines  require  only  a  fuller  development  to 
enable  them  to  furnish  large  quantities  of  valuable  ores.  Many  of  the  gold  veins 
are  associated  with  pyritic  ores,  and,  in  fact,  almost  all  the  North  Carolina  copper 
mines  in  the  central  counties  have  first  been  worked  for  gold;  and  there  are 
hardly  any  mines  in  Guilford,  Cabarrus  and  Mecklenburg  Counties  occurring  in 
the  gneissoid  and  syenitic  rocks  which  do  not  show  strong  indications  of  copper 
ores.  The  general  character  of  these  mines  is,  that  about  at  water  level,  the 
so-called  brown  gold  ores  are  replaced  by  quartz  richly  charged  with  iron  pyrites 
more  or  less  mixed  with  copper  pyrites — the  latter  increasing  as  the  mine  deepens, 
and  in  many  places  becoming  the  only  or  the  predominating  ore,  and  forming  a 
regular  copper  vein.  The  ores  either  became  poor  in  gold  or  the  latter  could  not 
be  extracted  by  the  ordinary  process  then  chiefly  in  use  in  North  Carolina — 
Chilian  mills  and  arastra.  Therefore,  many  valuable  mines  were  abandoned, 
mostly  before  a  larger  and  paying  quantity  of  copper  ores  had  been  reached.  The 
principal  mines  which  promised  to  change  into  copper  mines  are,  in  Guilford 
County,  the  Fisher  Hill,  the  North  Carolina,  the  McCulloch,  Lindsay,  Gardner 
Hill,  Twin  Mines,  etc.;  in  Cabarrus  County,  the  Ludowick,  Boger,  Hill,  Phoenix, 
Orchard,  Vauderburg,  Pioneer  Mills,  etc.;  and  in  Mecklenburg,  the  McGinn,  Hope- 
well,  Ruclisill,  Cathay  Mines,  etc.  The  cupreous  minerals  observed  in  the  mines 
are,  near  the  surface,  small  quantities  of  native  copper  and  cuprite — the  latter 
sometimes  in  beautiful  needles;  the  so-called  chalcotrichite,  malachite;  rarely 
azurite,  chrysocolla  and  pseudo-malachite,  and  in  some  of  the  mines  chalcocite 
and  barnhardtite — all  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  chalcopyrite  or  copper 
pyrites,  which  forms  the  principal  ore.  Siderite  or  carbonate  of  iron  often  forms 
an  important  gangue  rock."  There  are,  says  Enmions,  several  veins  of  copper  ore 
in  the  northeast  part  of  Person  County. 

GOLD. 

The  gold  of  North  Carolina  belongs  to  four  ditferent  geological  positions: 
1.  The  loose  quartz  grit  beneath  the  surface  soil ;  2.  In  stratified  layers,  which  are 
cotemporaneous  with  the  rock ;  3.  In  connection  with  seams  and  joints  of  the 
rocks,  and  probably  also  diffused  in  the  mass;  4.  In  regular  veins  associated  with 
quartz  and  the  sulphurets  of  iron  and  copper.  The  principal  counties  in  which  it 
has  been  found  in  sufficient  quantity  for  exploitation  are  Franklin,  Nash,  Gran- 
ville,  Alamance,  Chatham,  Moore,  Guilford,  Davidson,  Randolph,  Montgomery, 
Stanly,  Union,  Cabarrus,  Rowan,  Mecklenburg,  Lincoln,  Gaston,  Catawba,  Cald- 
well,  Burke,  McDowell,  Rutherford,  Polk,  Cleveland,  Cherokee,  Jackson,  Transyl- 
vania and  Watauga.  It  is  generally  more  or  less  alloyed  with  silver,  varying  from 
pure  gold  on  the  one  side  to  pure  silver  on  the  other.  Near  the  surface  it  is 
usually  associated  with  limonite,  and  at  a  greater  depth  of  the  deposits  with 
pyrite,  chalcopyrite,  galenite,  zincblende,  tetradyniite,  arsenopyrite ;  rarely  with 
altaite  and  nagyagite. 

GOLD  MINING   IN   1882. 

Mr.  G.  B.  Hanna,  U.  S.  Assay  Office,  writing  in  1882,  says :  The  auriferous 
area  of  North  Carolina  in  a  general  way  embraces  nearly  one-half  of  the  State. 


128  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

The  productive  area  is  much  less,  containing  a  little  more  than  12,000  square 
miles.  Franklin  and  Nash  Counties  on  the  northeast,  Moore  County  on  the 
southeast,  and  the  Tennessee  line,  mark  approximately  the  east  and  west  bound- 
aries of  the  gold  field.  It  extends  on  the  north  into  Virginia  and  on  the  south 
into  South  Carolina.  It  comprises  the  best  known  and  most  productive  part  of 
the  Apalachian  gold  belt.  Nearly  every  mode  of  occurrence  of  gold  known  to 
the  geologist  and  mining  engineer  finds  here  an  illustrative  example. 

GEOLOGICAL   DISTRIBUTION .  OP  THE  MINES. 

The  best  known  mines  are  upon  the  central  belt  of  granite  (for  such  it  may 
be  termed  in  a  general  way)  stretching  across  the  State  in  a  northeast  or  south- 
west direction,  with  a  width  of  10  to  25  miles,  the  towns  of  Greensboro  and 
Charlotte  being  nearly  on  its  axis.  This  area  is  commonly  regarded  by  geologists 
as  among  the  oldest  on  the  American  Continent.  To  the  east  is  a  large  body  of 
slates,  generally  argillaceous,  but  frequently  departing  from  that  type,  with  a 
width  varying  from  15  to  50  miles.  This  region  also  abounds  in  mines,  but  it  has 
been  less  explored.  To  the  west  is  a  still  larger  area  made  up  for  the  most  part 
of  gneissoid  and  schistose  formations,  and  extending  nearly  or  quite  to  the  Ten- 
nessee border.  This  area,  too,  has  a  large  number  of  mines,  but  the  most  valuable 
deposits  are  placers  and  gravel  washings. 

To  give  a  list  of  the  gold  mines  of  the  State,  with  the  various  components 
and  values  of  their  ores,  would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work ;  nor  could  I 
hope  to  do  justice  to  them.  Everyone  thinking  of  investing  in  a  gold  mine  will 
visit  the  spot,  investigate  the  elements  of  cost  and  profit,  and  consider  so  many 
things  upon  which  even  a  large  work  could  not  supply  adequate  information,  that 
I  feel  that  no  disappointment  will  result  to  an  investigator  by  reason  of  my 
brevity.  Suffice  it  therefore  to  say  that  North  Carolina  is  one  of  the  greatest 
gold-producing  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  that  there  are  nearly  or  quite 
300  gold  mines  in  the  State;  that  some  of  these  are  of  great  profit ;  that  some  are 
managed  on  most  approved  plans;  that  capital  may  be  said  to  be  continually  flow- 
ing into  this  industry ;  and  that  reduction  works,  either  for  an  entire  or  partial 
reduction  of  the  metallic  gold,  are  situated  at  various  points  in  the  State. 

IRON. 

After  having  again  and  again  gone  over  my  material,  trying  to  reduce  it  to 
something  like  proportions  compatible  with  my  scope,  I  am  compelled  to  fall  back 
on  the  merest  outline.  This  vagueness  is  objectionable.  But  to  mention  all 
localities  is  impossible ;  to  mention  some  and  omit  some  is  an  invidious  discrimi- 
nation. But  the  persons  seeking  iron  in  North  Carolina  cannot  be  so  much 
injured,  because  investigation  will  pay  so  well  there.  Hardly  anywhere  in  the 
United  States  will  exploitation  prove  more  remunerative  than  there.  Undoubt- 
edly, immense  deposits  of  most  superb  iron  ore  are  to  be  found  there  whose 
presence  is  unsuspected  by  the  inhabitants,  or  disregarded.  Enough  is  known  to 
show  the  richness  of  much  of  North  Carolina  in  mineral  resources.  But  much  of 
the  surface  has  only  been  scratched,  as  it  were,  especially  in  the  western  part  of 
the  State.  In  order  that  I  may  not  seem  to  exaggerate,  I  quote  the  language  of 
Prof.  Kerr,  who,  in  his  report  for  1875,  gives  some  very  strong  language  to  the 
many  discoveries  of  and  references  to  the  iron  ores  of  the  State.  He  says  in 
closing :  "  This  completes  the  description  of  the  North  Carolina  iron  ores  as  far 
as  my  investigations  and  information  have  gone.  There  remains  much  to  do  to 
complete  the  chapter.  There  are  many  blanks  to  fill,  and  whole  counties  of  which 
little  is  known,  except  that  they  contain  iron  ores.  My  work  has  been  necessarily 
limited  to  the  study  of  suoh  ore  beds  as  have  happened  to  be  opened,  and  of 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  129 

course  these  are  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  whole  in  a  region  always  wholly 
devoted  to  agriculture,  and  studiously  eschewing  all  sorts  of  manufacturing." 

Since  the  above  was  written  there  has  been  no  geological  survey  of  the  State. 
Private  enterprise  has  done  something  doubtless,  but  its  fruits  are  not  accessible ; 
but  all  investigations  confirm  Prof.  Kerr's  views.  To  later  exploitation  (but  still 
very  limited)  some  of  the  inspiration  of  Prof.  Colton's  language  may  owe  its  force 
and  (to  the  uninformed)  its  air  of  almost  over-statement. 

In  Western  North  Carolina,  Prof.  Colton  says,  there  is  an  "immense  quantity" 
of  magnetite.  Further :  "  The  day  will  come  when  this  Western  North  Carolina 
will  be  as  famed  for  its  mines  of  magnetic  and  specular  iron  ores,  of  copper, 
nickel,  manganese  and  chrome,  as  is  now  the  Lake  Superior  Country."  Further 
on  he  says :  "  Having  in  our  reach  (referring  to  North  Carolina)  and  in  our  own 
mountains  (referring  to  Tennessee)  as  much  magnetic  iron  ore  as  either  of  these 
other  States,"  (referring  to  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.)  "  Only  a  small  part  of 
the  great  Alleghany  magnetic  ore  vein  is  in  Tennessee,"  but  in  North  Carolina  it 
exists  in  prodigious  quantity. 

We  shall  now  briefly  mention  the  counties  where  iron  ores  occur,  give  some 
analyses  and  the  varieties  of  the  ore.  As  preparatory  to  this,  however,  it  will  be 
well  to  quote  from  Prof.  Kerr  as  follows :  "  The  ores  of  iron  are  very  widely  dis- 
tributed in  this  State,  their  occurrence  being  not  only  co-extensive  with  the  area 
of  the  archaean  or  azoic  rocks,  but  extending  over  the  mesozoic,  and  even  into  the 
quaternary ;  and  these  occurrences  include  all  the  principal  kinds  of  ore — magne- 
tite, hematite,  limonite  and  siderite— and  most  of  their  varieties  and  modifications." 

LIMONITE  ORES  OP  THE  EAST. 

Beds  of  various  proportions,  from  two  to  four  feet  thick,  are  found  in  the 
counties  of  Nash,  Duplin,  New  Hanover,  Edgecombe,  Pitt,  Halifax  and  Robeson. 
This  ore  is  of  common  occurrence  in  most  of  the  above  counties.  Two  analyses 
are  given.  One  shows : 

Sulphuric  Acid 0.03 

Phosphoric  Acid o.n 

Iron 42.73 

Another  gives : 

Sulphur 0.05 

Phosphorus 0.02 

Metallic  Iron 53-93 

The  author  says  that  reliable  authority  tells  him  "  the  iron  made  was  of  excel- 
lent quality,  soft  and  very  strong." 

HEMATITES  OF  HALIFAX  AND  GRANVILLE. 

In  Halifax  County  there  are  several  outcrops  of  hematite  ore.  The  ore  is 
granular  for  the  most  part,  and  of  the  variety  known  as  specular,  with  a  consid- 
erable variety  of  magnetic  grains  disseminated  through  it.  Analyses  of  two  of 
them  show  ores  of  conspicuous  purity : 

Phosphorus o.oo  0.05 

Sulphur 0.03  0.08 

Metallic  Iron 58.73          53-31 

In  Granville  County  iron  ore  is  reported  in  various  places. 

IRON  ORES  OF  CHATHAM  AND  ORANGE. 

Very  important  iron  counties.  Ore  in  former  likened  to  that  of  the  Iron 
Mountain,  Mo.,  and  its  extent  and  mode  of  occurrence  suggests  the  Pilot  Knob. 
It  is  at  least  equal  to  either  of  these  notable  iron-ore  deposits  in  quantity,  and  is 
equally  pure,  and  has  the  advantage  of  both  in  the  presence  of  large  percentages 
of  manganese,  and  the  capacity  to  produce  spiegeleisen  without  admixture  of  other 


130  NOETH  CAROLINA. 

ores.  A  company — The  American  Iron  and  Steel  Company — has  secured  a  small 
vein  in  one  part  of  the  county  and  is  working  it.  They  make  a  superior  car- 
wheel  iron.  Analyses  show  that  the  product  is  mostly  a  spiegeleisen. 

An  ore  partly  liinonite,  but  mostly  red  hematite,  is  found  in  this  county.  Two 
analyses  show  it  to  yield  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  iron,  with  little  phosphorus  and 
no  sulphur.  There  is  some  black  band  and  ball  ore,  or  "kidney  ore."  These  ores 
seem  to  be  co-extensive  with  the  coal  on  Deep  River,  outcropping  everywhere 
with  it,  and  several  places  outside  of  its  limits.  Two  seams  are  shown  in  the 
sections,  and  there  is  a  third  in  the  bottom  shales  not  penetrated  at  the  Gulf,  but 
shown  in  the  Egypt  Section  as  accompanying  the  lower  coal  30  feet  below  the 
main  seam.  Some  of  it  contains  33  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron.  In  one  place  it 
occurs  "  in  balls  or  continuous  beds."  Its  adaptation  as  a  use  for  flux  is  obvious — 
an  analysis  showing  52.80  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  13.60  of  carbonate  of 
magnesia.  In  one  place  the  seam  of  black  band  between  the  main  coal  beds  in 
one  shaft  is  16  inches — the  lower  one  consisting  of  two  thicknesses  of  three  feet 
each,  separated  by  a  thin  seam  of  coal.  Prof.  Kerr  says  the  quantity  of  phospho- 
rus which  these  beds  contain  is  notable,  but  says  they  are  valuable  for  casting, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  phosphorus,  are  well  constituted,  containing  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  carbon,  of  flux  and  of  manganese  for  the  manufacture  of  iron 
very  cheaply,  by  judicious  mixing  of  the  ores  obtainable  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood. There  are  many  other  places  in  Chatham  County  where  ore  of  great 
purity  and  abundance  is  found,  making  it  a  notable  iron  county.  One  ore  yields 
63.49  metallic  iron,  no  phosphorus  and  little  sulphur. 

Another  very  notable  iron  county  is  Orange.  An  analysis  of  Orange  County 
ore  gives  a  yield  of  65.77  per  cent,  of  iron,  with  sulphur  0.11  and  phosphoric  acid 
0.04,  and  the  quantity  is  very  great. 

Of  the  county  of  Person  Prof.  Kerr  says :  "  There  is  a  vein  of  hematite, 
(specular,)  from  which  iron  was  made  to  some  extent  during  the  war.  The  vein 
is  described  as  abojit  six  feet  thick. 

The  ores  of  Montgomery  and  Randolph  Counties  belong  properly  (geologi- 
cally) to  the  Chatham  range.  They  are  found  in  the  same  great  slate  belt 
(Huronian)  that  constitutes  the  most  notable  feature  of  the  Middle  Region  of  the 
State,  both  geologically  and  mineralogically.  Some  of  the  strongest  and  most 
highly  prized  iron  obtained  during  the  war  came  from  Randolph  County.  It  was 
all  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  shafts  and  other  machinery  for  the  steam  rams 
(ironclads)  and  the  like.  In  Montgomery  County,  hematite  of  apparently  consid- 
erable extent,  and  free  from  sulphur,  and  a  very  pure  ore,  is  found. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  and  persistent  ranges  of  iron  ore  in  the  State 
crosses  the  county  of  Guilford  in  a  northeast  and  southwest  direction.  It  passes 
clear  across  the  county  into  Rockingham — a  distance  of  some  30  miles — making 
its  appearance  on  nearly  every  plantation,  and,  indeed,  almost  every  hillside  in  the 
range.  The  ore  is  granular  magnetite  and  is  everywhere  titaniferous.  This  range 
has  been  explored  by  Prof.  J.  P.  Lesley,  one  of  the  most  eminent  geologists  on  the 
continent,  and  many  analyses  made  by  Dr.  F.  A.  Genth,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
whose  reputation  is  also  well  known.  Of  Prof.  Lesley's  report  on  these  ores  I 
can  give  space  to  only  a  few  points. 

The  ore  is  in  the  form  of  beds,  full  of  foldings  and  fractures — to  be  expected 
where  only  the  oldest  metamorphic  rocks  are  found.  It  is  coarse  grained  and 
associated  with  crystals  of  chlorite.  The  ore  beds  vary  from  point  to  point  below 
the  range.  The  belt  of  outcrop  of  ore-bearing  rocks  has  a  uniform  breadth  of 
several  hundred  yards.  They  dip  as  low  as  a  mile  beneath  the  surface,  and  then 
rise  again  as  ore  beds.  In  one  section  the  ore  bed  is  full  six  feet  across ;  solid  ore ; 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  131 

a  very  green,  chloritic,  mica  slate,  rock  ore.  In  this  vein  of  800  yards  there  are 
apparently  200,000  tons  above  water  level  in  the  one  six-foot  bed. 

The  quantity  of  ore  which  this  remarkable  range  is  capable  of  yielding  is 
obviously  immense.  The  principal  beds  may  be  safely  estimated  on  an  average  of 
four  feet,  and  in  the  best  mining  localities  the  average  yield  of  a  long  gangway 
may  reach  five  feet.  It  is  evident  that  centuries  of  heavy  mining  could  not 
exhaust  it,  for  each  of  two  or  three  principal  beds  may  be  entered  and  mined  at 
fifty  places. 

The  kind  of  ore  is  titaniferous  magnetite.  More  particularly,  not  only  tita- 
nium, but  chromium  and  manganese  are  uniformly  present.  It  is  the  same  family 
to  which  the  Champlain  (or  Adirondack)  ores,  the  Marquette  (Lake  Superior)  ores 
and  the  ore  of  the  Iron  Mountain,  in  Missouri,  belong.  It  is  very  similar  to  the 
New  Jersey  ores,  which  are  so  extensively  mined  for  the  furnaces  on  the  Lehigh 
Kiver.  It  is  a  mixture  of  magnetic  crystals  and  specular  plates  of  sesquioxide  of 
iron,  with  quartz,  felspar  and  mica  in  a  thousand  varying  proportions.  Some- 
times the  bed  will  be  composed  of  heavy,  tight,  massive  magnetite,  (or  titaniferous 
magnetite,)  with  very  little  quartz,  &c.;  at  other  times  of  a  loose,  half-composed 
mica-slate  or  gneiss  rock,  full  of  scattered  crystals  of  magnetic  iron. 

Many  analyses  are  given,  made  by  Dr.  Grenth.  The  summary  is  thus  given: 
"From  these  analyses  it  is  seen  that  the  average  of  the  10  specimens  of  original 
iron  ore,  which  represent  the  whole  range  for  a  distance  of  nearly  30  miles,  is: 
Iron  54.61  per  cent.;  titanium  8.07  =  13.24  per  cent,  of  titanic  acid.  The  ratio 
between  titanium  and  iron  is  =  1 :  6.77.  All  the  ores  were  examined  for  sulphur 
and  phosphorus,  and  were  found  to  be  entirely  free  from  these  substances."  A 
good  deal  is  said  of  the  value  of  titanium  in  iron  in  proper  proportion,  showing 
the  great  value  of  this  ore,  and  proving  it  superior  to  the  Canada  ores,  and 
making  it  like  the  "  best  Swedish  iron." 

I  give  a  few  of  Dr.  Lesley's  general  conclusions:  "The  quality  of  ore, 
although  various,  and  suited  to  at  least  two  branches  of  the  iron  manufacture,  is 
of  the  very  first  rate ;  none  better  in  the  world.  The  soft  ores  will  smelt  easily 
and  make  magnificent  iron ;  absolutely  the  very  best ;  perfectly  malleable,  tough 
and  strong.  The  hard  ores  will  command  a  high  price  for  puddlers'  linings ;  will 
be  in  demand  for  mixing  with  poorer  ores  of  other  regions,  and  will  have  an 
especial  value  for  the  Siemens  and  the  Bessemer  processes,  and  the  steel  manufac- 
ture generally.  The  quantity  of  the  ore  is  limitless." 

Prof.  Kerr  then  remarks  with  great  pertinence :  "  Any  one  who  has  the  least 
knowledge  of  the  present  drift  of  the  iron  industry  of  the  world,  and  of  the  con- 
trolling importance  of  high-grade  ores,  is  prepared  to  realize  the  immense  value 
of  such  deposits  as  those  just  described  in  Guilford,  and  in  Harnett,  Chatham, 
Orange  and  Halifax  Counties.  This  Guilford  range  of  ores  has  not  been  traced 
to  its  termination  in  either  direction,  and  doubtless  other  valuable  beds  will  be 
discovered ;  and  there  are  already  indications  that  there  are  outcrops  of  the  same 
kind  of  ore  as  far  northeast  as  Caswell  County — some  very  fine  specimens  of 
magnetite  having  been  brought  to  the  museum  from  that  county." 

In  Rockingham  there  are  iron-ore  localities  which  do  not  belong  to  this 
range,  and  a  bed  of  red  hematite  is  spoken  of  about  10  inches  thick  at  the  out- 
crop. It  is  very  dense,  heavy  and  hard,  uncrystalline  and  almost  jaspery,  and  is 
no  doubt  a  good  ore,  judging  from  its  appearance. 

IKON  ORES  OP  MECKLENBURG  AND  CABARRTTS. 

No  iron  mines  of  any  extent  have  been  worked  in  these  counties,  but  ore  has 
been  found  in  a  number  of  localities.  Hard  specimens  of  magnetic  ore  of  great 
purity  are  frequently  seen. 


132  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

IRON   ORES  OP  GA8TON,  LINCOLN  AND  CATAWBA 

In  these  counties  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  ore  ranges  in  the  State.  It  is 
also  the  best  known  and  best  developed  of  them  all,  and  has  been  the  principal 
source  of  our  domestic  supplies  of  iron  for  a  hundred  years.  Some  of  the  fur- 
naces of  the  region  were  put  in  blast  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  The  ores 
are  predominantly  magnetic,  with  a  variable  percentage  of  hematite,  and  are 
found  in  the  belt  of  talcose  and  quartzitic  slates.  They  are  mostly  of  a  very 
slaty  structure  and  friable ;  in  fact,  they  may  be  generally  described  as  magnetic 
and  specular  schists.  For  a  considerable  part  of  the  range  there  are  two  parallel 
beds,  their  thickness  running  from  four  feet  (and  sometimes  as  low  as  two  feet)  to 
twelve — the  interval  of  twelve  to  twenty  feet  between  them  being  occupied  by 
talcose  and  chloritic  slates,  with  a  little  ore  in  layers.  The  beds  generally  occur 
in  lenticular  masses  or  flattish  disks,  which  thicken  at  the  middle  and  thin  out 
toward  the  edges,  having  nearly  the  same  dip  with  the  bed ;  but  they  do  not  suc- 
ceed each  other  in  one  plane,  their  edges  overlapping  so  as  to  throw  the  upper 
edge  of  the  lower  behind  the  lower  edge  of  the  upper.  The  ore  has  been  gener- 
ally mined  in  a  very  rude  and  wasteful  fashion,  the  operations  seldom  penetrating 
beyond  water  level  50  or  60  feet,  and  generally  limited  to  surface  openings.  In 
one  locality  the  quantity  of  ore  seems  to  be  very  great,  the  thickness  of  the  beds 
at  some  places  being  estimated  at  about  18  feet.  Limestone  for  fluxing  is  found 
convenient  in  the  range  of  beds  which  accompanies  these  slates  one  to  twro  miles 
to  the  west,  from  King's  Mountain  to  a  point  several  miles  beyond  Anderson 
Mountain.  The  range  of  these  two  parallel  beds  naturally  divides  itself  into  two 
groups  of  beds — the  northern  and  the  southern — the  one  lying  mostly  in  Lincoln, 
and  the  other  in  Gaston. 

In  Catawba  County  there  is  a  series  of  ore  deposits  whose  mineralogical 
character  and  geological  relations  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  the  ore  beds 
of  Lincoln  County.  They  occur  in  the  syenitic  belt — a  narrow  zone  of  three  to 
five  miles  parallel  to  the  slate  belt  across  these  counties,  from  the  great  bend  of 
the  Catawba  River  nearly  to  South  Carolina.  The  ore  is  a  remarkably  pure  mag- 
netite— heavy,  black,  metallic  and  non-granular  for  the  most  part.  It  occurs  in 
irregular  masses— pockets,  which  seem  to  be  scattered  very  disorderly  through  the 
massive  syenitic  rock ;  so  that  the  proper  way  to  seek  for  it  is  by  the  miner's  com- 
pass. The  iron  manufactured  from  it  in  the  forges  of  the  neighborhood  was  in 
much  request  before  and  during  the  war,  being  very  malleable,  tough  and  strong. 
During  the  war  the  blooms  were  used  for  the  manufacture  of  shafts  for  ironclads 
and  bolts  for  the  cannon  of  the  coast  forts.  One  analysis  of  these  ores  gives  66.75 
per  cent,  of  iron ;  and  Dr.  Genth  says  "  these  ores  contain  neither  sulphur  nor 
phosphorus." 

The  belt  of  limestone  which  forms  an  unfailing  term  of  the  King's  Mountain 
slates  through  their  course,  lying  generally  about  a  mile  west  of  the  iron-ore  beds, 
with  timber,  water-power,  &c.,  furnishes  favorable  conditions  for  the  cheap  nro- 
duction  of  iron. 

IRON  ORES  OF  YADKIN,  SURRY  AND   STOKES. 

The  ores  of  this  region  are  found  along  the  base  and  among  the  spurs  and 
foot-hills  of  the  Pilot  and  Sauratown  Mountains.  There  are  two  groups.  They 
are  all  magnetic  and  granular,  but  differ  in  the  two  groups  in  their  mode  of  occur- 
rence. In  the  latter  case  the  ore  is  disseminated  in  grains,  for  the  most  part, 
through  mica  slates  and  gneiss  rocks,  and  the  earthy  and  rocky  matter  often  bears 
a  large  proportion  to  the  ore,  and  requires  to  be  separated  b'y  stamping  and  wash- 
ing before  it  is  sufficiently  concentrated  for  the  forge.  The  rock  is  generally 
decomposed  to  a  great  depth,  and  the  grains  of  ore  easily  separated  by  very  rude 
and  cheap  means.  Analyses  show  some  of  the  iron  to  be  apparently  very  pure. 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  133 

The  northern  or  Slokes  group  of  the  range  lies  on  the  east  (north)  side  of 
Dan  River  The  ores  (of  which  there  are  several  beds,)  are  all  magnetites,  with 
sometimes  a  small  admixture  of  hematite.  Analyses  by  Dr.  Genth  show  fine 
iron — one  analysis  yielding  65.34  of  iron;  another  61.74.  Prof.  Kerr  says  the 
purity  of  these  ores  is  conspicuous.  Phosphorus  is  wholly  wanting.  Some 
samples  contain  a  small  percentage  of  pyrites. 

IRON   ORES   OF   BURKE,  CALDWELL,  ETC. 

There  are  many  valuable  beds  of  limonite  in  a  range  extending  in  a  northeast 
direction  from  the  northeastern  foot-hills  of  the  South  Mountains  into  the  Brushy 
Mountains;  from  Jacob's  Fork  ot  Catawba  River,  near  the  eastern  border  of 
Burke,  across  the  Catawba,  and  by  way  of  Gunpowder  Creek,  to  the  waters  of 
Middle  Little  River,  near  the  eastern  border  of  Caldwell ;  and  beyond,  near  Rocky 
Creek,  in  Alexander;  and  even  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Brushy  Mountains, 
in  Wilkes,  the  same  ores  occur,  being  undistinguishable  in  appearance  and  of 
identical  lithological  relations.  These  ores  are  associated  with  the  peculiar  kyan- 
itic  hydro-mica  schists  and  purplish  paragonite  schists  which  characterize  the 
region.  Specimens  of  magnetic  ore  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Burke  County 
and  the  western  part  of  Catawba. 

AVatauga  County  has  some  of  the  specular  martite  schist.  In  one  location 
there  is  a  bed  three  or  four  feet  thick.  The  quality  of  this  ore  is  so  high  as  to 
justify  an  exploration  of  this  promising  outcrop,  and,  indeed,  of  the  whole  range, 
which,  however,  does  not  stop  at  this  point,  but  follows  the  line  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
for  a  distance  of  75  miles,  showing  itself  in  the  notable  magnetiferous  and  mar- 
titic  schists  of  Fisher's  Peak,  near  the  Virginia  line,  on  the  Surry-Alleghany 
border. 

In  McDowell  County  there  are  several  beds  of  limonite.  When  worked 
alone  they  make  an  inferior  iron,  but  mixed  with  the  magnetites  and  hematites  of 
the  region,  they  would  become  available  for  the  manufacture  of  good  metal.  The 
limestone  beds  of  the  same  belt  are  conveniently  located  for  furnishing  a  flux, 
and  the  forests  of  these  mountains  will  furnish  indefinite  quantities  of  fuel. 

At  Ore  Mountain,  in  Buncombe  County,  there  is  a  bed  of  limonite.  The  bed 
is  not  well  exposed ;  but  three  or  four  feet  of  thickness  are  visible  on  the  steep 
escarpment,  and  large  masses  which  have  broken  off  are  fallen  down  to  a  lower 
point  on  the  slope. 

IRON  ORES   OF   MITCHELL   AND   ASHE. 

In  Mitchell  County  is  found  one  of  the  most  remarkable  iron-ore  deposits  in 
North  America.  It  is  known  as  the  Cranberry  Ore  Bank.  It  is  in  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  county,  three  miles  from  the  Tennessee  line.  The  prevalent  and 
charactei  istic  rock  of  the  mountains  in  this  locality  is  hornblende  slate  and 
syenite,  and  it  is  on  the  northern  margin  of  a  mountainous  ledge  of  such  rocka 
that  the  ore  bed  occurs,  gray  gneisses  and  gneissoid  slates  coming  in  beyond  in 
immediate  succession  and  association  in  part.  The  ore  is  a  pure  magnetite, 
massive  and  generally  coarse-granular,  and  exhibits  strong  polarity.  It  is  asso- 
ciated with  pyroxene  and  epidote  in  certain  parts  of  the  bed.  The  steep  slope  of 
the  mountain  gorge  and  ridges  which  the  bed  occupies  are  covered  with  blocks  of 
ore  often  of  hundreds  of  pounds  weight,  and  in  many  places  bare  vertical  walls 
of  massive  ore  10  and  15  feet  thick  are  exposed,  and  the  trenches  and  open  dig- 
gings which  are  scattered  without  order  over  many  acres  of  surface  everywhere 
reach  the  solid  ore  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface.  The  length  of  the  outcrop  is 
about  1,500  feet,  and  the  breadth  200  to  800.  As  this  is  a  most  remarkable  iron 
ore,  I  give  the  following  tables : 


134  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

64  65  66  67  68 

Magnetic  Oxide  of  Iron 94.37  91.45  85.59  %°-77         9*-%9 

Oxide  of  Manganese 0.26  0.06  0.24  1.42            0.32 

Alumina 0.42  0.77  o.n  0.52            1.03 

Lime 0.43  i'oi  0.72  1.06 

Magnesia 0.36  0.53  0.33  0.23 

Water 0.44  1.53  8.21  1.15 

Silica.  Pyroxene,  etc '4.16  5.74  11.48  9.08            4.02 

Sulphur 0.25 

Phosphoric  Acid trace 

loo.oo        loo.oo        100.00        loo.oo          99-95 
Metallic  Iron 68.34          66.22          61.98          58.49          66.53 

The  first  four  of  these  analyses  are  by  Dr.  Genth,  who  says  "  the  first  three 
samples  contain  neither  titanic  acid,  nor  phosphorus  and  sulphur;  the  fourth 
contains  a  trace  of  phosphoric  acid."  No.  68  was  made  by  Prof.  Chandler,  of 
Columbia  College,  New  York  City,  who  remarks :  "  This  is  the  best  iron  ore  I 
have  ever  analyzed.  It  is  very  rich  in  iron  and  very  free  from  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus." The  smiths  and  farmers  of  the  region  will  use  no  other  iron  if  the 
Cranberry  can  be  had,  and  they  willingly  pay  50  per  cent,  more  for  it  than  any 
other  in  the  market.  The  softness  and  toughness  of  this  iron  is  very  remarkable, 
and  its  tensile  strength,  as  tested  by  the  United  States  Ordnance  Department, 
ranks  with  that  of  the  best  irons  known.  In  quality  it  is  unsurpassed  by  any  iron 
in  the  world;  and  in  regard  to  quantity,  the  bed  much  exceeds  the  great  deposits 
of  Missouri  and  Michigan,  and  at  least  equals  anything  in  the  Champlain  Region; 
so  that  it  has  not  probably  an  equal  in  this  country. 

The  Cranberry  Ore  Mine  was  purchased  some  years  ago  by  a  Pennsylvanian, 
who  built  a  railroad  (narrow  gauge)  about  40  miles  to  the  mine,  and  has  been 
shipping  the  ore  principally  to  Allentown,  Pa.,  where  the  furnaces  are.  Of  late  a 
furnace  has  been  built  at  the  mines. 

In  Ashe  County,  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  State,  there  are  some  impor- 
tant ore  deposits  on  the  waters  of  north  fork  of  New  River.  The  ores  are  highly 
magnetic.  In  one  instance  a  bed  ^f  very  pure  magnetite  is  reported  18  feet  in 
thickness.  This  is  manifestly  an  iron  region,  and  worthy  of  a  thorough  inves- 
tigation. 

IRON  ORES  OF  THE  FRENCH  BROAD. 

There  are  several  localities  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Black  Mountains,  on 
the  head- waters  of  Joy,  in  the  eastern  edge  of  Madison,  where  magnetite  is  found 
in  considerable  surface  masses,  though  no  explorations  have  been  made.  The 
prevalent  rock  of  the  region  is  gneiss,  with  much  hornblende  slate  and  syenite. 
There  are  many  fragments  of  this  ore  of  considerable  size  along  the  steep  slope  of 
a  mountain  spur.  There  is  a  bed  of  titaniferous  ore  in  the  county.  In  various 
other  parts  of  Madison  surface  indications  of  magnetite  are  found. 

In  Haywood  County  there  is  a  large  massive  outcrop  of  granular  magnetite. 
It  is  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  county,  on  Wilkins'  Creek.  The  bed  is  no 
doubt  large,  from  the  boldness  of  the  outcrop,  which  projects  in  large  masses 
above  the  surface.  There  are  also  magnetites  and  hematites  in  various  localities 
of  Jackson  and  Macon  Counties,  some  of  which  are  represented  in  the  museum 
by  very  fine  specimens,  and  the  deposits  are  reported  to  be  extensive ;  but  as 
no  iron  has  been  made  in  those  counties,  there  has  been  no  occasion  for  their 
development. 

IRON    ORES   OF    CHEROKEE. 

There  is  no  other  county  in  the  State  which  contains  so  much  iron  ore  as 
Cherokee.  It  is  all,  however,  of  one  species— limonite.  The  marble  beds  of 
Valley  River  and  Notteley  River  are  everywhere  accompanied  by  beds  of  this 
ore.  There  seem  to  be  generally  two,  three  and  four  parallel  beds  of  it,  one  or 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  135 

two  of  which  are  frequently  slaty  and  micaceous — a  Hmonitic  mica  slate — and  the 
others  cellular,  concretionary,  etc.,  and  the  most  western  generally  ochreous.  The 
breadth  of  this  iron  and  marble  range  is  two  to  more  than  three  miles.  The 
whole  iron  range  of  the  county  is  above  30  miles.  The  most  common  and  char- 
acteristic terms  of  the  series  in  cross-section  are,  counting  from  the  northwest, 
slaty  gneiss  and  mica  schist,  limonite,  steatite,  marble,  limonite,  slaty  quartzite, 
slaty  limonite,  mica  schist  and  slaty  gneiss.  An  analysis  by  Chatard  for  Genth 
shows  as  follows: 

Sesquioxide  of  Iron , 85.69 

Silica , 1.50 

Water 12.81 


100.00 
Metallic  Iron 59.88 

Many  localities  are  given  where  this  ore  prevails,  and  in  some  places  of  great 
thickness.  The  marble  will  furnish  flux  and  the  forests  fuel. 

Thus  somewhat  imperfectly  I  have  sifted  out  something  as  to  the  iron  of 
North  Carolina,  and  am  quite  largely  indebted  to  Mr.  P.  M.  Hale's  work,  "In  the 
Coal  and  Iron  Countie's  of  North  Carolina." 

In  "Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,"  by  Williams,  1883,  I  find  on 
page  429  the  following :  "  Quite  recently  a  new  deposit  of  chrome  ore  has  been 
discovered  in  Jackson  County,  North  Carolina.  It  promises  to  be  of  better 
quality  than  any  other  in  the  Eastern  States." 

OTHER  USEFUL  MINERALS. 

Mica. — Mica  mining  has  been  carried  on  most  extensively  in  Mitchell,  Yancey 
and  Macon  Counties ;  in  Jackson,  Haywood  and  Buncombe,  &c.,  to  a  less  extent. 
One  mine  in  Mitchell  yields  a  ton  of  marketable  mica  a  month,  and  this  region 
furnishes  the  bulk  of  this  mineral  to  the  world's  markets.  The  aggregate  product 
of  these  mines  has  been  over  250,000  pounds,  worth  about  half  a  million  dollars. 

Corundum  has  been  found  in  large  quantities  in  several  counties  west  of  the 
Blue  Ridge,  and  is  now  extensively  mined.  Several  valuable  rubies  and  sapphires 
have  been  obtained,  among  them  a  crystal  of  312  grains,  which  is  in  the  cabinet 
of  Amherst  College,  Massachusetts. 

Chromic  Iron. — Small  quantities  of  chrome  are  found  associated  with  some  of 
the  iron  ores  of  the  State,  the  lead  which  crosses  Guilford  County  for  example; 
but  it  is  also  found  as  chromic  iron  in  coarsely  crystalline  masses  often  of  consid- 
erable size,  and  in  the  form  of  very  irregular  veins  or  pockets,  in  the  chrysolite 
beds  of  Jackson,  Yancey,  Mitchell  and  Watauga  Counties.  The  most  consider- 
able deposits  are  two— one  in  Jackson  County,  the  other  in  Yancey. 

Manganese. — Pyrolusite,  psilomelane  and  wad  are  found  in  small  quantities  in 
many  places  in  this  State,  but  nowhere  in  abundance,  so  far  as  known.  They  are 
generally  associated  with  iron,  gold  and  silver  ores.  There  is  a  very  promising 
vein  or  bed  of  psilomelane  in  Caldwell  County.  There  is  also  a  small  seam  in 
Stokes  County,  and  laminated  masses  of  one  half  to  one  inch  thick  occur  in  the 
Buckhorn  iron-ore  beds.  Manganese  is  found  associated  with  the  iron  ores  in 
various  parts  of  the  State.  Beds  of  manganese  garnet  are  of  common  occurrence 
and  often  of  great  thickness.  There  is  a  series  of  such  beds  associated  with  the 
King's  Mountain  slates  of  Gaston,  Lincoln  and  Catawba,  which  are  superficially 
changed  to  black  oxide.  Several  veins  of  the  black  oxide  of  considerable  extent, 
says  Prof.  Kerr  in  a  recent  report,  have  been  found. 

Kaolin  is  found  abundantly  almost  from  one  end  of  the  State  to  the  other— 
from  Edgecombe  and  Robeson  to  Macon. 


136  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Fire  Clay. — The  vast  tertiary  and  quaternary  tracts  of  the  Eastern  Section, 
says  Prof.  Kerr,  abound  in  beds  of  potter's  clay,  fire  clay,  &c.  Dr.  Einmons,  in 
his  report,  refers  particularly  to  one  locality.  He  says:  Clay  for  fire  brick  is 
abundant  in  Gaston  County.  It  is  free,  I  believe,  entirely  from  lime  and  the  alka- 
lies, potash  and  soda.  It  extends  through  the  county.  It  is  inexhaustible  in  the 
vicinity  of  King's  Mountain. 

Agalmatolite  is  found  in  the  southwest  corner  of  Chatham.  There  is  a  large 
deposit  occurring  in  Montgomery.  It  is  popularly  called  soapstoue.  and  has  the 
soapy  feel  of  that  mineral,  but  contains  only  3.02  per  cent,  of  magnesia.  This 
substance  has  been  an  article  of  trade  to  New  York  on  a  large  scale'  and  for 
many  years. 

WTietstone. — Among  the  silicious  argillites  so  abundant  in  the  Huronian  strata 
there  are  frequent  beds  of  novaculite  or  whetstone.  One  of  the  best  localities  is 
in  Orange  County.  Other  quarries  are  found  in  Person  County,  in  Auson,  in 
Montgomery  and  adjoining  counties,  on  the  great  Huronian  Belt,  and,  in  fact, 
almost  every  section  of  the  State  has  its  own  quarries. 

Millstone  and  Grindstone  Grits,  &c. — The  sandstone  of  the  State  is  in  many 
places  well  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  grindstones,  and  during  the  war,  while  the 
foreign  supply  was  cut  off,  they  were  largely  so  used.  The  Anson  County  quar- 
ries furnish  a  very  fine  grindstone  and  whetstone  grit.  The  conglomerates  of  the 
triassic  series,  which  are  associated  with  and  replace  the  sandstones  above  men- 
tioned, have  been  long  and  widely  used  for  millstones.  They  have  been  principally 
obtained  from  Moore  County,  where  they  are  of  excellent  quality,  and  they  have 
been  distributed  from  this  point  over  a  large  number  of  the  intervening  counties 
to  the  Blue  Ridge.  Some  of  these  stones  have  been  in  use  for  50  years,  and  they 
are  occasionally  found  to  be  nearly  equal  to  the  French  buhr-stone.  The  coarse 
porphyroidal  granites  and  gneisses  which  are  scattered  over  so  large  a  part  of  the 
State,  are,  however,  the  most  common  material  for  millstones ;  and  in  the  Eastern 
Section  the  shell  rock  is  often  partly  or  wholly  silicified,  forming  a  sort  of  buhr- 
stone,  as  in  Georgia,  and  is  well  adapted  to  the  same  uses.  In  Madison  County, 
in  the  Huronian  slates  on  Laurel  River,  there  is  an  irregularly  laminated  whitish 
quartz  occurring  in  large  veins,  which  is  used  for  millstones,  which  are  reported 
to  be  a  good  substitute  for  buhr-stone. 

Graphite. — This  mineral  is  quite  widely  distributed  in  North  Carolina,  both  in 
the  Huronian  and  Laurentian  formations.  There  are  very  fine  beds  in  the  museum 
from  a  number  of  counties — Person,  Yancey,  Catawba,  Cleveland,  Burke  and 
others ;  and  there  are  beds  of  a  more  or  less  impure,  slaty  and  earthy  variety  in 
several  sections  of  the  State,  the  principal  of  which  are  two — one  in  Gaston,  Lin- 
coln and  Catawba,  and  the  other  in  Wake  County.  The  Wake  County  beds  are 
the  most  extensive  as  well  as  the  best  known  graphite  beds  in  the  State.  They 
extend  in  a  northeast  and  southwest  direction  for  a  distance  of  16  or  18  miles, 
passing  two  and  a-half  miles  west  of  Raleigh.  There  are  two  beds  apparently. 
The  thickness  is  two  to  three,  and  occasionally  four  feet. 

Limestone. — Mitchell's  Geology  says  that  limestone  has  been  discovered  at 
three  points  in  the  primitive  rocks  in  Stokes  County,  at  one  on  the  bank  of  the 
Yadkin,  in  Surry,  and  at  several  places  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Buncombe  and 
Henderson.  Small  nodules  and  masses  also  have  been  found  about  Lincolnton. 
The  limestone  of  King's  Mountain  is  in  a  small  tract  of  later  primitive,  bearing 
an  intimate  resemblance  to  the  country  around  Charlotte,  and  like  that,  rich  in 
veins  of  gold.  This  mineral  is  not  as  abundant  in  North  Carolina  as  in  many 
States,  constituting,  as  has  been  seen,  but  an  insignificant  proportion  of  the  mass 
of  its  rocky  strata ;  and  yet  its  distribution  is  such,  and  such  are  its  relations  to 
existing  and  abundant  means  of  transportation,  that  it  is  accessible  to  the  greater 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  137 

portion  of  the  State.  That  part  of  the  Eastern  Region  south  of  the  Neuse  River 
is  abundantly  supplied  with  eocene  or  shell  limestone,  and  to  the  northern  half  of 
that  section,  both  this  source  of  supply  is  open,  and  the  oyster-shell  heaps  of  the 
sounds  and  bays  round  to  Norfolk. 

Marble. — In  the  extreme  west,  in  Macon  and  Cherokee,  the  limestone  range, 
both  on  Nantehaleh  and  Valley  Rivers,  contains  beds  of  very  fine  marble  of 
Tarious  colors — white,  pink,  (or  flesh-colored,)  black,  gray,  drab  and  mottled.  It 
is  capable  of  a  very  fine  polish,  and  will  one  day,  when  the  difficulties  of  trans- 
portation shall  be  overcome,  acquire  a  high  value  in  architecture,  as  well  as  in 
other  ornamental  arts.  In  this  last  connection,  some  of  the  serpentine  beds  may 
be  mentioned  as  likely  to  come  into  use,  and  so  to  acquire  a  market  value. 

Talc. — Foliated  talc  of  a  white  or  greenish  white  color  is  found  in  many  of 
the  chrysolite  beds  west  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  in  Clay  County,  Macon  County,  Jack- 
son County,  Yancey  County,  Mitchell  County,  and  other  localities ;  in  sheets  of 
three-quarters  to  one  inch  in  thickness,  and  of  a  somewhat  columnar  structure, 
near  Pilot  Mountain,  Surry  County;  fibrous  talc  with  silky  lustre,  and  of  a  white 
•or  green  color,  also  compact  crystalline  white  talc  with  a  splintery  structure,  in 
Cherokee  County,  and  also  in  Macon  County.  Talc  slate  and  coarse  soapstone 
is  found  in  many  localities  throughout  the  State. 

Serpentine. — Dr.  Genth  says  that  the  massive  are  found  in  many  localities. 
The  best  appears  to  come  from  Caldwell  County.  It  has  a  dark  greenish  black 
<;olor,  and  contains  fine  veins  of  the  yellowish  green  fibrous  and  silky  chrysolite, 
and  admits  of  a  fine  polish.  Greenish  gray  massive  serpentine,  also  with  seams 
of  greenish  and  grayish  white  chrysolite,  is  found  in  Caldwell  County,  at  which 
place  is  also  found  the  variety  picrolite.  Dark  green  serpentine  has  been  observed 
in  Foray th  and  Wake  Counties.  A  grayish  or  yellowish  green  serpentine  occurs 
in  the  chrysolite  beds  of  Macon,  Jackson,  Yancey,  Mitchell  and  other  counties. 
It  results  from  the  decomposition  of  the  chrysolite. 

Baryte. — In  Prof.  Olmsted's  report  is  found  the  following  notice  of  the  vein 
found  in  Orange  County :  "  Three  miles  south  of  Hillsboro  is  a  fine  vein  of  a 
mineral  called  sulphate  of  barytes  or  heavy  spar.  This  substance  is  not  very 
uncommon,  but  it  is  rare  to  meet  with  it  of  such  purity  and  elegance  as  at  this 
place.  It  is  beautifully  white  and  shining." 

Marls. — Marl  is  very  abundant  in  25  counties  in  North  Carolina,  very  widely 
•distributed,  and  of  several  kinds,  the  principal  of  which  are  four,  viz :  green  sand, 
eocene,  miocene  and  triassic.  The  former  has  generally  but  a  small  percentage  of 
•carbonate  of  lime — 5  to  30 ;  the  second  usually  40  to  95 ;  the  third  20  to  60,  and 
the  fourth  generally  less  than  50.  The  last  is  of  little  consequence  as  a  fertilizer, 
because  of  the  very  limited  extent  of  its  outcrops,  and  it  is  scarcely  used  where 
abundant.  These  marls  are  more  extensively  exposed  than  elsewhere  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  Wake  County,  and  in  the  edge  of  Orange,  between  Morris- 
ville  and  Durham.  Nothing  better  shows  the  need  and  the  value  of  exploitation 
than  the  fact  that,  until  very  lately,  North  Carolina  knew  nothing  of  the  valuable 
phosphate  beds  just  introduced  to  the  world  by  Charles  W.  Dabney,  Jr.,  State 
Chemist,  who  has  just  issued  a  pamphlet  with  relation  to  these  beds.  I  merely 
have  space  for  a  quotation  as  to  their  locality,  and  to  say  that  lime  is  afforded 
thereby  to  a  part  of  the  State  where  it  is  most  needed  "  Distribution. — Phosphate 
rock  has  been  found  so  far,  (March  1st,  1884,)  in  larger  or  smaller  quantities,  in 
•Sampson,  Duplin,  Onslow,  Pender,  New  Hanover,  Bladen,  Columbus  and  Bruns- 
wick Counties.  The  largest  deposits  now  known  are  in  Duplin  and  Sampson. 
The  same  rock  probably  extends  into  the  southern  part  of  Wayne  County.  Phos- 
phatic  marls  of  great  richness  are  known  to  exist  besides  in  Greene,  Lenoir,  Pitt, 


138  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Jones,  Craven  and  Carteret  Counties.  It  is  likely  that  phosphate  will  be  found 
in  these  counties." 

Asbestos. — This  is,  says  Prof.  Kerr,  one  of  the  commonest  associates  also  of 
the  chrysolite  beds  heretofore  mentioned,  and  it  occurs  also  quite  widely  in  the 
Laurentian  rocks  of  the  middle  and  western  parts  of  the  State.  One  of  the  best 
known  localities  in  the  State  is  that  in  Mitchell  County.  It  is  long,  fibrous,  white,, 
and  readily  reduced  to  a  pulp  or  mass  of  fine  lint.  An  equally  fine  article  is 
brought  from  the  southern  part  of  Jackson  County.  It  is  also  found  near  Tryon 
Mountain,  in  Polk  County.  Another  well-known  locality  is  in  Caldwell  County. 
This  is  associated,  like  many  others,  with  a  serpentine  rock.  Specimens  have 
been  exhibited  also  from  Ashe  and  from  Yancey.  This  mineral  occurs  in  many 
places  from  Warren  to  Jackson  County. 

Soapstone. — This  is  a  very  common  mineral  in  North  Carolina.  The  most 
extensive  beds  of  it  are  found  in  Cherokee  and.  Macon,  in  immediate  association 
with  the  marble  range,  and  accompanying  it  throughout  its  whole  extent,  on 
Nantehaleh  River,  Valley  River  and  Notteley.  An  analysis  of  this  rock  as  it 
occurs  on  Nantehaleh  gave  23.71  per  cent,  of  magnesia,  which  is  about  the  per- 
centage of  pyrallolite.  The  variety  rensselarite  is  found  in  Forsyth  County,  and 
probably  also  in  the  South  Mountains  in  Burke  County. 

Pyrite, — Pyrite  is  one  of  the  most  common  minerals  in  North  Carolina.  It 
is  not  only  found  in  globular  crystalline  masses  in  many  of  the  marl  beds  of  the 
eastern  counties,  but  many  of  the  gneissoid  rocks  and  slates  contain  it  in  consid- 
erable quantities,  and  besides,  it  is  found  in  almost  every  mine  of  the  State.  In 
the  gold  mines  the  associated  pyrite  is  generally  auriferous.  Cubical  crystals 
occur  in  Catawba  and  Gaston  Counties.  Combinations  of  cubes  and  octahedra. 
are  found  in  Chatham  County  and  in  the  Guilford  County  gold  and  copper  mines. 
The  pyritohedron,  often  in  combination  with  cubical  and  octahedral  planes,  is 
found  in  Union  County,  Guilford  County,  Gaston  County,  Mecklenburg  County, 
&c.  Large  veins  of  compact  pyrite  occur  in  Gaston  County. 

BUILDING  STONES. 

There  exists  the  greatest  abundance  of  material  for  architectural  and  engi- 
neering uses  over  a  large  part  of  the  State.  Granite  and  gneiss  are  among  the 
commonest  rocks  throughout  its  whole  length,  except  in  the  coastward  region, 
where  it  is  overlaid  by  the  tertiary  and -cretaceous  beds.  And  the  sandstones  of 
the  triassic — red  and  gray — as  well  as  those  of  the  Huronian,  are  available  over 
considerable  areas ;  wrhile  the  shell  limestone  of  the  eocene  furnish  a  very  fair 
building  material  to  the  sandy  and  alluvial  coast  region ;  and  the  cr}Tstalline  lime- 
stones and  marbles  of  the  west  supply  an  ornamental  building  stone  of  great 
variety  and  beauty.  Seventy-nine  specimens  of  building  stones  have  been  sent 
from  the  State  to  the  new  National  Museum  at  Washington.  These  embrace 
granite  of  every  variety,  (the  beautiful  Scotch  granite  included,)  gneiss,  soapstone, 
talc,  limestone,  marble,  fire-stone,  lime-rock,  sandstone  of  various  shades  and  tex- 
ture, syenite  and  porphory. 

PRECIOUS  STONES. 

In  the  United  States,  systematic  mining  for  gems  and  precious  stones  is  being 
carried  on  at  only  two  places,  viz :  Paris,  Maine,  and  Stoney  Point,  North. 
Carolina. 

Diamonds  have  been  repeatedly  found  in  North  Carolina.  In  every  instance 
this  gem  was  found  associated  with  gold  and  zircons;  sometimes  with  nionozite 
and  other  rare  minerals,  in  gravel  beds  resulting  from  gneissoid  rocks ;  but  it  has 
never  been  observed  in  the  North  Carolina  itacolumite,  or  any  debris  resulting 
from  its  disintegration. 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  139 

Beryl  has  been  found  at  several  places  in  the  State. 

Zircon  abounds  in  the  gold  sands  of  Burke,  McDowell,  Rutherford,  Caldwell, 
Mecklenburg  and  other  counties ;  also  abundantly  on  the  south  side  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  near  Green  River. 

Garnet  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  State,  and  some  very  beautiful 
crystals  have  been  found.  Burke,  Caldwell  and  Cherokee  Counties  are  taking  the 
lead.  The  massive  manganese  garnet  is  abundant  in  Rutherford,  Chatham,  Stokes, 
Cabarrus,  Lincoln,  Gaston  and  Rockingham  Counties. 

Agate. — Rough  specimens  very  common  in  Cabarrus  and  Mecklenburg  Coun- 
ties. Some  very  fine  specimens  of  moss  agate  in  Orange  County.  It  is  found  in 
Granville  County  also. 

Opal— A.  number  of  gems  of  this  species  have  been  found  in  the  State 
Within  the  last  12  months  a  large  number  have  been  picked  up  in  Cabarrus 
County,  some  of  them  of  much  beauty  and  high  market  value. 

Hiddenite — a  rare  and  new  gem  of  great  value,  limited  to  North  Carolina  and 
one  county.  It  is  of  an  emerald-green  color. 

Emerald  is  found  in  the  mica  mines  of  Mitchell  and  Yancey  Counties. 

Ruby. — Corundum,  found  as  a  gem  in  Clay  and  Macon,  may  also  be  found  in 
other  corundum  localities  in  Jackson,  Mitchell,  Iredell,  Gaston,  &c, 

Sapphire,  Tcyanite. — Best  are  found  at  Swannanoa  Gap  and  top  of  Black 
Mountain ;  the  common  sort  in  Mitchell,  Gaston  and  other  counties. 

Rock  Crystal,  False  Diamond,  California  Diamond. — Abundant  in  this  State. 

In  addition,  it  is  worth  while  to  mention  that  specimens  of  opalescent  quartz 
occur  in  Cabarrus  and  elsewhere ;  also  malachite,  carnelian,  jasper,  chalcedony, 
rutile,  tourmaline,  chrysolite,  lazulite  and  smoky  quartz ;  so  that  this  list  of  native 
gems  is  certain  to  be  extended,  and  very  considerably,  too,  whenever  extensive 
mining  operations  are  resumed. 

Of  the  entire  list  of  real  gems,  nine  have  been  found  as  such  in  this  State ; 
and  of  the  minerals  which  constitute  these  gems,  all  but  one  occur  here ;  and  of 
minerals  which  furnish  the  semi-gems,  a  majority  also  occur  in  this  State.  This 
fact  is  explained  just  as  the  other  broader  fact  of  the  occurrence  of  so  wide  a 
range  of  mineral  species.  It  is  due  to  the  prevalence  of  the  older  rocks,  which 
make  up  almost  the  whole  of  North  Carolina  geographically,  outside  of  the  over- 
mantling  sands  and  gravels  of  the  east. 

MANUFACTURES. 

As  a  manufacturing  State,  North  Carolina  has  long  been  prominent,  although 
her  industrial  interests  have  not,  of  course,  ever  attained  the  great  magnitude 
reached  by  the  principal  Northern  and  Western  States.  Within  the  last  few  years 
there  has  been  a  very  rapid  increase  in  the  manufacturing  interests  of  this  State, 
and  in  none  of  the  Southern  States  is  this  growth  of  a  better  or  more  diversified 
character.  In  a  few  of  the  Southern  States  the  amount  of  capital  now  being 
invested  in  industrial  enterprises  is  larger  than  in  North  Carolina;  but  this  is 
mainly  due  to  the  establishment  of  comparatively  few  extensive  iron  works  or 
industries  of  that  character ;  while  in  North  Carolina  it  is  particularly  noticeable 
that  the  aggregate  of  its  new  manufactures  is  being  made  up  of  a  great  number  of 
mills,  factories  and  shops  of  moderate  size,  but  covering  almost  every  branch  of 
manufacturing,  denoting  a  healthy  growth  of  a  wide  range  of  industries. 

In  cotton  manufacturing,  North  Carolina's  many  advantages  have  caused  a 
very  rapid  development,  and  there  are  now  between  90  and  100  mills,  having  an 
aggregate  of  213,362  spindles  and  3,543  looms,  being  an  increase  of  43  mills, 
110,595  spindles  and  1,583  looms  since  the  census  of  1880,  or  an  increase  of  nearly 
100  per  cent,  in  the  number  of  mills,  and  of  over  100  per  cent,  in  spindles.  The 


140 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


abundant  water-power  of  the  State;  its  large  production  of  cotton,  furnishing 
raw  material  without  the  expense  of  heavy  freights ;  its  excellent  climate  and 
other  advantages,  assure  a  rapid  growth  of  this  industry  in  North  Carolina 
Georgia  and  the  two  Carolinas  are  apparently  in  sharp  but  friendly  competition 
as  to  which  shall  lead  in  cotton  manufacturing. 

The  vast  timber  resources  of  this  State  have  naturally  caused  the  erection  of 
many  saw  mills,  and  in  all  sections  of  the  State  new  mills  are  springing  up  ;  but 
it  will  be  many  years  yet  before  the  almost  boundlesss  forests  of  virgin  timber 
show  signs  of  exhaustion.  The  timber  resources  of  this  State  offer  abundant 
facilities  for  unusually  profitable  investments.  As  North  Carolina  has  many  saw 
mills,  so  has  she  also  many  flour  and  grist  mills,  mainly  of  small  capacity  and  of 
old-time  machinery,  though  there  are  some  most  excellent  roller-process  mills 
producing  very  superior  flour.  The  wheat  crop  of  the  State  is  of  excellent 
quality,  and  there  are  good  openings  in  the  State  for  the  erection  of  modern  mills. 

The  most  rapid  growth  during  the  last  two  years  in  any  manufacturing 
interest  has  been  in  tobacco — a  business  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  at  least  as 
a  leading  industry.  The  peculiar  excellence  of  North  Carolina  tobacco  has  caused 
an  increasing  demand  from  year  to  year  from  almost  every  part  of  the  world,  and 
with  this  increase,  there  has  been  a  steady  increase  in  the  .number  of  factories  to 
meet  it.  It  is  only  recently  that  experiment  has  demonstrated  the  fitness  of  the 
soil  of  a  large  part  of  the  State  for  tobacco  growing,  which,  until  within  the  last 
few  years,  had  been  confined  almost  wholly  to  a  few  counties.  The  progress  of 
tobacco  culture  in  North  Carolina  has  been,  without  exception,  marked  by  a 
steady  improvement  in  the  financial  condition  of  the  farmers,  whose  profits  range 
from  $100  to  $400  an  acre,  and  in  the  rapid  development  of  all  other  interests ;  in 
fact,  tobacco  has  proved  a  bonanza  to  the  whole  State.  Some  idea  of  the  increase 
in  the  tobacco  trade  of  North  Carolina  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  over  50 
tobacco  factories  were  erected  in  that  State  during  1884,  and  that  many  others 
will  be  built  during  the  present  year. 

Woolen  mills,  wood-working  establishments  for  furniture,  spokes,  handles, 
sashes,  doors,  blinds,  &c.,  machine  shops,  and  many  other  diversified  industries, 
are  of  considerable  extent  and  importance ;  and  while  their  growth  has  hardly 
been  as  marked  as  that  of  tobacco  and  cotton,  yet  it  is  sure  and  steady,  and  their 
productions  largely  help  to  swell  the  aggregate  of  the  manufactures  of  the  State. 

WOODS  AND  TIMBERS. 

The  area  of  laud  covered  with  woods  and  timbers  now  standing  in  each  of 
the  counties  of  the  State,  as  reported  in  "  Male's  Woods  and  Timbers  of  North 
Carolina,"  will  be  found  in  the  table  hereto  annexed : 


COUNTIES. 


WOODED  AREA. 


Alexander One-half. 

Anson. .  .• One-third. 

Ashe Seven-tenths. 

Bladen N  ine-tenths. 

Brunswick Two-thirds. 

Camden One-half. 

Caswell One-half. 

Chatham One-third. 

Cherokee Four-fifths. 

Clay Five-sixths. 

Cleveland Six-tenths. 

Columbus Two-thirds. 

Currituck Three-fifths. 

Davidson Two-thirds. 

Davie One-third. 

Edgecombe One-half. 

Forsyth-  • One-third. 

Gaston.... Three-fifths. 

Gates ...  Three  fourths. 

Graham Seven-eighths. 

Granville Six-tenths. 


COUNTIES.  WOODED  AREA. 

Greene One-half. 

Halifax Six-tenths. 

Haywood Four-fifths. 

Iredell One-half. 

Jackson Five-sixths 

Johnston Two-thirds. 

Lincoln Two-thirds. 

Macon Five-sixths. 

Madison Three-fourths. 

Mitchell , Three-fourths. 

Montgomery ,  Three-fourths. 

Moore One-half. 

Northampton One-half. 

Onslow Six-tenths. 

Orange One-third 

Pamlico Ni  ne-tenths. 

Fender Two-thirds. 

Perquimans One-fourth. 

Person One-eighth. 

Pitt Three-fourths. 

Polk Three-fourths. 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  141 

• 

COUNTIES.  WOODED  AREA.  COUNTIES.  WOODED  AREA. 

Randolph Five-sixths.  Swain Five-sixths. 

Richmond Two-thirds.  Tyrrell Seven-tenths. 

Robeson Two-thirds.  Union , One-third. 

Rockingham One-third.  Vance One-tenth. 

Rowan One-third.  Warren One-half. 

Rutherford Three-fourths.  Wayne Four-tenths. 

Sampson Six-tenths.  Wilson Six-tenths. 

Surry Three- fourths.  Yadkin One-half.* 

Forestry  Bulletin  No.  8,  from  the  United  States  Census  Office,  gives  the 
amount  of  merchantable  pine — long-leaved  pine  (Pinus  Australia}  standing  in 
fifteen  counties,  as  follows  : 

COUNTIES.  NO.  FEET.  COUNTIES.  NO.  FEET. 

Bladen 288,000,000  New  Hanover 96,000,000 

Brunswick 141,000,000  Onslow 34,000,000 

Chatham 448,000,000  Robeson 864,000,000 

Columbus 288,000,000  Sampson 602,000,000 

Cumberland 806,000,000  Wake 48,000,000 

Duplin 24,000,000  Wayne 40,000,000 

Harnett 486,000,000 

Johnston 563,000,000                                Total 5,229,000,000 

Moore 504,000,000 

STOCK  RAISING. 

The  entire  transmontane  country  is  well  fitted  for  this  business.  The  culti- 
vated grasses  flourish  everywhere  with  even  ordinary  care.  But  it  is  in  the  north- 
western counties — particularly  in  the  counties  of  Ashe,  Alleghany,  Watauga, 
Mitchell,  Yancey,  that  all  the  conditions  are  found  necessary  for  its  perfect  suc- 
cess. The  soil  throughout  these  counties  is  a  deep  rich  loam,  up  to  the  summits 
of  the  mountains.  The  whole  country  is  covered  with  a  dense  vegetation, 
amongst  which  will  be  found  some  of  the  largest  timber  in  the  United  States,  and 
as  yet  the  forests  are  comparatively  unbroken,  because  they  have  been  inacces- 
sible to  market.  The  clearing  of  the  timber  is  a  work  of  some  difficulty ;  but 
when  that  is  done  the  labor  of  the  farmer  is  rewarded  with  the  richest  crops. 
After  two  or  three  crops  are  taken  off,  the  land,  if  suffered  to  lie  at  rest,  springs 
up  spontaneously  in  timothy  herbs,  grass  and  other  rich  pasture  grasses;  and 
once  established,  the  grass  perpetuates  itself  upon  the  land.  Nor  is  an  entire  clear- 
ing necessary  to  establsh  the  land  in  grass.  If  the  undergrowth  is  removed,  the 
trees  thinned  out,  and  the  surface  stirred  and  sown  in  orchard  grass  (Cock's  foot), 
it  nourishes  luxuriantly,  even  while  the  forest  trees  are  left  standing. 

Its  capacity  as  a  grazing  country  has  long  been  known.  But  formerly  the 
cattle  were  left  to  the  resources  of  nature,  which,  indeed,  in  such  a  country,  were 
abundant  and  rich.  Of  late,  attention  has  been  turned  to  the  breeding  of  fine 
stock,  and  some  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  are  found  there  which  will 
compare  with  the  best  in  Kentucky.  This  country  is  already  penetrated  by  one 
railroad,  and  others  are  in  course  of  construction.  When  fairly  laid  open  to  rail- 
road communication,  it  will  offer — besides  its  rich  mining  interests  and  timbers — 
one  of  the  finest  fields  for  cattle  and  sheep  breeding  and  for  dairy  products  that 
the  Union  presents. 

SILK  CULTURE. 

Mr.  Edward  Fasnach,  of  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  who  speaks  from  a  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  the  business,  says:  Among  the  undeveloped  resources  of 
North  Carolina,  there  are  probably  none  deserving  of  more  thoughtful  considera- 
tion than  silk  culture.  The  mulberry,  which  supplies  the  food  for  the  silk-worm, 
is  indigenous,  and  grows  in  great  abundance  in  almost  every  section  of  the  State, 
and  it  attains  its  fullest  development  with  scarcely  any  cultivation.  Nor  is  the 
silk-giving  quality  of  its  leaves  less  noticeable;  for  wherever  North  Carolina 


*The  reader  must  not  forget  that  large  areas  of  timber  land  have  been  sold  in  this  State  of  late, 
and  great  inquiry  is  made  for  hard-wood  lands  there,  and  indeed  elsewhere  in  the  South. 


143  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

grown  silk  has  been  put  to  a  test,  it  has  been  found  of  most  excellent  quality,  and 
equal  to  the  best  French  and  Italian. 

There  is  no  branch  of  agriculture  that  offers  so  generous  a  reward  for  so  little 
capital  invested  as  silk  culture.  The  making  of  a  crop,  from  the  hatching  to  the 
gathering  of  the  silk,  be  the  crop  small  or  large,  will  consume  but  six  weeks'  time. 
Moreover,  the  otherwise  unemployed  members  of  the  family— as  the  women,  the 
children,  the  aged,  and  even  infirm — can  here  find  profitable  occupation.  Nor  is 
silk  culture  limited  to  the  farm  or  country,  but  where  there  is  a  room  and  food  for 
the  silk-worm  available,  whether  it  be  in  town  or  city,  silk  can  be  raised. 

Our  endless  tracts  of  cheap  and  uncultivated  lands,  so  well  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  the  mulberry,  and  our  mild  and  equable  climate,  present  strong  induce- 
ments to  French  and  Italian  colonies  of  silk  growers,  with  whom  the  culture  of 
silk  has  become  an  hereditary  occupation. 

EDUCATION.     ' 

The  Constitution  sets  apart  a  large  extent  of  land  and  appropriates  all  moneys 
arising  from  certain  specified  sources  for  establishing  and  maintaining  free  public 
schools  in  the  several  counties  of  the  State ;  further,  it  directs  the  appropriation 
of  75  per  cent,  at  least  of  the  State  and  county  capitation  tax  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. The  moneys  from  these  sources  form  a  permanent  fund  for  education  which 
cannot  be  diverted.  The  legislation  of  the  last  few  years  shows  a  growing  sense 
of  this  great  interest.  That  of  the  session  of  1881  was  a  marked  advance  on  any 
that  had  gone  before.  In  addition  to  the  provisions  specified  above,  a  tax  of  12£ 
cents  was  levied  on  every  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  property  and  credits,  and  the 
tax  on  the  poll  was  correspondingly  increased  37|  cents,  in  aid  of  the  education 
fund.  The  revenue  from  these  sources  was  reckoned  to  be  fully  adequate  to  keep 
open  the  public  schools  for  four  months  in  the  year.  If  the  tax  thus  levied  should 
prove  insufficient  to  maintain  one  or  more  schools  in  each  district  for  the  period 
named,  the  County  Commissioners  are  required  to  levy  annually  a  special  tax  to 
supply  the  deficiency.  The  ages  for  admission  to  the  public  schools  range  from 
six  to  twenty-one  years. 

The  provision  for  higher  education  is  ample.  Private  schools  for  both  sexes 
are  numerous.  The  principal  institutions  for  the  education  of  boys  and  girls  are 
of  the  highest  order.  There  is  a  State  university,  maintained  in  part  by  annual 
appropriations.  Science  and  learning  in  their  widest  range  are  there  taught  by 
professors  eminent  in  their  several  branches.  Second  only  to  the  university  are 
the  denominational  colleges  of  the  State,  each  having  a  corps  of  learned  pro- 
fessors and  tutors. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


The  State  of  South  Carolina  lies  between  north  latitude  32°  4'  30"  and  35° 
12',  and  longitude  west  from  Washington  1°  30'  and  6°  54'.  The  United  States 
Census  of  1880  makes  its  area  30,170  square  miles.  The  coast  is  about  190  miles 
long.  The  State  is  broadly  divided  into  the  up-country  and  low-country. 

PHYSICAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  REGIONS. 

In  addition  to  the  two  grand  divisions  of  South  Carolina  into  the  up-country 
and  low-country,  it  will  facilitate  the  consideration  of  the  agricultural  character- 
istics of  the  State  to  treat  of  them  under  certain  minor  natural  and  parallel 
sub-divisions,  which  are  quite  well  marked.  These  are  as  follows : 

I.  The  Coast  Region.    It  coincides  very  nearly  with  the  post  pleiocene  forma- 
tion, rarely  extending  inland  more  than  ten  miles  from  the  shore  line.   It  consists : 

1st.  Of  the  Sea  Islands  lying  south  of  Santee  River,  and  containing  about  800 
square  miles. 

2d.  The  salt  marshes,  uncovered  at  low  tide,  bordering  and  intercalating  with 
the  Sea  Islands,  capable  of  being  reclaimed,  and  embracing  600  square  miles. 

3d.  The  continuous  shore  line  north  of  Santee  River  and  Georgetown 
entrance,  300  square  miles  in  extent. 

II.  The  Lower  Pine  Belt,  or  Savanna  Region,  lying  inland  and  parallel  with  the 
Coast  Region.    It  has  a  width  of  about  50  miles;  attains  a  maximum  elevation 
above  the  sea  of  130  feet.    It  may  be  divided : 

1st.  Into  the  region  below  the  influence  of  the  tides — the  rice  fields  of  South 
Carolina. 

2d.  The  region  above  tide-water,  notable  for  its  turpentine  farms  and  its 
cattle  ranges. 

III.  The  Upper  Pine  Belt,  or  the  Central  Cotton  Belt,  having  a  width  of  20  to  40 
miles.    It  is  covered  with  a  growth  of  long  leaf  pine,  mixed  with  oak  and  hickory.    The 
soil  consists  of  a  light  sandy  loam,  underlaid  by  red  and  yellow  clays.    It  has  an 
elevation  above  the  sea  of  from  130  to  250  feet.    Large  inland  swamps,  bays  and 
river  bottoms  of  unsurpassed  fertility,  covering  5,500  square  miles,  are  interspersed 
among  the  two  regions  last  named. 

IV.  The  Red  Hills  are  immediately  north  of  the  last  region.    They  have  an 
elevation  of  300  to  600  feet  above  the  sea.    The  soil  is  red  clay  and  sand,  and 
there  is  a  heavy  growth  of  oak  and  hickory.    They  embrace  the  range  of  hills 
extending  from  Aiken  County,  through  Orangeburg  to  Suniter,  where  they  are 
known  as  the  High  Hills  of  Santee,  and  also  the  ridge  lands  of  Edgefield,  famous 
for  their  fertility. 

V.  The  Sand  Hill  Region.    A  remarkable  chain  of  sand  hills,  attaining  an 
elevation  above  the  sea  of  600  to  700  feet,  and  extending  across  the  State  from 
Aiken  to  Chesterfield  Counties. 


144  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


VI.  The  Piedmont  Region  includes  that  portion  of  the  State  known  as  the 
upper  country.     It  has  a  mean  elevation  above  the  sea  level  of  400  to  800  feet. 
Its  soils  are: 

1st.  The  cold  gray  lands,  overlying  for  the  most  part  the  clay  slates. 
2d.  The  gray  sandy  soils,  from  the  decomposition  of  granite  and  gneiss. 
3d.  The  red  hornblende  lands. 

4th.  The  trappean  soils,  known  as  flat-woods  meadow  or  black-jack  lands  in 
various  sections. 

VII.  The  Alpine  Region  is  the  extreme  northwestern  extension  of  the  rocks- 
and  soils  of  the  region  just  mentioned,  differing  from  the  former  by  its  more 
broken  and  mountainous  character,  and  by  its  greater  elevation,  ranging  from  900 
feet  to  3,430  feet  at  Mount  Pinnacle,  near  Pickens  C.  H.,  the  highest  point  in  the 
State. 

The  Sea  Islands  are  the  great  seat  of  the  production  of  the  long  staple  cotton. 
They  are  very  slightly  elevated  above  sea  level.  Soil — fine  sandy  loam,  resting  on 
a  sub-soil  of  yellow  sand  or  yellow  clay.  There  are  flats  reclaimed  by  drainage 
very  fertile,  with  soil  of  black  vegetable  mould  of  great  fertility  resting  on  fine 
blue  clay  and  marl.  Climate  rather  equable  and  moist.  Health  better  than  is. 
supposed.  The  olive  and  orange  trees  bring  their  fruit  to  full  perfection  on  the 
South  Carolina  coast.  Once  only  during  a  period  of  16  years  prior  to  1880  were 
the  orange  trees  injured  by  frost. 

THE  LOWER  PINE  BELT,  OR  SAVANNA  REGION. 

Contiguous  to  and  immediately  inland  from  the  coast  region  lies  the  Lower 
Pine  Belt,  or  Savanna  Region  of  South  Carolina.  Northward  it  may  be  bounded 
by  a  line  dividing  Hampton  County  nearly  in  half,  leaving  the  Savannah  R.ver  in 
Lawton  Township,  running  east  across  the  county  and  through  Broxton  and 
Warren  Townships,  in  the  northwest  corner  of  Colleton  County,  to  Orangeburg 
County,  including  the  townships  of  Branchville  and  Cow  Castle ;  thence  along  the 
northern  boundary  of  Charleston  County  to  the  Santee  River.  Leaving  the  Santee 
River  about  Wright's  Bluff,  this  line  traverses  Clarendon  County  to  its  northeast 
corner,  crosses  Lynches  River,  descends  that  river  to  a  point  opposite  where  Catfish 
Creek  empties  into  the  Great  Pee  Dee,  follows  that  stream  to  Barker's  Creek,  passes, 
up  it  to  Reedy  Creek,  down  it  to  the  Little  Pee  Dee,  and  up  that  river  to  the 
North  Carolina  line.  The  section  thus  bounded  includes  the  half  of  Hampton. 
County,  nearly  all  of  Colleton,  two  townships  in  Orangeburg,  all  but  the  northwest 
corner  of  Clarendon,  the  southwest  portion  of  Marion,  the  whole  of  Williainsburg, 
and  all  Charleston,  Georgetown  and  Horry  Counties  not  lying  on  the  coast,  and 
comprises  nearly  one-third  of  the  entire  State. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  country  is  low  and  flat.  The  uniform  level  of 
the  surface  is  scarcely  broken  anywhere,  except  here  and  there  on  the  banks  of 
the  streams  by  the  occurrence  of  slightly  rolling  lands.  Eight  large  rivers, 
receiving  all  the  water  that  falls  in  South  Carolina,  and  a  large  proportion  from, 
the  water  shed  of  North  Carolina,  besides  several  smaller  rivers  and  innumerable 
lesser  streams,  traverse  this  region,  and  furnish  more  than  1,000  miles  of  navigable 
waters.  The  maximum  elevation  of  this  region  above  tide-water  is  reached  at 
Branchville,  on  the  South  Carolina  Railway,  and  is  134  feet.  Much  of  this  countiy 
is  underlaid  with  marl  and  cretaceous  rocks.  The  valuable  phosphate  rock  is  in 
this  division,  vast  deposits  being  near  Charleston.  It  contains  55  to  61  per  cent, 
of  phosphate  of  lime ;  carbonate  of  lime,  5  to  10,  &c.  There  is  a  very  large 
business  in  mining  the  rock  at  that  city  and  near  it. 

The  soils  of  the  Lower  Pine  Belt  (7,000  square  miles  of  uplands)  comprehend 
three  leading  varieties :  1st.  A  sandy  loam,  with  a  white  sandy  sub-soil.  2d.  A 


SOUTH  CAROLINA.  145 

sandy  loam,  with  a  yellow  sub-soil.  3d.  A  sandy  loam,  with  a  clay  sub-soil.  The 
clay  is  generally  yellow,  but  sometimes  it  is  red.  The  characteristic  growth  of 
the  uplands  is  the  long  leaf  pine.  The  Savanna  Region  is  thickly  grown  with 
small  cypress.  The  uplands  have  scarcely  any  undergrowth,  except  here  and 
there  the  scrub  oak  and  the  wire  and  drop  seed  grass.  The  magnolia,  tulip  tree, 
sweet  and  black  gum,  white  and  red  bays,  the  white  oak,  the  black  walnut,  the 
elm,  hickory  and  cypress,  are  among  the  largest  and  most  conspicuous  trees  of  the 


CLIMATE. 

Almost  everywhere  there  are  found  small  tracts  —  islands,  as  it  were  —  of  dry, 
sandy  soil  heavily  timbered  with  the  long  leaf  pine,  which  is  a  barrier  to  the 
invasion  of  malaivia.  These  retreats  furnish  places  of  residence  as  healthful  as  are 
to  be  found  anywhere.  Rice  is  the  most  characteristic  crop.  Both  upland  and 
lowland  are  raised.  Lowland  rice  farms  that  sold  before  the  war  at  from  $200  to 
$300  per  acre,  may  now  be  bought  at  from  $20  to  $30,  or  less.  Difficulty  of 
obtaining  labor  is  the  explanation.  Profits  in  rice  raising  good  ;  an  average  yield 
per  acre  —  20  bushels  —  worth  $35.30.  Price  of  land  in  this  belt  ranges  from  50 
cents  to  $10  an  acre.  Sugar-cane,  rice,  corn,  cotton,  sweet  potatoes,  oats,  common 
crops,  cane  and  native  grasses  are  the  chief  agricultural  products.  A  good  range 
for  stock  is  to  be  had.  Water  mostly  free-stone. 

THE  UPPER  PINE  BELT 

lies  between  an  elevation  above  the  sea  of  130  and  250  feet.  It  crosses  the  State 
in  a  northeasterly  direction,  from  the  Savannah  River  to  the  North  Carolina  line. 
It  comprises,  generally,  the  counties  of  Barnwell,  Orangeburg,  Sumter,  Darlington, 
Marlboro  and  Marion.  The  northern  half  of  Hampton  and  the  northwest  corner 
of  Colleton  are  included  in  it.  To  the  south  it  is  bounded  by  the  Lower  Pine  Belt, 
where  the  flat,  open,  piriey  woods,  with  an  undergrowth  of  coarse  grasses,«gradu- 
ally  gives  place  to  the  higher  and  more  rolling  pine  lands,  with  an  undergrowth 
of  oak  and  hickory.  To  the  north  the  Upper  Pine  Belt  sweeps  round  the  feet  of 
the  interrupted  range  of  high  red  hills  traversing  the  State,  or  rises  in  the 
intervals  of  this  range,  to  the  still  more  elevated  sand  hills. 

The  land  is  level,  without  being  flat,  and  is  sufficiently  rolling  to  msure«good 
drainage  for  the  most  part.  The  watercourses  rising  in  this  region,  or  in  the  sand 
hill  region  above,  are  clear  and  rapid,  while  the  larger  rivers  passing  through  it 
that  come  from  the  mountains  are  turbid.  There  are  also  many  smaller  streams, 
with  fine  water  powers.  Pure,  cool  water  is  found  in  an  abundant  supply  gener- 
ally, at  from  10  to  20  feet  depth. 

SOILS. 

The  Upper  Pine  Belt  contains  over  6,000  square  miles,  about  one-sixth  of 
which  is  swamp,  and  the  remainder  uplands.  The  uplands  consist  of  a  fine,  light, 
gray,  sandy  loam  resting  on  a  sub-soil  of  red  or  yellow  clay.  In  the  east  —  hi 
Marlboro  and  Marion  —  it  is  usually  found  at  only  three  to  four  inches  ;  in  the 
west  it  is  deeper. 

The  swamps  are  :  1st.  The  river  swamps.  This  soil  is  a  heavy  alluvial  loam, 
mulatto-colored,  and  sometimes  mixed  with  fine  sand  and  mica.  These  lands  are 
very  fertile  and  subject  to  overflow.  The  other  swamp  lands  are  known  as  bays, 
or  upland  swamps  and  creek  bottoms.  They  are  found  on  smaller  streams  and  in 
bodies  of  different  sizes  in  the  pine  lands.  Soil  —  black,  decomposed  vegetable 
matter.  They  are  not  suitable  for  cotton,  but  produce  good  corn. 

CLIMATE. 

The  Upper  Pine  Belt  is  a  peculiarly  healthful  region.  There  are  no  prevailing 
diseases,  unless  it  be  a  mild  type  of  malarial  fever  during  autumn  along  the  river 


146  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

swamps.  The  upland  swamps,  not  being  subject  to  overflow,  and  resting  on  sand, 
are  not  troubled  with  these  complaints  when  drained  and  cultivated.  The  swiinp 
woods  are  cypress,  white  oak,  gum,  ash,  hickory,  beech,  elm  and  black  walnut 
Besides  the  pine,  there 'is  on  the  upland,  dogwood,  hickory,  and  eight  or  ten 
varieties  of  oak,  among  which  are  the  forked  leaf  black-jack,  indicative  here  of  a 
dry  and  thirsty  soil,  and  the  round  leaf  black-jack,  showing  a  moister  and  more 
fruitful  soil.  The  olive,  the  Italian  chestnut  and  pine,  varieties  of  the  mulberry, 
the  fig,  peaches,  apples,  pears,  pomegranates,  plums,  pecan  nuts,  English  walnuts, 
grapes,  &c.,  are  successfully  grown. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

The  staple  crops  are  cotton,  corn,  oats,  rye,  (the  Southern  variety,)  and  wheat 
to  a  limited  extent,  peanuts  yielding  an  average  of  40  bushels  to  the  acre,  sweet 
potatoes  and  rice.  The  culture  of  indigo  and  tobacco  has  been  abandoned,  though 
once  found  profitable. 

Shad  in  the  spring,  and  sturgeon  and  rock-fish  in  the  summer  and  autumn, 
ascend  all  the  rivers  in  this  region,  except  that  shad  never  enter  the  waters  of  the 
Little  Pee  Dee,  notwithstanding  they  are  clear  and  deep,  like  those  of  the  Edisto. 
The  Pee  Dee  is  the  last  river  to  the  south,  where  herring  are  caught  in  large 
numbers. 

The  Upper  Pine  Belt  has  a  population  of  221,409.  The  area  of  tilled  land  is 
948,521  acres.  More  than  one-third  is  in  cotton.  418,417  acres  are  in  grain  of  all 
kinds,  including  corn,  small  grain  and  rice. 

The  farms  number  19,649.  The  grain  crop  in  1880,  according  to  the  census, 
was  8,631,302  bushels — an  increase  of  one  and  a-half  millions  on  the  return  of 
1870.  This  includes  corn,  small  grain  and  rice,  and  constitutes  21  per  cent,  of  the 
grain  crop  of  the  State.  Cotton  planting  is  done  during  the  month  of  April. 

Lands  vary  much  in  price  in  this  belt — from  three  to  fifty  dollars  per  acre, 
according  to  soil,  location,  improvements,  &c.  In  a  good  many  localities  there 
are  no  lands  for  sale.  Land  rents  from  one  to  three  dollars  an  acre. 

THE  RED  HILL  REGION. 

The  very  gradual  slope  of  the  Upper  Pine  Belt  having  attained  an  elevation 
of  200  to  250  feet  above  the  sea  level,  an  irregular  and  somewhat  interrupted  line 
of  high  hills  is  encountered.  These  hills  rise  200  to  300  feet  above  the  plane  of 
the  Upper  Pine  Belt  in  the  distance  of  a  few  miles,  and  not  unfrequently  this 
elevation  is  attaihecr  in  traversing  a  few  hundred  yards.  To  the  south  and  east 
extensive  views  over  the  gentle  and  irregular  slope  of  the  lower  country  are 
exposed  from  the  summit  of  these  declivities ;  to  the  north  and  west  a  sort  of 
table-land  stretches  back,  and  gradually  merges  into  the  higher  and  more  exten- 
sive Sand  Hill  Region  of  the  State. 

The  general  trend  of  these  hills  corresponds  pretty  nearly  with  that  of  the 
other  regions  of  the  State.  Starting  on  the  Savannah  River,  near  Hamburg,  they 
extend  across  the  southern  and  western  portion  of  Aiken  and  the  northern  town- 
ships of  Barnwrell  Counties.  Following  the  northern  boundary  of  Orangeburg, 
they  acquire  their  greatest  width  in  that  county  around  Fort  Motte,  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Congaree  and  the  "Wateree  Rivers.  West  of  the  Santee  River 
their  course  is  more  to  the  north,  and  they  constitute  that  remarkable  line  of  hills 
traversing  Sumter  County,  long  known  as  the  "  High  Hills  of  Santee."  Included 
in  this  region  is  also  a  body  of  lands  in  Edgefield  County  known  as  the  "  Ridge," 
which  lie  along  the  Augusta  and  Charlotte  Railroad.  Although  the  latter  are 
above  the  outcrop  of  the  granite  rocks,  being  continuous  with  the  Red  Hills,  and 
resembling  them  closely  in  physical  features  and  soil,  they  are  described  with  them. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA.  147 

While  these  Red  Hills  form  a  well  marked  belt  across  the  State  below  the 
Sand  Hills,  from  the  southwestern  part  of  Aiken  County  to  the  northeastern 
corner  of  Sumter,  they  are  not  continuous,  but  are  interrupted  at  greater  or  less 
intervals  by  the  protrusion  of  the  Sand  Hills.  Mills'  description  of  them  east  of 
the  Santee  River  will  give  an  idea  of  how  this  occurs.  He  says  :•  "  They  take 
their  rise  about  nine  miles  north  of  Nelson's  Ferry,  on  the  Santee,  and  form  that 
fine  body  of  brick  mould  land  (3d  Sup.  Dist.,  E.  D.  14  and  15,)  in  the  Richardson 
settlement.  After  continuing  eight  miles,  they  become  suddenly  sand  hills  a  little 
above  Manchester.  At  the  end  of  11  miles  they  again  become  red  land,  which 
continues  to  Buck  Creek,  nine  miles  above  Statesburg.  These  hills  up  to  this 
point  appear  to  hang  over  the  Wateree  Swamps;  but  now  they  diverge  and  turn 
to  the  northeast,  with  one  ridge  in  the  middle  forming  a  backbone,  breaking  off 
into  hills  towards  the  Wateree,  and  sloping  off  gradually  towards  Black  River. 
At  Buck  Creek  the  hills  again  become  sandy,  wrhich  gradually  increases  for  15  or 
16  miles,  to  Bradford  Springs.  A  little  above  this  place  they  join  the  Sand  Hills 
of  the  middle  country."  If  these  alternations  were  carefully  traced,  it  is  probable 
they  would  be  found  to  be  due  to  removal  by  denudation  of  the  red  clay  loam 
from  the  slopes  of  sand  and  gravel  that  rise  in  the  Sand  Hills;  for  the  sienna- 
colored  clay  loam,  characteristic  of  this  region,  seldom  has  a  depth  greater  than 
20  feet,  and  is  underlaid  by  beds  of  sand  and  gravel. 

SOILS. 

The  reddish  loam  of  this  region  presents  an  appearance  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  the  soils  derived  from  the  hornblende  rocks  in  the  upper  country,  but  it  is 
not  so  tenacious  and  waxy.  Although,  when  not  cultivated,  it  becomes  very  hard 
in  dry  weather,  in  wet  weather,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  sand  it  contains, 
the  intervals  when  it  cannot  be  worked  are  short.  Vegetable  matter  rots  rapidly 
in  it,  and  for  this  reason  long  manures  (as  composts)  are  better  adapted  to  it  than 
fertilizers.  The  former  are  rapidly  incorporated  and  well  retained ;  and  there  is 
no  soil  that  responds  so  well  or  is  so  capable  of  great  improvement  under  treat- 
ment with  stable  and  lot  manures  as  these.  Worked  without  manure  they  rapidly 
consume  themselves  and  become  unproductive. 

CLIMATE. 

Having  an  elevation  of  400  to  500  feet  and  upwards  above  the  sea  level,  the 
Red  Hills  enjoy  a  dryer  and  more  bracing  atmosphere  than  the  regions  to  the 
south.  While  it  is  a  notable  fact  that  they  are  not  so  subject  to  the  severer 
influences  of  storm  winds  as  the  lower  lying  lands,  the  ordinary  movements  of 
the  air  are  more  perceptible  there  than  in  the  lower  grounds.  Thus,  during  the 
extreniest  heats  of  summer,  there  is  rarely  a  night  when  the  refreshing  influence 
of  a  gentle  south  wind  is  not  felt,  blowing  with  a  uniformity  as  though  it  had 
directly  traversed  the  70  miles  intervening  between  these  slopes  and  the  ocean. 
Owing  to  this  movement  of  the  air  and  to  its  greater  dryness,  late  spring  frosts 
are  of  less  frequent  occurrence  here  than  they  are  further  south;  nor  is  vegetation 
destroyed  by  cold  so  early  in  the  fall.  In  ascending  these  hills  in  the  autumn  and 
early  winter,  at  a  certain  elevation  a  stratum  of  warm  air  is  encountered  which 
seems  to  cling  about  the  hill-tops,  while  a  much  chillier  night  air  fills  the  bottoms. 
These  advantages  at  one  time  made  this  region  famous  for  its  fruits.  During  the 
severest  winter  of  the  last  half  century  the  banana  and  the  sago  palm  in  the  open 
ground,  protected  only  by  a  few  handfuls  of  cotton  seed  on  their  roots,  though 
cut  by  the  frost,  retained  sufficient  vitality  to  throw  up  vigorous  shoots  the 
ensuing  spring.  This  greater  length  of  growing  season  has  also  made  attempts 
at  growing  Sea  Island  cotton  and  sugar-cane  more  successful  here  than  lower 


148  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

down.  The  whole  region  is  remarkably  healthy ;  no  taint  of  malaria  approaches 
it,  and  it  is  in  an  unusual  degree  free  from  epidemics  of  every  description.  For 
these  reasons  many  localities  here,  especially  the  "High  Hills  of  Santee,"  were 
formerly  much  frequented  as  summer  and  health  resorts  by  planters  from  all  parts 
of  the  State,  as  well  as  from  other  Southern  States. 

GROWTH. 

The  long  leaf  pine  thins  out  on  these  hills,  and  is  sometimes  replaced  by 
short  leaf  pine  of  large  growth.  The  characteristic  growth,  however,  is  oak  and 
hickory  of  large  size.  Red  oaks  attain  very  large  size. 

The  Red  Hill  Region  contains  about  1,620  square  miles  and  has  a  population 
of  44,866.  56  per  cent,  are  colored.  The  area  of  tilled  laud  is  234,682  acres.  The 
number  of  farms  is  4,568,  averaging  for  the  whole  228  acres  to  the  farm. 

In  grain  of  all  sorts  114,425  acres  are  planted,  yielding  804,443  bushels.  In 
other  days,  when  well  manured,  some  of  these  lands  yielded  34  bushels  of  wheat 
per  acre.  Lands  near  railroads  range  from  $15  to  $40  per  acre.  Large  tracts  by 
no  means  inferior  to  those  already  mentioned,  except  as  regards  accessibility,  are 
offered  at  from  three  dollars  to  ten  dollars  an  acre.  These  lands  produce  every 
variety  of  crop,  and  are  well  adapted  to  cotton.  Not  one-fourth  of  these  lands 
are  in  cultivation. 

THE  SAND  HILL  REGION. 

The  Sand  Hill  Region  of  South  Carolina  stretches  across  the  State  from  the 
Savannah  River,  opposite  to  Augusta,  to  the  intersection  of  the  North  Carolina 
line  by  the  Great  Pee  Dee  River.  The  average  distance  of  its  lower  border — 
among  the  Red  Hills — from  the  sea  is  about  95  miles.  Its  length  is  155  miles.  Its 
width  is  variable.  The  maximum,  which  is  reached  in  Lexington  County,  is  about 
30  miles,  and  the  average  width  will  hardly  reach  20  miles.  It  occupies  the  larger 
portion  of  five  counties,  viz  :  Aiken,  Lexington,  Richmond,  Kershaw  and  Ches- 
terfield. The  Upper  Pine  Belt,  ascending  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Congaree  River 
in  Richland  County  until  it  touches  the  granite  rocks  of  the  Piedmont  Region  at 
Columbia,  divides  the  Sand  Hill  Region  into  two  portions — an  eastern  and  a 
western  portion. 

The  physical  features  of  this  region  are  of  a  monotony  aptly  characterized 
by  the  term  "  pine  barren  "  applied  to  it.  The  hills  slope  up  from  the  Savannah 
River  to  a  plateau  having  an  elevation  at  Aiken  C.  H.  of  about  600  feet  above  the 
sea  level.  Beyond  the  North  Edisto  River  the  gradual  ascent  is  resumed,  until 
an  elevation  exceeding  700  feet  is  reached  in  Platt  Springs  Township,  in  eastern 
Lexington,  whence  there  is  a  rapid  descent  of  more  than  ."00  feet  in  a  short 
distance  to  the  Congaree  River.  East  of  this  stream  the  rise  is  again  gradual, 
and  the  maximum  elevation  is  reached  on  the  northeast  border  of  Ricliland 
County,  where  the  hills  again  descend  abruptly  to  the  Wateree  River.  Beyond 
this  river  there  is  no  data  as  to  levels,  except  that  on  the  water  shed  of  the  Great 
Pee  Dee  there  is  evidence  as  to  extensive  denudation  of  the  surface  to  a  depth  of 
at  least  150  feet. 

SOILS. 

The  characteristic  of  the  soils  of  this  region  is  the  loose,  rounded  sands 
which  form  their  chief  constituent.  The  organic  matter  which  it  contains  consists 
largely  of  charcoal,  resulting  from  burning  off  the  woods,  principally  the  pine 
straw  (leaves  of  the  pine.)  Occasionally  there  are  rounded  hills  of  very  fine  sand 
of  a  dazzling  whiteness,  of  such  purity  that  they  seem  just  to  have  emerged  from 
the  waters  or  to  have  been  blown  together  by  the  winds  on  the  seashore.  There 
are,  however,  many  elevated  flats,  which,  under  good  culture  and  manuring,  give 
excellent  crops ;  and  in  the  vales  the  soil  is  often  productive.  Since  the  intro- 


SOUTH  CAROLINA.  149 

duction  of  fertilizers,  level  lands  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  South  Carolina 
Railway  which  sold  in  1860  for  three  dollars  an  acre,  have  sold  for  $30,  and  even 
as  high  as  $40  an  acre.  Throughout  this  region  thousands  of  acres  equal  and 
superior  to  these,  though  not  immediately  upon  a  railroad,  are  for  sale  at  one 
dollar  to  five  dollars  an  acre.  Under  high  culture  30  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre 
have  been  raised  in  this  soil. 

GROWTH  AND   PRODUCTIONS. 

The  growth  is  almost  exclusively  long  leaf  pine,  and  on  the  more  barren 
ridges  even  this  tree  becomes  stunted,  and  sometimes,  on  the  higher  and  finer 
sand  crests,  yields  its  place  to  the  New  Jersey  tea-plant,  which  alone  covers  the 
dazzling  whiteness  of  the  sands.  Usually,  however,  there  is  a  heavy  growth  of 
long  leaf  pine,  and  this  tree  here,  almost  on  its  northern  limit  in  the  State,  attains 
its  highest  perfection,  not  only  as  regards  size,  (trees  of  three  feet  and  four  feet  in 
diameter  being  not  uncommon,)  but  also  as  to  the  quality  of  its  wood,  which  has 
more  heart  and  is  more  resinous  than  elsewhere.  There  is  often  an  undergrowth 
of  the  forked  leaf  black-jack,  and  where  there  is  a  suspicion  of  moisture  in  the 
soil,  this  is  replaced  by  the  round  leaf  black-jacK — a  sure  indication  here  of  better 
soil.  Besides  the  staple  products  of  cotton,  corn,  the  small  grains,  peas  and 
potatoes  common  to  this  latitude,  these  soils  have  been  thought  specially  adapted 
to  other  crops,  such  as  peanuts,  Palma  Christi,  sorghum,  watermelons,  vegetables, 
scuppernong  grapes  and  peaches. 

THE   CLIMATE 

of  the  Sand  Hills  is  dry,  tonic,  sunny  and  stimulating,  and  entirely  free  from 
malarial  influences.  They  have  long  been  a  resort  during  winter  for  consump- 
tives from  northern  latitudes,  and  during  the  summer  months  for  persons  from  the 
lower  country  of  the  State.  Aiken,  a  town  in  that  area,  has  for  years  been  very 
celebrated  as  a  resort  for  health. 

The  area  of  the  Sand  Hill  Region  is  estimated  at  2,441  square  miles.  The 
population  is  28,612.  The  area  of  tilled  land  is  151,359  acres.  It  is  divided 
among  4,238  forms,  giving  35  acres  of  tilled  land  to  the  farm.  59  per  cent,  of  the 
population  is  colored. 

THE  PIEDMONT  REGION. 

The  Piedmont  Region  of  South  Carolina  coincides  very  nearly  with  what  is 
known  as  the  upper  country  of  the  State.  It  includes  the  whole  of  eight  counties, 
to  wit :  Abbeville,  Anderson,  Newberry,  Laurens,  Union,  Fairfield,  Chester  and 
Lancaster.  It  also  embraces  the  northern  portion  of  Eclgefield  and  Lexington, 
and  the  northwestern  portions  of  Richlaud,  Kershaw  and  Chesterfield.  The 
southern  parts  of  Oconee  and  Pickens,  and  the  southern  and  larger  portions  of 
Greenville,  Spartanburg  and  York,  are  within  its  limits.  A  line 'drawn  from  a 
point  on  the  Savannah  River  three  miles  above  Hamburg  to  Columbia,  and 
running  thence  northeast  to  where  the  Great  Pee  Dee  River  crosses  from  North 
into  South  Carolina,  defines,  in  a  general  way,  its  southern  border.  Its  northern 
boundary  follows,  in  the  main,  the  direction  of  the  Atlanta  and  Charlotte  Air 
Line  Railroad,  which  lies  on  the  edge  of  the  Alpine  Region,  just  north  of  the  one 
under  consideration. 

The  physical  features  of  this  portion  of  the  State  entitle  it  to  the  name  of  the 
Piedmont  Region.  Its  rocks  are  so  similar  to  those  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains, 
that,  though  they  have  been  broken  down,  levelled  off  and  worn  away  by  exposure 
during  the  countless  ages,  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons,  they  are  and  always 
have  been  the  foot-hills  of  the  Apalachian  range ;  while  the  broken  and  moun- 
tainous region  to  the  north,  usually  spoken  of  as  the  Piedmont  Country,  might 
be  better  called  the  Alpine  or  Sub-Alpine  Region  of  the  State. 


150  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

The  face  of  the  country  presents  a  gently  undulating  plain,  which  becomes 
more  rolling  as  it  approaches  the  rivers  and  larger  streams,  and  Is  finally  hilly 
and  broken  above  the  bottoms  and  narrow  low  grounds  through  which  the 
numerous  water-courses  find  their  passage.  The  mean  elevation  of  the  Columbia 
and  Augusta  Railroad  where  it  passes  along  the  southern  borders  of  the  region  is 
575  feet.  That  of  the  Air  Line  Railroad,  in  South  Carolina,  lying  to  the  north  of 
it,  and  almost  wholly  within  the  Alpine  Region,  is  910  feet.  Between  these  two 
lines,  therefore,  a  distance  of  some  90  miles,  there  is  a  general  rise  of  the  surface 
of  335  feet,  or  less  than  four  feet  to  the  mile.  This  is  a  gentler  slope  than  that  of 
the  tertiary  plane  or  low  country.  While  the  general  rise  in  the  surface  is  less 
than  that  in  the  low  country,  the  rise  in  the  beds  of  the  streams,  owing  to  the 
resistance  of  the  underlying  rocks,  which  prevent  the  water  from  deepening  their 
channels,  is  much  greater.  This  adds  largely  to  their  availability  as  water-powers 
for  manufactures. 

The  Savannah  River  is  now  navigable  for  pole-boats  carrying  50  bales  of 
cotton  for  154  miles  above  Augusta.  The  Saluda  River  is  navigable  for  84  miles 
above  Columbia,  wrhere  it  unites  with  the  Broad  to  form  the  Congaree  River,  for 
the  same  kind  of  boat.  The  Broad  River  is  navigable  for  113  miles  in  South 
Carolina,  above  Columbia,  and  for  28  miles  more  in  North  Carolina,  for  this  class 
of  boats.  It  has  a  total  length  of  175  miles.  The  Catawba  River  has  a  fall  of 
325  feet  in  the  55  miles  of  its  course  in  South  Carolina.  Its  banks  are  300  to  3,000 
feet  apart,  and  from  10  to  100  feet  high.  Above  Rocky  Mount,  in  CJiester,  iliere  is  a 
fall  at  one  point  of  50  feet  in  400  yards.  It  has  a  total  length  of  272  miles,  and  its 
source  is  2,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  data  above  given  were  obtained  by  surveys  made  in  the  dryest  season  of 
a  very  dry  year,  and  therefore  represent  these  streams  at  extreme  low  water. 
This  low  stage  of  the  water  prevails  during  October  and  November.  At  other 
seasons  the  volume  of  water  would  be,  on  the  average,  two  or  three  times  as 
great.  The  rivers  are  subject  to  freshets,  rising  20  to  30  feet  above  low  water 
mark,  this  rise  being  greatest  where  they  issue  from  the  Piedmont  Region. 

SOILS. 

The  area  of  land  in  the  Piedmont  Region  whose  culture  is  impeded  by  the 
rocks  prevalent  there  is  comparatively  insignificant.  This  is  due  to  the  remark- 
able extent  and  depth  of  the  disintegration  of  these  rocks. 

The  granite  soils  occupy  by  far  the  largest  area.  These  soils  are  characterized 
by  two  distinct  names : 

1st.  The  gray,  sandy  soils  occupy  the  ridges  and  levels,  and  have  been  formed 
by  the  gradual  separation  of  the  silicious  and  argillaceous  materials  found  in  the 
debris  of  the  'decomposing  rocks  that  underlie  them.  This  gives  a  light,  loose, 
warm,  sandy  loam,  varying  in  depth  from  three  to  eighteen  inches,  and  fine  or 
coarse,  according  to  the  grain  of  the  rock  from  which  they  are  derived.  The 
sub-soil  is  red  or  yellow  clay.  Such  soils  are  of  easy  culture,  respond  readily  to 
the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers,  and  are  well  adapted  for  cotton.  For  these 
reasons  they  are  much  more  highly  esteemed  than  formerly. 

2d.  The  red  clay  loams  are  the  prevailing  soils  of  the  hilly  and  broken 
country.  Occupying  slopes  of  greater  or  less  declivity,  the  loose  sand  has  been 
washed  away  as  fast  as  it  has  been  released  from  the  tenacious  clay.  The  washing 
of  these  hills  is  not  so  destructive  of  their  fertility  as  it  would  have  been  if  the 
soil  were  not  formed  from  rocks  rotting  in  situ,  and  thus  including  at  every  depth 
all  the  numerous  and  varied  elements  of  parent  rocks. 

The  hornblendic  soils  are  a  variety  of  these  red  clay  soils,  derived  from 
granite  and  gneiss  rock,  traversed  by  seams  of  hornblende.  They  are  dark  in 


SOUTH  CAROLINA.  151 

color,  and  of  a  more  brilliant  red.  They  occur  in  Eigefield,  about  Horn's  Creek, 
and  more  extensively  in  Newberry,  especially  between  the  Court  House  and 
Asheford's  Ferry,  extending  thence  into  Fairfield.  They  form  excellent  cotton 
lands,  and  are  well  suited  to  the  culture  of  all  the  grains. 

The  clay  slates  underlie  a  soil  that  is  characterized  as  a  cold  gray  soil.  In 
color  they  vary  from  gray  to  yellow  and  brown.  The  sub-soil  is,  for  the  most 
part,  of  yellow  clay,  but  sometimes  it  is  reddish.  These  soils  are  better  adapted 
for  small  grains,  and  especially  for  oats,  than  for  cotton.  They  cover  an  extensive 
area  in  Edgefield,  and  reach  along  the  northern  border  of  the  tertiary ;  thence  to- 
Chesterfield. 

The  trappean  soils  traverse  York  and  Chester  Counties  in  a  northeasterly 
direction,  coinciding  very  nearly  with  that  of  the  Charlotte  and  Columbia  Rail- 
road. They  give  rise  to  a  distinctly  marked  body  of  lands  known  as  the  "  rolling 
black-jack  lands  "  and  as  black-jack  flats.  The  latter  are  the  most  extensive  and 
better  defined  in  their  characteristics.  The  lands  are  level ;  the  streams  slow  and 
tortuous,  with  low  banks.  The  soil  is  a  rich  dark  brown  chocolate  color;  some- 
times jet  black.  The  sub-soil  is  a  yellow,  waxy  clay,  exceedingly  tenacious,  and 
where  the  rocks  are  not  thoroughly  decomposed,  it  assumes  an  olive  green  color. 
Beneath  it  the  decomposed,  and  lower  down  the  undecomposed,  rock  is  found, 
called  here  "  iron  rock  "  or  "  negro  head."  The  level  configuration  of  the  surface 
and  the  impervious  nature  of  the  sub-soil  interfere  naturally  with  drainage — an 
interference,  however,  not  at  all  beyond  the  remedy  of  art,  as  the  fall  for  properly 
conducted  drains  and  outlets  is  ample.  But  because  they  require  drainage,  these 
lands  which,  from  their  general  appearance  and  from  their  chemical  analysis, 
should  be  ranked  as  among  the  very  best  in  the  State,  have  received  little  atten- 
tion. Corn  and  cotton  planted  on  them  turns  yellow — "  frenches,"  as  it  is  termed. 
When,  however,  thorough  drainage  has  been  effected  and  stable  manure  used, 
they  have  proved  very  productive  and  enduring. 

The  "  rolling  black-jack  "  lands,  as  might  be  inferred  from  their  name,  have  a 
better  natural  drainage,  and  have  long  been  highly  prized  for  their  productiveness. 

Rich  bottom  lands  are  to  be  found  scattered  along  the  numerous  rivers, 
creeks  and  branches  that  everywhere  traverse  this  well- watered  region. 

CLIMATE. 

The  shorter  seasons  and  lower  temperatures  of  the  Piedmont  Region,  as 
compared  with  those  lying  immediately  south  of  it,  are  but  slightly  attributable 
to  differences  of  elevation  or  of  latitude,  these  differences  being  themselves  slight. 
In  so  far  as  it  obtains,  it  results,  perhaps,  from  greater  nearness  to  the  mountains, 
and,  as  affecting  agriculture,  still  more  to  the  heavier  clay  soils  and  sub-soils, 
more  retentive  of  moisture,  and  therefore  colder  and  later  in  spring  than  the 
lighter  sandy  loams  of  the  lower  country.  Cotton  planting  is  about  10  days  later 
than  in  the  Upper  Pine  Belt.  Cotton  blooms  are  also  later,  but  by  a  lesser  period; 
and  the  same  is  true  of  the  opening  and  picking  season  of  the  plant — showing 
that,  with  a  later  start,  it  grows  faster,  passing  more  rapidly  through  its  various 
stages  to  maturity.  This  region,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  much  affected  by 
that  variableness  of  temperature  common  to  localities  in  proximity  to  mountain 
ridges.  This  is  shown  by  the  singular  exemption  of  certain  localities  here  from 
the  injurious  effects  of  late  spring  frosts.  Thus,  on  Rich  Hill,  in  Pacolet  Town- 
ship, Spartan  burg — a  ridge  six  miles  broad  between  the  Pacolet  and  Fair  Forest 
Rivers — fruit  has  been  injured  by  late  frosts  but  once  in  40  years.  Localities  in 
Union  also  enjoy  tJiis  immunity  in  nearly  the  same  degree.  In  the  absence  of  other 
records,  some  idea  of  the  temperature  may  be  formed  by  observations  on  the 
temperatures  of  springs,  assuming  that  this  temperature  approximates  the  annual 


152  .  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

mean.  Lieber  states,  as  the  result  of  a  number  of  observations,  that  the  springs 
of  the  Alpine  Region  have  a  temperature  of  55°  to  58°  Fahrenheit ;  those  on  a 
line  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  Piedmont  Region,  one  of  58°  to  61.5°  Fahr., 
and  below  this  line,  one  of  61.5°  to  66°  Fahr.  The  only  accessible  records  of  rain- 
fall are  those  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  May,  1881.  They  give  an 
average  annual  rainfall  in  this  region  of  52.34  inches,  varying  from  44.05  inches 
to  60.12  inches.  This  gives  a  greater  annual  rainfall  for  this  region  than  for  those 
south  of  it,  and  places  it,  in  this  regard,  next  to  the  areas  of  greatest  annual 
precipitation  in  the  United  States.  The  spring  rains  vary  from  12  inches  to  15 
inches,  and  in  this  regard  it  holds  the  same  relations  as  in  the  former  to  the 
regions  south  of  it  and  to  the  United  States.  The  summer  rains  are  10  inches  to 
14  inches  less  than  in  the  regions  south  of  it,  and  third  or  midway  between  the 
areas  of  greatest  and  of  least  summer  precipitation  in  the  United  States.  The 
autumn  rains  are  eight  inches  to  ten  inches,  and  in  the  counties  east  of  Broad 
River  they  are  10  inches  to  12  inches— being  about  the  same  as  in  the  region  to 
the  south,  and  midway  between  the  areas  of  greatest  and  least  autumn  precipita- 
tion in  the  United  States.  The  winter  rains  are  10  inches  to  14  inches — something 
more  than  in  the  lower  country,  and  a  little  above  midway  between  the  areas  of 
greatest  and  of  least  winter  precipitation  in  the  United  States.  In  the  whole 
year,  and  in  each  season  of  the  year,  the  rainfall  is  less  than  in  the  Alpine  Region 
north  of  it. 

In  point  of  healthfumess  this  region  leaves  little  to  be  desired.  When  first 
settled  the  country  was  entirely  free  from  all  malarial  influences.  Subsequently, 
during  the  period  when  the  first  clearing  of  the  forest  was  in  active  progress,  the 
hitherto  clean-bordered  channels  of  the  streams  became  obstructed,  in  part  with 
fallen  timber  and  brush  from  the  clearings,  and  in  part  by  the  washings  of  the 
hill  sides,  under  the  injudicious  use  of  the  plow.  These  washings  occurred  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  alter  the  original  level  of  the  surface,  and  to  pile  the  dirt  up 
around  the  trees  in  the  bottoms  until  they  were  killed.  Such  operations  were 
attended  with  the  prevalence  of  malarial  fevers.  Later,  the  uplands  having  been 
cleared  and  partly  exhausted,  attention  was  directed  to  the  drainage  and  reclaim- 
ing of  the  low  grounds  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  the  healthfulness  of  the 
locality  was  restored.  It  has  thus  happened  that,  with  the  extension  of  the 
settlements,  a  belt  of  malarial  influences  has  moved  forward  with  them,  vanishing 
below  and  advancing  above,  until  it  reached  the  wooded  slopes  of  the  mountains 
before  disappearing.  GROWTH. 

The  original  forest  has  disappeared  almost  altogether,  and  has  been  replaced 
by  younger  oaks  of  small  growth,  by  underbrush,  and  by  the  loblolly  pines  of  the 
abandoned  fields.  The  cane  has  gone  likewise.  The  wild  pea  vine  is  no  longer 
known,  though  since  the  stock  has  been  penned,  under  the  new  fence  law,  a  plant 
supposed  to  be  it  has  appeared  in  the  open  woodlands,  with  several  other  grasses 
not  observed  before.  The  prairies  have  become  covered  with  a  growth  of  heavy- 
bodied  post-oak  and  black-jack.  The  latter,  in  turn,  has  now  given  place  to  the 
cedar  in  Chester.  The  chestnut  has  been  dying  out  for  50  years.  In  some 
localities  where  it  once  flourished  it  has  entirely  gone,  and  in  others  the  large 
dead  stems  and  stumps  are  the  only  vestige  of  this  valuable  and  stately  tree.  The 
chinquapin  is  also  sickening  and  dying,  and  the  chestnut  oak  likewise.  During 
some  years  past  somewhat  similar  symptoms  of  disease  have  appeared  in  the  red 
and  black  oak,  and  fears  on  this  account  have  been  entertained  The  distinctive 
growth  of  the  region  is  the  short  leaf  pine,  with  a  large  variety  of  oaks  and 
hickories.  On  the  water-courses,  willow,  beech,  birch,  black  walnut,  ash,  poplar 
and  gum  abound.  In  sections  of  Laurens,  the  long  leaf,  formerly  unknown  iu 


SOUTH  CAROLINA.  158 

this  section,  Las,  within  the  last  10  years,  appeared  among  the  old  field  pines. 
The  sycamore  sometimes  attains  a  great  size.  The  tulip  tree  also  is  often  very 
larg  j  The  sugar  maple  is  found,  and  another  maple  of  larger  growth,  and 
yiel  ling  a  superior  sugar,  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality,  is  known  in  Lancaster 
undci  the  name  of  the  sugar  tree.  The  country  is  particularly  commended  as  a 
grass  country,  and  will  produce  fine  hemp,  tobacco,  wheat,  corn,  grapes,  oats,  &c. 

This  region  embraces  about  10,425  square  miles,  or  nearly  one-third  of  the 
entire  State.  The  population  numbers  395,043 — the  increase  since  the  census  of 
1870  being  30  per  cent.  The  percentage  of  colored  population  varies  greatly  in 
the  different  counties,  being  as  high  as  70  in  Fairfielcl  and  as  low  as  34  in  Spartan- 
burg  ;  the  average  is  58.  Of  the  6,672,000  acres  of  land  in  this  region,  50  per 
cent,  is  in  wood,  22  per  cent,  is  in  old  fields,  and  28  per  cent,  is  tilled.  There  are 
35,591  farms.  This  is  an  increase  of  at  least  80  per  cent,  since  1870,  and  of  180 
per  cent,  since  1860,  while  the  increase  in  the  decade  preceding  that — a  time  of 
much  prosperity — did  not  much  exceed  one  per  cent.  56  per  cent,  of  the  farms 
are  worked  by  renters  and  44  per  cent,  by  owners.  The  tilled  land  is  1,861,922 
acres— an  increase  of  56  per  cent,  since  1870.  48  per  cent,  is  in  grain  of  all  kinds, 
40  per  cent,  in  cotton,  and  12  per  cent,  is  in  gardens,  orchards,  fallows,  and  all 
other  crops.  The  crops  are :  Cotton — 274,318  bales,  against  94,494  in  1870.  It 
constitutes  53  per  cent,  of  the  crop  of  the  State  on  less  than  one-third  of  its  area. 
The  average  for  the  region  is  166  pounds  of  lint  cotton  per  acre.  The  grain  crop 
is  7,731,528  bushels — an  increase  of  139  per  cent,  on  the  crop  of  1870.  The 
average  yield  for  the  whole  region  is  nine  bushels  per  acre.  Per  capita  of  the 
population  the  yield  is  19  bushels,  which  is  four  bushels  more  than  in  1870.  This 
leaves  a  deficiency.  But  the  attempt  to  raise  farm  supplies  is  pretty  general,  and 
is  reported  as  increasing,  except  in  Laurens,  where  it  remains  the  same,  and  in 
Abbeville,  where  it  is  decreasing.  Usually  this  attempt  is  in  so  far  successful  as 
to  provide  a  considerable  portion  of  the  subsistence  for  farm  hands  and  stock. 
Bacon  is  largely  imported  from  the  North  and  West,  and  sometimes  hay  and  corn 
also  for  farm  use.  The  larger  portion  of  the  lands  is  held  in  tracts  of  from  200 
to  500  acres.  On  three-fourths  of  the  farms  mixed  husbandry  is  practiced,  and 
on  the  remaining  fourth  attention  is  bestowed  almost  exclusively  on  cotton.  The 
system  of  credits  and  advances  prevails  to  a  large  extent,  consuming  from  one- 
third  to  three-fifths  of  the  crop  before  it  is  harvested.  The  statement  is  general 
that  this  is  on  the  decrease,  and  is  correct  in  so  far  that  a  larger  amount  is  being 
produced  at  home,  and  a  larger  number  of  purchases  for  cash  are  being  made  by 
farmers  since  1876.  Field  labor  is  performed  exclusively  by  natives,  and  chiefly 
by  colored  laborers.  In  some  counties  the  number  of  white  laborers  prepon- 
derates. The  prevailing  wages  of  field  labor  is  eight  dollars  per  month  or  one 
hundred  dollars  per  year.  In  all  cases  the  laborer  is  furnished  with  shelter, 
rations  and  firewood,  and  almost  invariably  with  a  'garden  and  the  privilege  of 
raising  poultry  and  some  stock.  "Work  commences  at  sunrise  and  is  over  at 
sunset.  The  time  allowed  for  meals  varies.  For  dinner  it  is  from  one  to  three 
hours,  according  to  the  length  of  the  days.  A  large  proportion  of  the  land  is 
worked  on  shares.  When  the  landlord  furnishes  the  tools,  stock  and  stock  feed, 
he  takes  one-half  the  crop  in  Laurens,  Chester,  Abbeville  and  York,  and  in  por- 
tions of  Fail-field  and  Spartanburg.  In  Greenville  and  portions  of  the  counties 
last  named,  the  laborer  takes  one-third  and  the  landlord  two-thirds,  under  the 
above  conditions.  In  Greenville  also  the  laborer  takes  two- thirds  if  he  furnishes 
tools,  stock,  and  feed  for  it.  The  portion  paid  for  land  alone  varies  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  of  the  crop — the  former  being  the  most  general  one. 

Statements  regarding  the  average  market  value  of  land  vary  with  every 
locality.  They  are  for  Greenville  and  Laurens,  six  dollars  to  ten  dollars  an  acre ; 


154  SOUTH  CAROLINA 

for  York,  six  dollars;  for  Abbeville  and  Spartanburg,  ten  dollars;  for  Newberry, 
six  dollars  to  twenty-five  dollars;  for  Fairfield,  three  dollars  to  fifteen  dollars; 
for  Chester,  seven  dollars  to  eighteen  dollars.  Land  rents  at  from  the  value  of 
two  dollars  and  a-half  to  three  and  a-half  per  acre.  Correspondents  in  some 
instances  report  no  lands  for  sale  in  this  Piedmont  Region. 

The  writer  deems  it,  in  much  of  its  area,  a  fine  grass  country.  In  a  tour 
through  much  of  it  two  years  ago,  the  Kentucky  blue-grass  was  a  striking  earnest 
of  the  possibilities  of  the  country  in  stock-raising  and  dairying,  if  the  people  will 
but  appreciate  it.  It  was  seen  growing  spontaneously  in  many  places  along  the 
line  of  the  Charlotte,  Columbia  and  Augusta  Railroad  and  the  branches  controlled 
by  it  traversing  the  Piedmont  Region. 

THE  ALPINE  REGION. 

The  Alpine  Region  of  South  Carolina  occupies  the  extreme  northwestern 
border  of  the  State.  Commencing  at  King's  Mountain,  in  York  County,  it  extends 
westward  through  Spartanburg,  Greenville,  Pickens  and  Oconee  Counties,  widen- 
ing in  the  three  last  named,  until  it  embraces  a  tier  of  the  most  northern  township* 
two  or  three  deep.  This  wedge-shaped  area  has  a  length  of  114  miles,  and  a  width 
varying  from  eight  to  twenty-one  miles. 

The  physical  features  of  this  region  present  a  rolling  table-land,  broken  and 
hilly  on  the  margin  of  the  streams,  but  scarcely  anywhere  inaccessible  to  the 
plow.  It  has  a  general  elevation  above  the  sea  level  of  1,000  to  1,500  feet.  The 
gently  undulating  surface  extends  to  the  mountains,  whose  rock-bound  walls 
often  rise  suddenly  to  their  greatest  height.  The  southeastern  face  of  King's 
Mountain  rises  perpendicularly  500  feet  above  the  plain,  and  its  northwestern, 
slope  descends  gently  towards  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains.  Table  Rock  also  rises. 
800  feet  vertically,  or  a  little  overhanging  above  the  southeastern  terrace  at  its- 
base,  formed  of  the  loose  fragments  that  in  the  course  of  ages  have  fallen  from 
above.  The  steep  ascent  of  these  mountains  from  their  South  Carolina  or  south- 
eastern face,  and  their  gradual  slope  on  their  northeastern  face,  and  their  gradual 
slope  to  the  northwest,  where  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina  rise  apparently 
from  a  level  country,  is  the  reverse  of  the  prevailing  rule  on  the  Atlantic  slope f 
which  is,  that  the  short  steep  sides  face  northwest,  and  the  long  gentle  slopes  face 
southeast.  The  bracing  and  healthful  climate  of  this  region,  its  beautiful  scenery, 
the  bold  mountain  outlines,  the  rich  luxuriance  of  every  growth;  no  stunted 
plant  on  mountain  side  or  summit ;  every  part,  even  the  crevasses  of  the  rocks, 
covered  with  trees  and  shrubs  of  some  kind,  all  full  of  life  and  vigor  ;  the  clear 
swift  streams  that  everywhere  leap  in  a  succession  of  cascades  from  crag  and  cliff, 
and  sparkle  in  their  course  along  the  narrow  but  fertile  valleys,  have  made  it  for 
generations  a  health  and  pleasure  resort  during  summer. 

The  elevation  above  the  mean  level  of  the  sea  of  the  following  points  in 
Western  South  Carolina  were  determined  by  the  United  States  Coast  Geodetic 
Survey:  King's  Mountain,  1,692  feet;  Paris  Mountain,  (near  Greenville,)  2,054 
feet;  Caesar's  Head,  3,118  feet;  Mt.  Pinnacle,  (near  Pickens,)  the  highest  point  in 
South  Carolina,  3,463  feet. 

THE  SOILS. 

The  soils  are  similar  to  those  found  elsewhere  in  the  State  which  are  produced 
by  the  decomposition  of  gneiss  rock  in  situ.  On  the  more  level  uplands  a  gray, 
sandy  loam,  with  a  red,  and  sometimes,  on  the  mica  slates,  with  a  yellowish 
white,  clay,  predominates.  On  the  hillsides  a  stiff  red-clay  soil  prevails.  In  the 
bottoms  a  still  darker  loam,  more  thoroughly  saturated  with  lime  and  potash  from 
the  decomposed  hornblende  and  mica  slates,  is  found.  Those  bottom  lands  have 
long  been  highly  esteemed  as  yielding  abundant  crops  of  corn,  the  small  grams 


SOUTH  CAROLINA,  155 

and  the  grasses.  Little  thought  or  attention  was  bestowed  on  the  uplands 
previous  to  the  attempt,  so  successfully  made  within  the  last  few  years,  to  intro- 
duce upon  them  the  culture  of  cotton. 

CLIMATE. 

According  to  the  physical  charts  of  the  Ninth  United  States  Census  and  the 
rain  charts  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute,  (3d  Ed.,  1877,)  this  region  has  a  mean 
annual  temperature  corresponding  with  that  of  Kansas  or  New  Jersey.  The  more 
mountainous  portions  have,  however,  a  mean  annual  temperature  that  corresponds 
with  that  of  Montana  or  the  lower  region  of  the  great  lakes.  The  annual  fall  of 
water  is  over  60  inches.  For  spring  it  is  over  18  inches,  and  for  autumn  it  is  12 
inches;  in  winter  it  is  16  inches.  Dewless  nights  rarely  occur. 

GROWTH. 

The  prevailing  growth  is  oak,  chestnut  and  short-leaf  pine.  Hemlock  or 
spruce  pine  (abies  canadensis)  is  found  in  the  mountains. 

The  Alpine  Region  of  South  Carolina  embraces  an  area  of  1,250  square 
miles.  The  population  numbers  34,496 — an  increase  since  the  census  of  1870  of 
66  per  cent.  26  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  colored.  80  per  cent,  of  the  land  is 
woodland  and  forest,  16  per  cent,  is  tilled,  and  four  per  cent,  is  in  old  fields.  The 
•area  of  tilled  land  has  more  than  doubled  since  1870,  being  now  132,791  acres. 
The  number  of  farms  is  4,646.  43  per  cent,  are  under  50  acres.  Of  the  tilled 
land,  88,766  acres,  or  65  per  cent.,  is  in  grain  of  all  kinds.  The  average  yield  of 
grain  is  only  a  little  over  eight  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  does  not  express  the  capa- 
bility of  this  section  for  the  production  of  this  article.  Fields  of  corn  on  bottom 
lands  averaging  40  to  60  bushels  an  acre  are  not  uncommon,  and  the  minimum  of 
calculation  of  the  crop  for  uplands,  without  manure,  is  10  to  12  bushels  per  acre, 
while  20  to  30  are  obtained  by  good  culture.  Rice  has  grown  here,  without  any 
manure,  over  100  bushels  to  the  acre,  though  very  little  of  it  is  planted.  The 
yield  of  grain  per  capita  is  20  bushels,  and  is  greater  than  elsewhere  in  the  State, 
except  in  the  Sand  Hill  Region.  The  average  yield  of  lint  per  acre  planted  in 
cotton  is  141  pounds.  The  land-holdings  average  from  150  to  300  acres,  including 
woodlands.  Most  of  the  land  is  rented  or  worked  on  shares.  The  cash  rental 
varies  from  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  to  four  dollars  an  acre.  The  usual  terms 
4fe  one-fourth  the  cotton  and  one-third  of  the  grain.  Where  stock  and  imple- 
ments are  furnished  by  the  landlord,  he  gets  one-half  the  crop.  The  average 
market  value  of  lands  is  stated  at  five  dollars  an  acre;  improved  lands  sell  at  from 
six  dollars  to  ten  dollars  an  acre.  About  one-half  the  field  laborers  are  negroes. 
Wages  are  fifty  cents  a  day ;  six  to  eight  dollars  a  month  with  board ;  seventy-five 
dollars  a  year  with  board.  One-horse  plows  are  generally  used. 

WATER-POWERS   OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

South  Carolina  is  remarkably  blessed  with  this  great  source  of  prosperity  to 
many  countries.  We  cannot  think  of  showing  how  much  there  is  and  where 
distributed ;  we  touch  only  the  leading  points.  Among  many  advantages  enumer- 
ated as  to  the  water-powers,  it  is  stated :  "  That  the  rocky  beds  of  these  streams 
afford  everywhere  good  sites  and  permanent  foundations  for  mill-dams,  while  the 
high  angle  at  which  they  cross  the  ledges  of  rock  increases  the  perpendicularity 
of  the  fall,  and  presents  a  clean,  smooth  edge,  adding  to  the  facility  with  which 
the  water  is  made  available."  Another  great  consideration  is  given :  "  The  meta- 
morphic  rocks  laid  bare  on  the  banks  of  the  streams  furnish  material  for  dams 
and  buildings  of  the  best  quality.  Besides  soapstone,  gneiss,  talc  and  mica  slates, 
there  are  few  localities  where  a  fine-grained  and  easily -splitting  granite  is  not  to 


156 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


be  bad."     The  following  is  considered  a  low  estimate,  and  does  uot  embrace  all 
the  territory : 

SUMMARY  OP  POWERS  ON  RIVERS  IN  SOUTH  CAROLINA,  EXAMINED  BY  G.  F. 
SWAIN,  S.  B.,  SPECIAL  AGENT  TENTH  U.  S.  CENSUS. 


STREAM  AND  LOCALITY. 

Drainage  Area  in 
Square  Miles. 

FALL. 

FLOW 
PER 
SECOND. 

HORSE-POWEB 
AVAILABLE. 

1 

Length. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

i 

s 

g 

Minimum, 
Low  Seasons. 

Maximum, 
With  Storage. 

Low  Seasons, 
Dry  Years. 

Wateree  River,  Waterec  Canal  
Tributaries  •    Big1  line  Tree  Creek 

4-1 

12 

3,600 
;M'-r- 
185 
223 
880 
7,300 
115 

i<eet. 
52 
40 
18 
173 
40 

22&34 

5  m. 
'"s'm". 

963 
28 
6 
793 
750 
18 
25 
50 
1,680 

3,500 
55 
12 

2,900 
.'.'..<:<» 
160 
200 
330 
6,',00 

5« 

0.7 

15  0<:o 

M» 

2.8 
5.6 

4,200 
6  0 

7,750 
4.1 
3.2 

21,000 
4,650 

4.5 
8.8 
5,500 

20,700 

57",006 
13,000 
18.2 
22.8 
37.5 
15.:.<Hi 
1:52 

7,956 

2,COO 
5.«.i:o 
3,i-',0 
2,550 
11,000 
6.!:;:'> 
6,900 
4.000 
1,150 
725 
2,400 
340 
1,550 
340 
200 
260 
1,."00 

238 

'iio 

8'S 

4.9 

24,000 
5,270 
3.4 
5.6 
8.0 
6,400 

3,250 
1,075 
2,<!00 
1.600 
1,000 
4,500 
2,700 
2,700 
1,450 
400 
176 
500 
72 
330 
51 
31 
39 
3'W 
200 
205 
60 
25 
32 
42 
40 
135 
700 
90 
200 
1.500 
3,200 
1.760 

x'To 

175 

Little          "               

Catawba  River,  Great  Falls                    

Tributaries  of  Catawba  River  :    Rocky  Creek  
Fishing  Creek  

Congaree  River  at  Columbia  
Tributaries  of  Congaree  River  :    Congaree  Creek  
Red  Bank  Creek  
Broad  River       Bull  Sluice                           

12 

40 

2',800 
925 
1,775 
1,350 
850 
3,900 
a.ro 

2,350 
1,2-50 
360 
144 
450 
60 
290 
42 
25 
32 
272 
180 
90 

Ninety-Nine  Island  Shoal 

4,760 
1,685 

4,480 
::.l'.io 
•>J,w 
8,400 

i  .:«: 

1,357 
1,142 
1,132 
375 
280 
234 
234 
94 
94 
94 
808 
274 
112 

17.2 
6.0 
11.61 
11.36 
9.75 
47.6 
50 
50.2 
85 
10 
16 
70 
12 
55 
30 
18 
23 
40 
9 
36 
20 
11 
14 
35 
171-2 
27 

to 

It 

16 
84 
20 
55 
5 
10 
21 
20 

2  3-4  in. 

0.94m'. 
«,930ft. 
3,300ft. 
1.41  111. 
3.20  in. 

Ira. 

1.75  m. 
life 

'  '  80  ft'. 
3-4  in. 

300  yds'. 

2,150 

700 
1,350 

l,o.-o 
050 
2,o<:o 
l.FCO 

I.FCO 

1,000 
280 
112 
830 
48 
250 
33 
20 
25 
204 
70 
72 

Boney  Shoal  

Lyle's  Shoal 

"62 
42 
35 
35 
10 
10 
10 
45 

'466 
300 
250 
250 
100 
100 
100 
830 

Neal's  Shoal  

Ninety-Nine  Island  Shoal  
Cherokee  Shoals  
Surratt  Shoal  

Gaston  Shoal  
Enoree  River    Yarboro  Mill 

Mountain  Shoal  

Van  Patton  Shoal  

Pelham  Manufacturing  Company  

Teague's  Fall  
Tyger  River,      Hill  s  Factory. 

Nesbitt's.... 

Ott'sMill  
Cleveland's 

Dean's  Mill    

50 
"60 

'iso 

380 
82 
82 
•2.350 
»,850 
>.  ::<iu 
635 
600 
523 
400 
880 
386 

Ballinger's 

"l-i'in. 

Penny  Shoal  

35 

Crawfoi'dsville  
Murphy's.  Fair  Forest  Creek  
Pacolet  River,  Trough  Shoals  

300yds. 

a'i-iai-.Y. 

27 
62 

"62 

200 
420 

2',iiV- 

81 
420 

""76 
1,0  JO 
2,100 
1,150 
800 
60 
120 

"ieo 

84 

40 

108 
600 

'  iio 

1,275 
2,700 
1>0 
1,000 
75 
150 

613 

2,860 

"216 

3.SOO 
8,100 
4,400 
4,000 
300 
600 

Glendale  

Saluda  River,    Saluda  Factory 

Mouth  of  Saluda  

Dreher's  Canal  
G"eat  Falls 

1  1-4  in. 

"TO 

62 

"425 

400 

Mattox  Mill  
Erwin's  Mill. 

Piedmont  Manufacturing  Company  
Reedy  River 

240 
9.4 
45 

970 
45.4 
70 

284 
11.1 
.W 

Tumbling  Shoals 

10 
20 

75ft. 

Fork  Shoal 

Reedy  River  Manufacturing  Company  
Camperdown  Mills  
Cox  &  Markley's  Factory 

87 

5',866 

•_V>r,4 

•.'.•M-,' 
2  100 

22 
64 
8 
10 
75 
9 
14 
18 
30 

500  yds! 

25 

32 

260 
710 

8<) 

12 

2,350 
9,165 
900 
1,325 
1.700 
2,600 
14 
3.(i 
1,287 
520 
L950 
165 
4.0 

Savannah  River,  Blue  Jacket  Shoal  
Trotter's  Shoal  

600ft. 
7m. 
1-2  m. 
1m 

'670 

2",550 

1,050 
5,700 
560 
825 
1,060 
1,000 
9 
2.5 
936 
375 
1,200 
102 
2.3 

2,050 
8,100 
800 
1,150 
1,500 
2,275 
12J 
3.2l 
1,131 
450 
1,700 
144 
3.4 

5,800 

•:i.  T.V.I 

2.100 
3,200 
4,000 
6,100 
51 
18 
4.095 

i.i;r,o 

5,020 
921 
19.1 

Cherokee  Shoal 

Gregg's  Shoal  ... 

Middleton's  Shool. 

•MiTS 
1,900 
531 
183 
845 
775 
740 
148 
140 

McDaniel's  Shea1  

5m. 

"79 
22 
£0 

'189 
15 
20 

'456 
158 
925 

£25 
135 
168 

Tributaries  Savannah  River  :    Little  River  

"39 
17 
60 
60 

.... 

i  '1-2111! 

1m. 
2m. 

Tugaloo  River,  nation's  Shoal  
Guest's  Shojil  
Seneca  River,     Fortran's  Shoal 

Twelve  Mile  Creek  
Little  River  

Iii  tlie  foregoing  statement  the  available  water-power  examined  is  estimated 
at  something  over  300,000  horse-power.  Only  about  four  per  cent,  is  utilized. 
Without  further  allowance  for  the  low  estimates,  or  for  the  improvement  that  art 
might  effect  by  dams  and  canals,  there  can  be  no  question  that,  from  the  lower 
line  of  hill  country  northward  in  South  Carolina,  there  is  more  than  a  million  of 
horse-power  in  water-powers,  varying  in  size  from  30  to  30,000  horse-power,  easily 


SOUTH  CAROLINA.  157 

and  cheaply  available,  under  conditions  peculiarly  advantageous,  not  counting 
the  presence  of  the  large  amount  of  raw  material  in  the  shape  of  cotton  to  be 
manufactured. 

For  general  information,  the  following  table  of  cost  of  water-powers  at 
various  points  is  also  given: 

ANNUAL  RENT  OR  ESTIMATED  COST  OF  ONE  HORSE-POWER. 

WATEK-POWEK.  STEAM-POWBR. 

Lawrence,  Mass $14  12  $64  oo  to  $74  oo 

Dayton,  Ohio 3800  3360 

Cohoes,  New  York 20  oo 

Turner's  Falls,  Mass 10  oo 

Augusta,  Georgia. . . 5  50 

It  is  estimated  that  if  the  State  rents  the  water  it  is  now  developing  at  Col- 
umbia at  five  dollars  per  annum  for  one  horse-power,  that  it  will  obtain  a  hand- 
some revenue  from  the  labor  and  material  expended. 

At  seven  per  cent,  on  the  cost  of  dams  and  canals  for  the  water-power  util- 
ized and  available  in  South  Carolina,  the  following  is  a  statement  of  the  cost  of  a 
horse-power  per  annum  at  several  factories  in  this  State. 

Langley $2  10 

Graniteville < 5  81 

Vaucluse 7  oo 

No  i ,  Camperdown o  43 

Glendale o  39 

Saluda  Factory , o  28 

Average  for  the  whole,  one  dollar  and  seventy  cents  per  annum  per  horse- 
power. 

MANUFACTURES. 

South  Carolina,  like  the  other  Southern  States,  has  shown  rapid  progress  in 
manufactures,  although  probably  surpassed  in  that  line  by  one  or  two  of  the 
others.  The  growth  of  the  material  interests  of  that  State  of  late  years  is  very 
forcibly  shown  by  some  statistics  compiled  from  the  Charleston  News  and  Courier. 
In  manufactures,  cotton  has  taken  the  lead.  The  product  of  the  cotton  mills  of 
South  Carolina  was  as  follows : 

In  1860 $  713,050 

"  l87° 1,274.944 

^   "  1880 2,895,769 

"  1883-84 7,963,198 

The  percentage  of  increase  was  as  follows : 

1860-70 78  per  cent. 

1870-80 127   " 

1880-84 , 175   " 

In  a  little  more  than  three  years,  ending  January,  1884,  the  increase  in  pro- 
duction was  a  third  more  than  in  the  ten  years  ending  in  1880,  and  the  whole 
product  in  1883  was  ten  times  as  great  as  the  product  in  1860.  This  is  not  the 
whole  truth.  The  actual  capacity  of  the  cotton  mills  in  South  Carolina  as  they 
stand  to-day  is  at  least  $9,000,000.  The  number  of  looms  and  spindles  was  as 
follows  •. 

LOOMS.  SPINDLES. 

i860 , 525  30,890 

l87° 745      34,94° 

1880 1,676      82,334 

1883-84 3,652     195,112 

Mr.  C.  H.  Parker,  Secretary  National  Cotton  Exchange,  gives  the  very  latest 
figures  for  this  State,  as  follows:  Mills,  36;  looms,  3,685 ;  spindles,  210,304. 

The  production  of  lumber  and  naval  stores  has  increased  with  exhilarating 
rapidity.  In  1880  and  in  1883,  respectively,  the  value  of  the  products  was : 

1880.  1883. 

Lumber $2,031,507  $5,592,565 

.Naval  btores 2,857,981  2,912,271 

Totals $4,889,488  $8,504,836 


158  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

The  increase  in  the  value  of  the  product  in  three  years  is  74  per  cent.  In  value, 
the  lumber  and  naval  stores  business  exceeds  by  half  a  million  dollars  the  value 
of  the  products  of  the  cotton  mills  last  year.  The  lumber  and  naval  stores  of  last 
year  equaled  in  value  212,620  bales  of  cotton,  at  $40  to  the  bale. 

Taking  the  classification  of  manufactures,  which  is  followed  in  the  United 
States  census,  and  reducing  the  value  of  the  products  in  1870  to  a  gold  basis,  we 
obtain  the  following  results,  being  the  whole  value  of  all  manufactured  products  in 
South  Carolina : 

1860  $8,615,195 

1870 8,215,198 

1880 « 16,738,008 

1883 . . . . •••;•• 32,324,404 

The  progress  of  the  State  in  agriculture  has  been  satisfactory,  as  is  proved  by 
the  following  statement  of  the  production  of  cotton,  corn  and  small  grain : 

1860.  1870.  1883. 

Cotton,  bales 353,4*2  224,500  468,227 

Corn,   bushels 15,635,606  7,614,207  10,876,744 

Oats,        "          : 906,024  613,593  4,187,082 

Wheat,    "         1,285,631  782,610  1,383,731 

The  year  1883  was  most  unfavorable ;  the  crop  of  cotton,  as  compared  with 
1882,  being  reduced  32  per  cent,  by  drought,  rust  and  worms,  while  corn  was 
reduced  43  per  cent.,  oats  8  per  cent.,  and  wheat  2  per  cent.  In  spite  of  this,  the 
cotton  crop  in  1883  was  114,815  bales  more  than  in  1860.  This  year  the  estimated 
crop,  as  compared  with  1860,  will  be  as  follows: 

1860.  i884. 

Cotton,  bales 353,412  700,000 

Corn,  bushels 15,635,606  19,210,000 

Oats,        "           9o6,924  7,437,213 

Wheat,    "          1,285,631  1,803,924 

This  is  a  fair  estimate  of  what  may  be  expected,  if  the  season  be  favorable,  and 
if  the  estimate  be  reduced  considerably  there  is  still  an  enormous  improvement,  in 
the  agricultural  situation,  as  compared  with  1860.  The  increase  in  oats,  a  distinct- 
ively white  man's  crop,  is  worthy  of  special  notice.  Moreover,  the  advance  in 
agriculture  is  due  to  the  labors  of  the  white  people  of  the  State. 

The  following  recapitulation  shows  the  progress  made  during  the  last  three 
decades,  and  to  1883: 

1860.  1870. 

Agriculture $45,823,512  Agriculture $34,924,585 

Manufactures 8,615,195  Manufactures 8,215,918 

Mines  and  quarries 17,000  Mines  and  quarries 16,573 

$54,455,707  $43,157,076 

1880.  1884. 

Agriculture $41,969,749  Agriculture $41,790,321 

Manufactures 16,738,008  Manufactures 32,324,404 

Mines  and  quarries 1,180,805  Mines  and  quarries 2,440,000 

$59,888,562  $76,554,725 

LOCATIONS  OF  MINERALS,  ROCKS,  &c. 

Antimony — Traces  in  Abbeville  County. 

Asbestos  occurs  in  Spartanburg  County,  where  there  is  a  mine ;  in  Oconee 
County;  also  in  the  counties  of  Laurens,  York,  Anderson  and  Pickens. 

Barytes,  in  great  quantities,  occurs  near  the  Air  Line  Railroad  in  York.  A 
mine  is  being  worked  in  this  county  with  small  capital. 

Beryl  is  found  in  King's  Mountain  Township,  Anderson  County,  in  Edgefield 
and  Laurens  Counties. 

Bismuth,  in  quantity,  is  found  at  one  of  the  gold  mines  in  Chesterfield. 

Buhr-stone  is  found  in  Kershaw  County,  north  of  Orangeburg. 

Clay,  for  bricks,  in  numberless  places. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA.  159 

Copper  is  found  in  Anderson  County  Before  the  war — none  since — work  was 
being  vigorously  pushed  in  mines  in  York  County.  It  is  found,  but  only  slightly 
developed,  in  Edgefield  County;  found,  but  not  mined,  in  Laurens  County;  traces 
observed  by  Lieber  on  Tyger  River  in  Spartanburg  County,  in  Oconee  County, 
and  in  some  mill-races  in  Southern  Pickens  and  Greenville ;  indications,  but  no 
mining,  in  Oconee  County.  Copper  is  found  everywhere  in  the  gold  veins  of  the 
Carolina  group.  As  it  increases  regularly  with  the  depth  to  which  the  veins  have 
been  worked,  experts  have  been  satisfied  that  it  will  be  found  in  remunerative 
quantities. 

Corundum  is  found  in  Abbeville  County  and  other  places — in  Anderson,  Oco- 
nee and  Laurens.  In  this  last  county  there  is  an  extensive  field  of  corundum. 

Feldspar  of  excellent  quality  in  extensive  veins  occurs  in  Pickens,  in  Abbe- 
ville, and  also  in  Anderson  and  Laurens. 

Flagging  Stones  are  found  in  Edgefield,  Abbeville,  Chester,  Lexington,  Fair- 
field  Counties,  and  the  Pee  Dee  Country.  There  is  a  remarkable  locality  of 
superior  flagging  stones  eight  miles  south  of  Pickens  Court  House,  on  the  Green- 
ville road. 

Gneiss  is  found  with  granite  generally,  and  it  is  very  often  in  a  state  of 
decomposition. 

Gold. — South  Carolina  was  quite  a  gold  State  years  ago.  The  West  over- 
shadowed her.  Many  mines  were  opened  and  profitably  worked.  The  war  closed 
most,  if  not  all  of  them.  Until  recently,  little  has  been  done  in  the  way  of 
renewed  work.  Of  late,  however,  considerable  activity  has  been  manifested. 

Next  in  the  order  of  superposition  above  the  mica  slates  occur  extensive 
areas  of  talc  slate.  These  rocks  seem  to  have  yielded  more  completely  to  the 
erosive  action  of  the  rivers  even  than  the  mica  slates.  They  scarcely  appear  at 
all  in  the  angle  enclosed  between  the  Catawba  and  the  Saluda.  Their  largest  out- 
crops are  east  of  the  Catawba,  in  Lancaster  and  Chesterfield;  and  separated  from 
these  by  the  whole  width  of  the  river  system  of  the  State — 80  miles — to  the  south- 
west, they  occur  on  the  further  side  of  the  Saluda,  in  Edgefield  and  Abbeville. 
These  two  localities  are  the  great  gold-bearing  regions  of  the  State. 

Granite  is  in  strong  force  in  parts  of  the  State,  and  much  of  it  of  fine  char- 
acter. In  Anderson  and  Chester  good  building  granite  is  found ;  also  in  Green- 
ville and  Spartanburg.  In  Oconee,  near  Walhalla,  inexhaustible  quarry  of  very 
fine  building  granite.  Pickens  has  a  quarry,  said  to  be  of  best  quality.  In  Abbe- 
ville a  very  fine  granite  hammondite  occurs. 

Graphite  is  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  Willia:nston  Township  and 
elsewhere  in  Anderson ;  also  in  Spartanburg,  Greenville  and  Laurens,  on  Paris 
Mountain  and  in  Oconee  County. 

Itacolumite  is  found  on  Broad  River,  near  the  northern  boundary  of  the  State, 
where  Union,  York  and  Spartanburg  corner.  Thus  far  only  one  diamond  has 
been  found  in  South  Carolina,  though  several  have  been  obtained  from  the  con- 
tinuation of  these  rocks,  both  in  Georgia  and  in  North  Carolina.  Itacolumite  is 
found  on  the  Chatuga  supporting  several  bodies  of  limestone  rock. 

Iron. — Iron  in  magnetic  and  specular  ores  is  found  in  inexhaustible  quantities 
on  the  western  slope  of  King's  Mountain,  in  York,  Spartanburg  and  Union ;  also 
in  Chester  and  Abbeville.  Brown  hematite  occurs  in  the  mica  slates  of  Pickens 
and  Spartanburg.  Bog  iron  ore  occurs  in  nearly  every  county  of  the  State. 

Kaolin.— Large  beds  of  kaolin  clay,  free  from  grit  or  other  impurity,  and  of 
great  whiteness,  are  found  intercalated  among  these  sands.  Several  quarries  to 
the  west  of  Aiken,  C.  H.,  have  been  worked  with  much  profit,  the  material  being 
used  as  porcelain  clay,  and  also  by  paper  manufacturers. 


160  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Lead.— Argentiferous  galena  is  found  in  Spartanburg  and  Laurens,  and  more 
recently  in  Edgefield  and  Abbeville.  In  Oconee  county,  on  the  headwaters  of 
Little  River,  Lieber  examined  a  very  promising  vein  of  argentiferous  galena, 
which  he  thought  might  be  profitably  developed. 

Limestone. — This  rock  is  scattered  over  a  considerable  area  of  the  State,  and 
doubtless  future  exploitation  will  greatly  more  disclose  it.  It  is  found  in  the 
lower  pine  belt,  disclosing  itself  in  what  is  called  "lime  sinks."  In  Laurens 
county  a  lime  rock  crops  out  on  Reedy  River,  and  below  Garlington  Falls  on 
Reedy  River  it  is  quarried  for  monuments  and  for  lime  burning.  On  the 
Chatuga  River  limestone  is  found,  and  there  are  a  number  of  lime-kilns  in  opera- 
tion there.  Limestone  is  also  found  in  Oconee  County,  where  there  is  also  a 
quarry. 

Manganese,  in  great  purity  and  abundance,  is  found  in  Edgefield,  and  also  in 
Abbeville,  York,  Laurens  and  Anderson. 

Marl  is  found  over  a  large  area  of  the  State.  So  far  as  can  be  learned,  it  seems 
to  lack  appreciation,  and  to  be  little  utilized,  yet  it  ought  to  be  a  most  potent  fac- 
tor in  the  resuscitation  or  enrichment  of  the  soils  of  the  State  where  it  occurs.  It 
is  found  as  the  underlying  stratum  in  much  of  the  Sea  Island  soils. 

Mica  of  excellent  quality  has  been  mined  in  Anderson  County  and  in  Abbe- 
ville County.  Large  sheets  of  transparent  mica  have  been  found  near  Walhalla. 
It  is  also  found  in  Pickens  County. 

Phosphate — This  is  a  deposit  only  utilized  of  late  years  since  1861,  and  has 
been  a  great  source  of  enterprise  and  profit.  Lands  worth  only  five  or  six  dol- 
lars an  acre  containing  the  deposit  went  up  at  once  to  five  or  six  hundred  per 
acre.  The  business  has  grown  from  20,000  tons  mined  in  1868-70  to  355,000  in 
1883.  In  land  and  river  mining  companies  there  are  25.  The  total  capital  is 
$2,505,000,  number  of  hands  1,935.  But  this  is  only  part  of  it.  Besides  the  mining 
companies,  a  large  capital  is  invested  in  manufacturing  fertilizers  in  the  State,  of 
which  fertilizers  the  phosphate  is  a  large  constituent,  In  the  State  there  are 
nearly  $3,000,000  invested  in  the  latter  business. 

The  extent  of  the  deposits  is  conjectural,  but  quite  extended.  Professor 
Hammond  estimates  that  one  mining  company,  in  river  territory  alone,  has 
enough  phosphate,  upon  a  moderate  computation,  to  yield  ten  millions  of  tons. 

This  phosphate  has  from  50  to  60  per  cent,  phosphate  of  lime.  A  large  busi- 
ness is  clone  in  shipping  the  rock  to  foreign  ports. 

Sandstone  is  found  in  the  Sand  Hill  Region.  Professor  Hammond  thus 
speaks  of  it :  "Next  to  the  granite  is  found  a  stratum  of  sand  stone,  consisting  of 
the  ruins  of  the  granite  consolidated  into  a  pretty  hard  rock.  It  occurs  on  Horse 
Creek,  on  the  ridges  at  the  head  of  Lightwood  Creek,  on  Congaree  Creek,  at  the 
Rock  House  in  Lexington  County,  where  it  has  been  quarried  for  architectural 
purposes,  and  on  Second  Creek,  in  the  same  neighborhood." 

Silver  has  been  found  in  Anderson  County,  in  argentiferous  galena  in  Spar- 
tanburg and  Laurtns,  and  more  recently  in  Edgefield  and  Abbeville.  There  are 
said  to  be  indications  of  silver  in  Oconee  County.  Across  the  Savannah  River 
from  Edgefield  and  Abbeville  Counties,  the  mining  of  argentiferous  galena  for 
silver,  as  well  as  for  lead  and  the  zinc-blende  associated  with  it,  is  attracting  much 
attention  at  this  time. 

Soapstone. — In  Kershaw  County  masses  of  steatite  occur  on  Spear's,  Twenty- 
five  Mile  and  Pine  Tree  Creeks.  Steatite  or  soapstone  is  found  in  Chester,  Spar- 
tanburg, Union,  Pickens,  Oconee,  Anderson,  Abbeville,  Kershaw,  Fairfield  and 
Richland.  In  Anderson  there  is  a  knob  of  soapstone.  In  Edgefield  County  a 
good  soapstone  is  found.  In  Grey  Township,  same  county,  there  are  three  quar- 
ries of  soapstone,  but  not  much  developed.  There  is  soapstone  in  Fairfield 


SOUTH  CAROLINA.  161 

County  A  red  soapstone  is  found  in  Greenville  County.  Soapstone  of  fine 
quality  occurs  in  Laurens  County. 

Tourmaline  is  found  in  York,  Edgefield,  Laurens,  Anderson  and  Oconee 
Counties. 

Whetstones  are  found  in  Edgefield,  Abbeville,  Chester,  Lexington,  Fairfield 
and  the  Pee  Dee  country. 

Zircons  are  found  in  Abbeville  and  in  Anderson  Counties. 

HEALTH. 

The  percentage  of  deaths  in  the  population  of  the  United  States  and  South 
Carolina,  and  in  the  population  of  the  Upper,  Middle  and  Lower  Country  of  the 
latter,  is  as  follows,  according  to  statistics  compiled  by  Mr.  Harry  Hammond : 

TOTAL.  MALE.  FEMALE. 

United  States 1.51  1.53  1.48 

South  Carolina 1.57  1.55  1.60 

Upper  Alpine  Region 1.09  .... 

Middle  Country,  or  Piedmont,  Sand  and  ( 

Red  Hill,  and  Upper  Pine  Belt  Regions.  /'" 

Lower    Country,    or    Lower  I  o 

Pine  Belt  and  Coast  Regions  f" 

It  is  estimated  the  number  of  deaths  not  reported  do  not  exceed  thirty  per 
cent,  of  those  reported.  The  average  mortality  for  the  whole  country  is  given, 
when  thus  corrected,  at  18.2  per  thousand,  as  against  20.5  per  thousand  in  England, 
and  21.5  per  thousand  in  Scotland.  The  slightly  higher  death-rate  above  given 
for  South  Carolina,  may  be  due  to  a  more  accurate  enumeration,  or  it  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  preponderance  of  the  colored  face,  whose  death-rate  is  always 
higher  than  that  of  the  whites. 
*  LAWS. 

Taxation. — Public  institutions  generally  and  all  churches  and  burying  grounds 
are  exempt  from  taxation.  A  new  assessment  of  property  must  be  made  every 
five  years.  The  State  may  contract  public  debts  for  the  purpose  of  defraying  ex- 
traordinary expenditures,  but  it  must  do  so  by  special  act,  specifying  some  single 
object,  and  levying  a  special  tax  to  pay  the  annual  interest  on  such  debt;  and 
such  act  must  be  passed  by  the  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  each  branch 
of  the  General  Assembly. 

Law  of  Property. — Any  man  or  woman  of  legal  age,  owning  real  estate  in  fee 
simple  may  freely  dispose  of  it  by  will,  or  sell  and  convey  the  same  by  deed,  exe- 
cuted in  the  presence  of  two  or  more  witnesses,  and  duly  recorded.  If  the  deed  be 
by  a  married  man,  the  wife  must  renounce  her  dower  in  a  formal  manner  provided 
by  statute.  A  married  woman  may  hold  property  separately  from  her  husband, 
and  may  dispose  of  the  same  as  if  she  were  unmarried. 

A  homestead  in  lands,  whether  held  in  fee  or  any  lesser  estate,  not  to  exceed  in 
value  one  thousand  dollars,  with  the  yearly  products  thereof,  is  exempt  to  the 
head  of  every  family  residing  in  South  Carolina  from  levy  or  sale  for  debt  upon 
any  judgment  recovered  against  him.  If  the  husband  be  dead,  the  widow  is  enti- 
tled to  the  homestead.  And  if  both  parents  be  dead,  the  children  are.  Personal 
property  to  the  value  of  five  hundred  dollars  is  exempt  from  attachment,  levy  or 
sale.  Where  a  woman  has  separate  property,  she  is  entitled  to  the  homestead 
when  the  husband's  property  is  not  sufficient.  The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  seven 
per  cent.,  but  by  written  contract  a  rate  of  interest  not  exceeding  ten  per  cent, 
may  be  charged.  If  more  than  ten  per  cent,  be  charged,  all  the  interest  is 
forfeited. 

The  real  and  personal  property  of  a  woman  held  at  the  time  of  her  marriage, 
or  that  which  she  may  thereafter  acquire,  either  by  gift,  grant,  inheritance,  devise, 
or  otherwise,  does  not.  pass  to  her  husband  by  her  marriage,  nor  become  in  any 


162  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

way  subject  to  his  debts,  but  remains  her  separate  property,  and  she  can  deal  with 
it  as  she  chooses  during  her  life  and  dispose  of  it  by  will,  as  if  she  were  unmarried. 

Every  encouragement  is  given  to  the  employment  of  capital  in  manufacturing 
industries.  By  a  special  Act  of  the  Assembly,  it  is  provided  that  capital  invested  in 
the  manufacture  of  cotton,  woolen  and  paper  fabrics,  iron,  lime  and  agricultural 
implements,  shall  be  exempted  from  all  State,  county  and  municipal  taxation  for  a 
period  of  ten  years  from  the  time  of  the  commencement  of  the  enterprise,  except- 
ing only  the  two  mill  tax  for  school  purposes.  But  this  exemption  does  not  apply 
to  the  land  upon  which  factories  are  erected.  Vessels  of  one  hundred  tons  meas- 
urement, and  upwards,  built  and  owned  within  this  State,  are  entitled  to  the 
benefit  of  this  act.  Those  desiring  to  avail  themselves  of  the  act  must  file  with 
the  Comptroller-General  proof  of  the  investment.  For  the  purpose  of  encourag- 
ing immigration,  real  estate  purchased  by  immigrants,  and  capital  invested  in 
improvements  thereon,  up  to  $1,500,  are  exempted  for  five  years  from  all  State, 
county  or  municipal  taxation,  except  the  two  mill  school  tax. 

In  order  to  give  the  latest  I  could  about  the  State,  I  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
Hon.  A.  P.  Butler,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  the  courtesy  of  the  following 
reply : 

STATE  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA— DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

A.  P.  Butler,  Commissioner.  COLUMBIA,  S.  C.,  September  10,  1884. 

MR.  M.  B.  HILLYARD,  New  Orleans,  La.  : 

DEAR  SIR — Your  favor  of  the  4th  has  been  received.  The  best  specimen  of  walnut  that  we  exhib- 
ited at  the  Atlanta  Exposition  was  from  the  eastern  section  of  the  State,  from  the  Pee  Dee  swamps, 
and  those  swamps  abound  with  fine  timbers. 

Walnut,  hickory  and  oaks  are  found  in  abundance  in  the  northern,  or  Alpine  Section  of  the  State, 
embracing  the  counties  of  Greenville,  Pickens  and  Oconee. 

Outside  of  manufacturing  enterprises,  I  think  that  real  estate,  especially  in  the  cities  and  towns, 
and  stock  raising,  offer  the  greatest  inducements  to  investors. 

Real  estate  has  rapidly  appreciated  in  value  in  the  past  few  years,  and  will  continue  to  improve 
even  faster  when  larger  amounts  have  been  invested  in  manufacturing. 

Within  the  last  few  years  several  stock  farms  (improved  breeds  of  cattle  chiefly)  have  been  estab- 
lished and  proven  very  profitable.  The  immense  fresh  water  swamps  of  our  larger  rivers  furnish  abun- 
dant pasturage  of  the  best  quality,  and  a  gentleman  who  has  recently  begun  breeding  common  stock 
for  market  is  very  much  encouraged  by  the  prospects  of  success.  These  offer  special  inducements  to 
capitalists. 

There  are  many  other  channels  for  the  investment  of  money  in  South  Carolina,  which  I  have  no 
doubt  you  have  fully  covered  by  your  article. 

I  am  glad  to  know  that  you  have  this  matter  in  hand,  and  feel  sure  that,  in  common  with  other 
Southern  States,  we  will  receive  much  benefit  from  your  labors. 
Very  truly  yours, 

A.  P.  BUTLER,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture. 


GEORGIA. 


As  the  reliability  of  the  United  States  Census  Reports  is  unquestioned,  I  have 
drawn  on  volume  vi,  of  the  last  census,  for  considerable  information  relating  to  the 
topography  and  climate  of  Georgia. 

The  State  of  Georgia  lies  between  longitude  3°  47'  21"  and  8°  42'  west  from 
Washington,  and  between  latitude  30°  21'  39"  and  35°  north,  embracing  in  its  area 
59,475  square  miles,  of  which  495  square  miles  is  water  surface,  embracing  150 
square  miles  of  coast  waters  (bays,  gulfs,  sounds,  etc.).  300  square  miles  consist  of 
rivers  and  smaller  streams,  and  45  square  miles  of  lakes  and  ponds.  The  land  area 
is  therefore  58,980  square  miles.  There  are  137  counties  in  the  State. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  northwestern  corner  of  the  State  is  crossed  from  Tennessee  to  Alabama  by 
several  ranges  of  mountains  that  rise  in  altitude  from  500  to  1000  feet  above  the 
intervening  broad  and  rich  valleys.  Sand  and  Lookout  mountains  are  broad- 
backed,  while  the  other  ranges  are  mostly  narrow  or  "  backbone"  ridges.  In  the 
northeastern  portion  of  the  State  is  the  Blue  Ridge  chain,  with  other  isolated  points 
rising  high  above  the  surrounding  country.  The  Chattahoochee  ridge,  an  offshoot 
from  this  and  forming  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  water-divide,  passes  south  of  the 
Chattahoochee  river,  soon  losing  its  prominence  as  a  ridge  and  falling  in  elevation 
to  Atlanta.  Southward  the  country  is  more  generally  level  or  rolling,  sometimes 
hilly,  with  but  few  low  mountains  until  the  pinelands  are  reached ;  thence  to  the 
coast  the  fall  is  very  gradual  and  the  lands  are  very  level. 

CLIMATE. 

The  State,  with  its  southern  boundary  resting  against  Florida  and  in  part 
washed  by  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the  southeast,  its  northern  boundary  320  miles  to 
the  north  among  the  mountains  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Cumberland  range,  and 
nearly  5,000  feet  above  sea  level,  presents  an  average  temperature  of  68°  F.  on  the 
coast,  52°  to  56°  in  Middle  Georgia,  and  52°  in  the  Blue  Ridge  region,  or  an 
annual  average  of  about  65°  for  the  entire  State. 

The  average  rainfall  for  the  State  is  from  46  to  50  inches,  the  steady  rains  being 
usually  brought  by  southeastern  winds. 

The  coast  region,  with  its  sea-breezes  and  "salty  atmosphere,"  has  a  mean  winter 
temperature  of  about  48°,  the  lowest  being  rarely  below  32°.  Its  summer  maximum 
is  90°  and  the  mean  79°.  Its  rainfall  is  about  57  inches,  December  and  January 
t>eing  the  driest  months. 

So  genial  is  the  climate  of  the  coast  counties  that  oranges,  bananas,  and  other 
semi-tropical  fruits  are  produced  in  abundance.  The  markets  of  colder  States  are 
supplied  with  very  early  vegetables  and  garden  luxuries  from  the  farms  of  this  region. 

In  Middle  Georgia  the  rainfall  is  less  (41  inches),  the  driest  months  being  June 
and  September.  The  yearly  temperature  ranges  from  6°  to  96°,  with  an  average  of 


164  GEORGIA. 

44°  in  winter  and  73°  in  summer.  During  the  hottest  summer-days  the  temperature 
often  rises  to  100°,  but  the  nights  are  cool,  pleasant  and  invigorating. 

In  Northeastern  Georgia  the  extremes  of  temperature  are  6°  and  90°,  with  an 
average  of  43°  for  the  winter  months  and  75°  for  the  summer.  The  rainfall  for  this 
section  is  about  57  inches,  heavy  rains  occurring  in  the  fall  and  winter  months. 
The  amount  of  rain  that  annually  falls  in  each  section  and  in  the  wet  and  dry 
months  varies  greatly. 

Snow  falls  in  Northern  Georgia  every  winter,  but  only  to  depths  of  from  2  to  4 
inches  and  remains  but  a  short  time.  In  Middle  Georgia  it  frequently  falls,  but 
melts  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  touches  the  ground.  Occasionally,  on  ridges,  it  reaches 
a  depth  of  an  inch  or  two.  In  Southern  Georgia  snow  is  rarely  seen.  High  winds, 
mostly  accompanied  by  thunder-storms,  prevail  chiefly  in  the  spring  and  early 
summer,  and  come  from  the  southwest,  occasionally  becoming  tornadoes. 

Planting  in  the  low  or  southern  country  begins  as  early  as  March  15,  and  fall 
frosts  do  not  appear  earlier  than  December  1,  and  it  often  happens  that  there  is  no 
frost  during  the  winter. 

In  Northern  Georgia  planting  is  not  done  until  about  the  last  of  April,  because 
of  continued  cold  and  frosty  weather. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  STATE. 

The  islands  cover  a  width  of  10  or  12  miles,  with  sand-hills  seaward  and 
marshes  and  live-oak  lands  inland.  On  the  mainland  the  marshes  with  live-oak 
lands  extend  back  for  a  few  miles  to  the  open  savanna  belt,  which  occupies  the  first 
terrace  above  the  coast  marshes  and  is  a  level  plain  covered  with  palmetto  and  long- 
leaf  pine,  and  interspersed  with  bay  and  gum  swamps.  Uniformity  in  character 
exists  for  10  or  15  miles  to  the  foot  of  the  second  terrace.  This  rises  from  15  to  25 
feet,  and  with  it  the  wire-grass  region  begins.  Its  surface,  at  first  undulating,  has 
an  open  growth  of  long-leaf  pine,  with  little  or  no  undergrowth  except  wire-grass. 
These  pine  barrens  extend  northwestward  about  100  miles  and  gradually  rise  to  the 
altitude  of  365  feet.  As  we  pass  northward  over  this  region  the  loamy  soils  become 
perhaps  more  sandy,  though  still  firm,  and  the  country  becomes  somewhat  more 
rolling,  the  monotony  being  varied  only  by  cypress  ponds,  gallberry  flats,  and 
occasionally  by  a  stream  with  its  annually  overflowed  bottom. 

The  central  cotton  belt,  or  yellow  loam  region,  is  to  the  northward.  Long-leaf 
pine  is  at  first  most  prominent,  but  gradually  thins  out  to  the  north,  being  replaced 
by  the  short-leaf  variety.  The  surface  of  the  country,  level  at  first,  becomes  more 
and  more  rolling,  and  buhrstone  lies  in  fragments  on  the  ground,  limestone  crops  out 
in  the  streams,  and  wire-grass  disappears  entirely.  Oak  and  hickory  are  prominent. 

The  soil,  sandy  at  first,  with  yellow  clay  subsoil,  becomes  more  clayey  north- 
ward ;  the  country  also  rises  to  an  elevation  of  500  feet,  and  in  some  places  to  600 
feet  to  the  summits  of  the  red-clay  hills  (150  miles  from  the  coast),  a  rise  of  over  150 
feet  in  30  miles.  Still  northward  from  this  yellow  loam  and  oak  upland  belt  the 
sand  and  pine  hills,  with  their  pine  and  blackjack,  are  crossed.  At  first  the  land  is 
lower  than  that  of  the  red  hills,  but  rises  to  a  line  of  hills  from  500  to  600  feet  above 
the  sea.  Red  clay  lands  isolated,  and  similar  to  those  on  the  south,  are  found  on  the 
northern  edge  of  the  belt,  which  here  is  only  12  to  15  miles  wide.  The  three 
divisions  form  parallel  belts  and  extend  from  the  Savannah  to  the  Chattahoochee 
rivers  diagonally  across  the  State. 

With  the  northern  edge  of  the  belt  last  described  the  metamorphic  or  mineral 
division  of  the  State  begins,  and  presents  a  rolling,  broken,  and  often  hilly  surface. 
Soils  varying  from  gray  sandy  to  red  clayey,  gravelly  and  rocky  occur  in  belts  of 
every  width,  and  rocks  peculiar  to  the  section,  hornblendic  and  gray  gneiss,  outcrop 
in  place  or  are  found  in  fragments  on  the  surface. 


GEORGIA.  165 

The  growth  is  of  great  variety,  the  chief  trees  being  oak,  hickory,  chestnut,  poplar 
and  pine.  The  elevation  gradually  increases  toward  the  broad  central  granite 
region  and  beyond  to  Atlanta,  where  the  altitude  is  1,050  feet  above  the  sea,  and  on 
Stone  Mountain  1,686  feet.  Thence  the  country  falls  to  760  feet  at  the  Chattahoo- 
chee  river ;  but  from  there  the  altitude  increases  until  it  reaches  a  maximum  of 
2,347  feet  on  Pine  Log  mountain,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Bartow  county  and  at  the 
northwestern  border  of  the  metamorphic  region,  in  all  about  120  miles  from  the 
sand  hills.  On  the  northeast  the  rise  from  the  Chattahoochee  river  is  still  greater 
to  the  top  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  a  maximum  of  4,796  feet,  and  thence  falls  to  the 
Tennessee  line,  a  distance  of  about  150  miles  from  Macon,  on  the  southern  border. 

Bordering  the  metamorphic  on  its  northwestern  limit  are  ranges  of  hills  having 
various  names  and  a  general  trend  southward  from  the  Tennessee  line  to  the  Etowah 
river  and  the  southeastern  corner  of  Bartow  county,  and  thence  westward  to  the 
Alabama  line.  These  ranges  are  metamorphic  in  character  and  are  higher  than 
the  Northwestern  Georgia  region,  not  excepting  its  mountains.  From  the  tops  of 
these  ranges  we  overlook  the  region  popularly  known  as  "  Northwest  Georgia," 
whose  surface  is  prevalently  characterized  by  abrupt  ridges  (mostly  synclinal),  con- 
sisting of  folded  paleozoic  rocks,  varying  from  sandstones,  shales,  and  cherts  to  lime- 
stones, with  a  general  trend  south-southwest,  and  with  broad  agricultural  valleys. 

NORTHWEST  GEORGIA. 

The  region  of  Northwest  Georgia  extends  from  the  Cohutta,  Pine  Log,  Allatoona 
and  Dug  Down  mountains  to  the  Alabama  and  Tennessee  State  lines,  and  embraces 
an  area  of  3,360  square  miles,  including  the  counties  of  Dade,  Walker,  Catoosa, 
Whitfield,  Murray,  Gordon,  Chattooga  Floyd,  Bartow  and  Polk.  The  lands  are 
found  to  change  and  alternate  at  every  few  miles  in  crossing  the  trend  of  mountains 
and  valleys,  and  these  changes  are  usually  quite  apparent  in  the  natural  growth  of 
the  country,  and  in  the  color,  relative  fertility  and  adaptation  of  soils.  The  great 
variety  of  soils,  together  with  a  diversity  of  climate,  due  to  the  varying  altitudes  of 
this  country,  render  it  suitable  for  the  successful  culture  of  perhaps  every  agricultural 
product  of  the  temperate  climate. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  country  is  banded  by  a  number  of  mountains,  ridges  and  valleys,  extending 
with  a  general  parallelism  in  an  approximate  northeast  and  southwest  direction 
approaching  nearest  to  north  and  south  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  division,  and  with 
divergent  mountains  running  nearer  to  the  east  and  west  in  the  southern  and  central 
portions.  Sand,  Lookout,  and  Pigeon  mountains,  in  the  northwestern  corner  of 
the  State,  are  synclinal  table  lands  belonging  to  the  Alleghany  coal  field.  These 
vary  in  altitude  from  800  to  1,200  feet  above  the  adjacent  valleys,  and  are  usually 
trough  shaped  on  the  top,  having  somewhat  elevated  borders  along  their  brows  and 
precipitous  sides,  marked  by  perpendicular  sandstone  bluffs.  These  mountains  have 
an  area  on  the  top,  of  rolling  and  often  nearly  level  sandy  lands,  amounting  in  the 
aggregate  to  200  square  miles. 

CLIMATE. 

The  annual  mean  temperature  in  this  part  of  the  State  varies,  according  to  locality, 
from  about  50°  to  60°  F.  The  regions  of  the  lowest  temperature  are  about  the 
Cohutta  mountains  in  the  northeast,  and  on  the  table  lands  in  the  northwest,  where 
the  altitudes  range  from  1,800  to  3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  that  of  the  highest 
temperature  in  the  valleys  of  the  southern  and  central  portions.  This  difference 
of  climate  is  due,  in  part,  to  a  difference  of  about  one  degree  of  latitude  between 
the  northern  and  southern  limits  of  the  region,  but  in  a  much  greater  degree  to  the 
general  features  of  the  country,  mainly  to  the  difference  of  altitude,  and  again  to 
the  general  direction  of  the  slope,  which  is  toward  the  south  in  the  central  and  most 


166  GEORGIA. 

of  the  southern  portions,  and  towards  the  north  in  the  northwestern  and  north- 
eastern portions.  These  influences  all  combine  to  give  a  warmer  climate  to  most 
of  the  valleys  drained  by  the  Coosa  river  and  its  immediate  tributaries. 

In  the  extremes  of  temperature  the  thermometer  seldom  rises  above  90°  F.  in 
the  summer,  or  falls  below  20°  in  the  winter.  Vegetation  usually  starts  sometime 
in  March,  and  there  is  a  difference  of  about  a  week  in  this  respect  between  the  more 
northern  and  the  more  southern  counties,  giving  to  the  latter  an  earlier  time  for 
planting  and  a  somewhat  longer  crop  season.  Severe  frosts  rarely  occur  after  the 
first  of  April  and  about  six  months  usually  elapse  between  the  latest  frosts  in  the 
spring  and  the  earliest  in  autumn.  Ridges  and  mountain  slopes  of  100  feet  or  more 
in  altitude  above  the  valleys  are  free  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  from  spring  frosts, 
and  are  less  subject  to  cold  dews  in  spring  and  summer.  For  this  reason  the  fruit 
crop  seldom  fails  in  such  situations.  The  climate  of  the  table-lands  differs  in  several 
particulars  from  that  of  the  valleys,  being  much  more  uniform  and  having  a  lower 
mean  temperature. 

The  Smithsonian  Rain  Charts  indicate  for  this  part  of  the  State  a  mean  precip- 
itation of  rain  amounting  for  the  summer  to  10  inches  and  about  the  same  for  the  win- 
ter months,  with  40  inches  for  the  entire  year.  The  amount  of  rain,  however,  varies 
very  much  in  different  seasons,  and  also  to  some  extent  with  the  local  features  of 
the  country,  the  heavier  precipitations,  as  well  as  the  greater  number  of  rainfalls, 
occurring  usually  in  the  vicinity  of  the  larger  mountains. 

During  the  fall,  winter  and  spring  months  continued  southeast  winds  are 
usually  accompanied  within  a  few  hours  by  clouds,  and  are  commonly  followed 
within  thirty-six  hours  by  a  fall  of  rain.  These  rain  spells  often  continue  through 
two  or  three  days  of  cloudy  weather,  with  either  occasional  showers  or  else  slow 
and  constant  or  drizzling  rains.  Rain  clouds  from  this  direction  are  generally  dis- 
persed by  westerly  or  northwesterly  winds,  and  the  clearing  off  is  usually  preceded 
by  brisk  showers  accompanied  by  gusts  of  wind.  Snow  clouds,  unlike  the  rain 
clouds  in  winter,  come  from  a  northwest  direction.  Snows,  however,  are  compara- 
tively unusual,  and  the  winter  season  very  often  passes  without  a  snowfall  that  lies 
on  the  ground.  A  snow  of  six  inches  depth  or  one  that  covers  the  ground  for  more 
than  two  or  three  days  in  the  valleys  is  unusual ;  but  on  the  mountains  snows  are 
somewhat  more  frequent.  Southeasterly  winds  in  the  summer  season  are  not  so 
commonly  accompanied  by  rain  clouds  as  in  the  cooler  portions  of  the  year,  but  the 
vapor  with  which  the  atmosphere  is  charged,  mainly  from  this  source,  is  condensed 
into  clouds  usually  by  cold  winds  approaching  from  the  northwest.  Thus  the 
summer  rains,  and  particularly  the  thunder-storms,  come  with  clouds  drifting  in  a 
direction  almost  the  opposite  of  that  of  the  winter  rains.  Severe  wind-storms  in 
the  warm  season  are  almost  uniformly  from  the  west. 

SOIL. 

The  lands  in  this  portion  of  Georgia  are  divided  into  several  classes : 

TJie  Gray  Sandy  Lands  are  mostly  on  the  eastern  sides  of  Murray  and  Gordon, 
and  the  eastern  and  southern  sides  of  Bartow  and  Polk  counties.  The  soil  is  of 
moderate  productiveness.  The  lands  are  mostly  in  forests,  owing  to  the  broken 
character  of  the  country.  The  growth  consists  of  red,  black,  post  and  mountain 
oaks,  hickory,  chestnut,  and  short-leaf  pine.  In  the  higher  portions  of  the  Cohutta 
mountains  there  are  spruces,  holly,  and  white  pine. 

Flatwoods. — These  soils  are  of  varied  texture,  and  their  topography  is  corres- 
pondingly diversified  with  mountains,  hills  and  nearly  level  "  flatwoods,"  but  the 
soils  are  nearly  everywhere  of  one  general  character,  at  least  with  regard  to  sterility. 
The  most  extensive  area  of  these  lands  is  that  of  the  flatwoods,  near  the  Oostenaula 
and  the  Coosa  rivers,  in  Gordon,  Floyd  and  Polk  counties,  and  a  mountainous 
section  south  of  the  Coosa  river,  in  Floyd  and  Polk  counties,  belonging  to  the  same 


GEORGIA.  167 

formation  and  with  which  these  flatwoods  are  continuous.  It  occurs  again  in  a  belt 
of  hills  in  the  southern  part  of  Murray  county,  extending  southward  nearly  across 
the  county  of  Gordon. 

Red  Clay  Lands. — This  region  covers  in  Georgia,  about  400  square  miles,  occurring 
in  belts  of  from  half  a  mile  to  2  or  3  miles  in  width,  and  is  found  in  all  the  counties 
under  consideration  except  Dade.  The  formation  affords  an  argillaceous  soil  of  an 
orange  or  light  red  color,  and  is  of  great  importance,  nearly  the  entire  area  consisting 
of  slightly  rolling  or  nearly  level  lands,  most  of  which  have  been  long  under  culti- 
vation. It  has  a  good  deal  of  clay  in  it,  is  more  or  less  calcareous  and  of  easy 
culture.  It  rolls  enough  for  good  drainage.  The  forest  growth  is  red,  white  and 
Spanish  oaks,  hickory,  dogwood,  chestnut,  pine ;  the  principal  agricultural  products 
corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  and  grasses,  cotton.  Land  of  this  character  that  has  been 
kept  in  cultivation  for  thirty  or  more  years,  with  little  or  nothing  returned  to  the 
soil  for  its  improvement,  will  now  produce  about  20  bushels  of  corn,  6  bushels  of 
wheat  and  10  bushels  of  oats  to  the  acre.  These  lands  are,  however,  capable  of  a 
high  degree  of  improvement,  and  where  they  have  been  properly  kept  up,  the  yield 
is  good.  The  lands  where  hilly  are  inclined  to  wash.  The  valleys  abound  in 
springs;  water  in  wells  obtainable  at  from  20 to  40  feet.  With  fertilizers  these 
lands  will  produce  500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  to  the  acre. 

Gray  Siliceous  Soils  of  tJie  Ridges. — This  region  covers  an  area  of  894  square 
miles,  or  about  one-fourth  of  the  entire  extent  of  country.  The  formation  gives 
rise  to  ridges  or  knobby  belts  of  country  of  from  1  mile  to  10  miles  in  width,  with 
heights  varying  from  100  to  800  feet.  Where  these  belts  are  broad  they  often  con- 
tain lands  that  are  nearly  level  or  at  least  consist  of  low  rolling  hills.  The  lands 
have  a  gravelly  soil  varying  in  color  from  light  to  dark  gray,  with  generally  a 
porous  gravelly  subsoil;  but  in  some  places  there  is  a  good  clay  subsoil,  with 
a  gravelly  soil  of  a  dark  brown  or  red  color.  These  lands  are  generally  regarded 
as  poor  and  are,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  original  forests.  The  prices  range  from 
50  cents  to  $3  per  acre,  according  to  situation,  the  highest  values  being  given  to 
such  as  adjoin  the  valley  lands,  without  regard  to  their  adaptation  to  culture. 
Recently  attention  has  been  attracted  to  these  as  among  the  most  profitable  lands 
for  cotton.  They  are  found  to  give  a  better  immediate  return  for  manures  than  the 
richer  valley  lands,  and  their  present  cheapness  and  comparatively  easy  culture, 
with  their  general  healthfulness,  give  them  additional  importance.  The  timber  is 
of  good  size  and  consists  of  red,  black,  mountain,  post,  white  and  Spanish  oaks, 
chestnut,  pine,  hickory,  dogwood,  sour  wood  and  black  gum.  The  oaks  predom- 
inate, but  chestnut  and  short-leaf  pine  are  generally  abundant.  Corn  does  not  do 
well  on  these  lands,  after  a  few  years  cultivation,  except  in  very  rainy  seasons. 
With  the  use  of  fertilizers  wheat  might  be  made  a  profitable  crop,  as  it  is  less  sub- 
ject to  disaster,  and  nearly  always  matures  a  better  developed  grain  than  on  the 
richer  valley  lands ;  but  without  fertilizers  it  does  not  "  tiller  "  or  spread  well,  and 
the  average  yield  is  not  so  good.  The  lands  are  well  suited  for  fruit  culture,  the 
trees  being  healthy  and  long-lived,  and  the  tops  and  slopes  of  ridges  here  have  an 
immunity  from  late  spring  frosts  that  often  kill  the  fruit  on  lower  lands.  There  are 
no  springs  or  constantly  running  streams  in  the  central  portions  of  these  belts,  and 
water  is  obtained,  with  some  uncertainty,  at  depths  of  from  70  to  100  feet  in  wells 
that  always  require  curbing. 

Brown  and  Red  Loams. — In  Dade  county,  and  in  that  portion  of  Catoosa, 
Walker,  and  most  of  Chattooga  counties  that  lie  west  of  Taylor's  ridge,  the  lands 
are  all  highly  calcareous,  and  are  perhaps  the  richest  uplands  in  the  State.  The 
timber  is  large  and  consists  principally  of  red,  Spanish  and  white  oaks,  hickory, 
poplar,  sugar  maple,  post  oaks  and  cedars,  with  an  admixture  of  most  of  the  varieties 
indigenous  to  the  country  and  common  to  the  valley  lands.  The  lands  generally 


168  GEORGIA. 

lie  well,  but  are  sometimes  hilly  and  inclined  to  wash.  Where  the  blue  limestones 
are  nearly  horizontal  they  are  sometimes  exposed  or  else  lie  in  close  proximity  to 
the  surface.  Such  lands  are  usually  covered  with  a  growth  of  cedar  and  red  haw, 
and  are  known  as  cedar  glades;  but  there  are  no  very  extensive  areas  of  this  kind. 
Where  the  limestones  lie  unexposed  near  the  surface,  this  fact  is  usually  indicated 
by  a  growth  of  post  oak.  The  soil  consists  of  two  principal  varieties,  viz :  a  brown 
calcareous  loam  of  the  blue  limestone  areas,  and  a  red  calcareous  loam  of  the  rotten 
limestone.  The  first  varies  in  color  from  a  light  to  dark  brown  and  almost  black,  a 
dark  or  chocolate  brown  being  the  most  characteristic  color,  with  a  subsoil  of  lighter 
Shade,  sometimes  approaching  to  red.  The  soil  of  the  rotten  limestone  belts  is  of  a 
dark  red  color  with  a  red  subsoil.  There  is  quite  a  striking  difference  in  the  appear- 
ance of  these  lands,  though  in  the  more  essential  characteristics  of  productiveness 
and  in  adaptation  to  various  crops  a  comparison  shows  no  important  difference.  In 
Polk,  Floyd  and  Murray  counties  the  lands  are  red,  but  of  a  lighter  color  than  that 
of  the  rotten  limestones.  Lands  that  have  been  in  cultivation  for  30  or  more  years 
will  often  produce  from  30  to  50  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre.  The  soils  seem  to  be 
considerably  deteriorated  for  the  wheat  crop,  but  after  the  land  has  been  rested  in 
clover,  and  a  crop  of  this  turned  under,  from  10  to  20  bushels  is  not  an  unusual 
yield.  Cotton  has  not  been  grown  to  much  extent  on  these  lands  north  of  Floyd 
county,  and  in  this  county  and  Polk  about  600  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre  is  the 
usual  yield. 

Sub- Carboniferous  Brown  Loam  Lands. — The  rocks  of  this  formation  consist  of 
limestones  arenaceous  shales,  and  siliceous  or  cherty  limestones.  The  lands,  which 
are  generally  rolling,  but  sometimes  nearly  level  where  the  valleys  are  broad,  have 
a  brown  soil  that  is  calcareous  and  siliceous  or  sandy,  with  sufficient  clay  in  the 
subsoil  to  give  it  a  somewhat  retentive  character,  and  yet  admit  of  good  drainage, 
even  where  the  lands  are  nearly  level.  The  areas  of  this  character  are  in  the  valleys 
immediately  around  Sand,  Lookout,  and  Pigeon  mountains,  in  the  broader  valleys 
immediately  east  of  Taylor's  ridge,  and  again,  east  of  Horn's  mountain,  viz  :  West 
Armuchee  valley  in  Walker  county,  Sugar  valley  in  Gordon,  Dirt  Town  valley  in 
Chattooga,  and  Texas  valley,  with  a  large  portion  of  the  country  to  the  west  of 
Coosa  river  in  Floyd  county.  These  are  decidedly  the  best  cotton  uplands  in  this 
part  of  the  State,  yielding  often,  without  fertilizers,  from  1,000  to  1,200  pounds  of 
seed  cotton  to  the  acre.  They  seems  to  be  especially  adapted  to  the  cotton  crop,  but 
corn,  wheat,  and  oats  do  well. 

The  Sandy  Lands  of  the  Mountain  Summits  are  from  nearly  level  to  rolling  and 
hilly.  Sand  mountain  in  Dade  county,  Lookout  mountain  in  Dade,  Walker  and 
Chattooga  counties,  and  Little  Sand  mountain  in  Chattooga  county,  afford  the  lands 
of  this  character.  The  daily  range  of  the  thermometer  here  is  about  50  per  cent,  less 
during  the  summer  months  than  in  the  valleys,  though  the  daily  minimum  temper- 
ature is  usually  but  20°  or  30°  less.  The  temperature  is  too  low  for  cotton.  The 
lands  are  especially  adapted  to  fruit  culture  and  to  a  great  variety  of  vegetables.  A 
variety  of  mineral  springs  is  found  on  these  table  lands.  The  timber  is  of  medium 
size,  consisting  of  mountain,  white  and  red  oaks,  chestnut,  pine  and  hickory,  with 
less  undergrowth  than  is  common  to  other  woodlands  in  this  part  of  the  State,  and 
with  a  good  coat  of  grass  covering  the  surface  nearly  everywhere. 

Alluvial  Lands. — In  the  mountains,  where  the  streams  are  rapid,  the  alluvial 
lands  have  but  little  extent,  but  in  the  valleys  the  creek  and  river  bottoms  are  com- 
paratively broad ;  the  bottom  lands  vary  from  about  one-eighth  of  a  mile  on  small 
Streams  to  1  mile  or  2  miles  on  the  larger  ones,  the  greater  part  of  their  widths  being 
generally  on  the  western  side  of  the  stream.  The  alluvial  deposits  of  small  streams 
Vary  more  in  character,  those  of  the  larger  ones  in  general  being  most  productive. 
Alluvial  lands  with  a  large  proportion  of  sand  are  the  only  ones  on  which  cotton 


GEORGIA.  169 

has  been  grown  with  success,  the  Coosa  and  Etowah  rivers  affording  some  of  the 
best  cotton  lands  in  this  part  of  the  State. 

THE  METAMORPHIC  REGION. 

The  rocks  and  soils  characterizing  the  Metamorphic  Region  cover  the  whole 
north  half  of  the  State  except  Northwestern  Georgia.  Its  southern  limit  follows 
an  irregular  line  passing  through  the  cities  of  Augusta,  Milledgeville,  Macon  and 
Columbus.  These  cities,  situated  respectively  on  the  Savannah,  Oconee,  Ocmulgee 
and  Chattahooch.ee  rivers,  mark  the  heads  of  navigation,  shoals  and  falls  in  the 
streams  at  these  points  being  formed  by  the  outcropping  gneisses  and  other  nieta- 
morphic  rocks.  The  dividing  line  between  this  and  the  Northwestern  region  would 
pass  from  Alabama  slightly  northeastward  through  the  southern  part  of  Polk  county 
to  the  northern  part  of  Paulding,  and  into  the  southeastern  corner  of  Bartow,  thence 
north  through  the  eastern  part  of  Bartow,  Gordon  and  Murray  counties,  into  the 
State  of  Tennessee.  There  are,  in  all,  fifty-six  entire,  and  portions  of  seventeen 
counties  included  in  the  Metamorphic  Region,  and  the  area  is  approximately  19,090 
square  miles.  The  entire  surface  of  the  country  is  or  has  been  heavily  timbered, 
with  the  exception  of  the  bald  areas,  without  either  vegetation  or  soil,  where  granite 
is  exposed.  The  timber  growth  common  to  the  entire  region  comprises  red,  white, 
post  and  black  jack  oaks,  chestnut,  hickory,  short-leaf  pine,  dogwood,  black  gum, 
and  walnut  on  the  uplands,  and  poplar,  ash,  elm,  sycamore,  birch  and  sweet  gum 
on  the  lowlands.  It  has  been  estimated  that  of  the  entire  Metamorphic  Region  about 
46  per  cent,  has  been  cleared  for  cultivation,  leaving  54  per  cent,  of  the  original 
growth  still  standing.  The  northern  portion  of  the  region  differs  so  widely  in  its 
features  from  the  rest  of  the  Metamorphic  counties  that  it  will  be  described  under 
the  subdivision  of  the  Blue  Ridge  region. 

THE  BLUE  RIDGE. 

Soon  after  entering  Georgia,  and  especially  after  leaving  Rabun  county,  it  is 
but  little  else  than  a  long  and  high  ridge,  so  narrow  and  with  sides  so  steep  that  it 
forms  a  most  convenient  boundary  line  southwestward  between  the  counties  north 
and  south  of  it.  From  the  main  ridge  a  number  of  others  formvas  it  were,  offshoots 
known  by  different  names.  In  Pickens  county  the  Blue  Ridge  terminates  with 
several  isolated  and  short  mountain  ridges  which  have  the  same  trend  as  the  main 
ridge.  Another  line  of  high  mountain  ridges  leaves  the  terminus  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
proper,  and,  with  a  northwestwardly  trend,  passes  through  Gilmer  and  Fannin 
counties  into  Tennessee.  The  general  elevation  of  the  valley  lands  at  the  foot  of 
the  ridges  is  from  1,600  to  1,800  feet,  and  from  them  the  mountains  rise  abruptly 
from  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  their  sides  and  sharp  summits  being  covered  with  a  some- 
what dense  timber  growth.  The  counties  included  in  the  Blue  Ridge  region  are 
Rabun,  Towns,  Union,  Fannin,  Gilmer,  Pickens,  Dawson,  Lumpkin,  White  and 
Habersham,  making  a  little  over  3,000  square  miles.  About -33^  per  cent,  of  their 
aggregate  area  is  estimated  to  be  too  hilly  and  broken  for  tillage. 

MIDDLE  AND  SOUTHERN  METAMORPHIC,  OR  MIDDLE  GEORGIA. 

Southward  from  the  Blue  Ridge  counties  the  elevation  of  the  country  becomes 
less  and  the  surface  less  mountainous,  though  still  hilly  to  the  Chattahoochee  river. 
The  mountains  now  are  mere  isolated  ridges  or  points  of  from  500  to  700  feet  above 
the  general  level  of  the  country.  Their  sides  are  steep  and  their  summits  sharp, 
and  they  are  all  timbered.  Sawnee  mountain,  in  Forsyth  county,  is  1,968  feet  high, 
and  Kennesaw  mountain,  in  Cobb  county,  is  1,809  feet  high.  Only  7  per  cent,  of 
the  lands  of  the  eleven  counties  embraced  in  this  region  is  too  broken  for  successful 
tillage,  and,  together  with  the  Blue  Ridge  region,  it  forms  the  great  gold-bearing 
belt  of  the  State  from  North  Carolina  to  Alabama.  Other  minerals  also  occur,  such 


170  GEORGIA. 

as  corundum,  asbestos  and  copper.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Chattahoochee  river, 
and  within  a  few  miles  of  it  the  ridge,  which  in  Habersham  county  is  high  and 
prominent,  falls  in  elevation  south  westward  to  Atlanta,  and  to  that  point  is  the 
water-divide  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  tributaries ;  its  summit  is  very  nearly  marked 
by  the  course  of  the  Air- Line  Railroad. 

Atlanta,  situated  on  the  point  where  the  water-divide  turns  to  the  southeast, 
has  an  elevation  of  1,050  feet  above  the  sea  and  288  feet  above  the  Chattahoochee 
river.  The  height  of  the  ridge  above  the  surrounding  country  is  scarcely  precept- 
ible,  as  it  rises  gradually  northeastward  to  Habersham  county,  where  the  ascent 
from  the  south  is  very  abrupt  for  several  hundred  feet.  From  the  river  southward 
to  the  sand  hills,  a  distance  of  about  70  miles,  there  is  a  gradual  fall  of  400  feet,  the 
elevation  being  about  600  feet  along  the  lower  limit  of  the  Metamorphic,  except  that 
section  between  the  Ocmulgee  and  Ogeechee  rivers,  which  has  an  altitude  of  only 
300  or  400  feet.  About  1|  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the  twenty-two  counties  in  this 
region  is  too  hilly  and  broken  for  tillage. 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CHARACTER  OP  THE  LAND. 

The  surface  of  country  covered  by  gray  lands  is  always  more  or  less  hilly  and 
rolling,  but  has  broad,  level  areas  either  on  the  ridges  or  in  the  valleys.  Except  in 
in  the  mountains  the  slopes  are  not  too  steep  to  forbid  cultivation.  Their  light,, 
sandy  nature  makes  them  liable  to  wash,  and  they  require  management  to  prevent 
this.  The  soils  are  coarse,  gray  and  sandy,  frequently  dark  colored  for  an  inch  or 
two,  with  decayed  vegetation,  are  more  or  less  gravelly,  from  3  to  12  inches  deep,, 
and  have  a  yellow,  clayey  subsoil.  The  growth  is  generally  short-leaf  pine,  post^ 
Spanish  (red)  and  white  oaks,  hickory,  dogwood  and  persimmon,  with  some  ash,, 
black  and  sweet  gums,  poplar,  walnut  and  cherry  on  the  lowlands.  Pine  has  not 
as  large  a  growth  as  on  granite  lands,  and  only  the  short-leaf  variety  is  found. 
Though  these  lands  are  said  to  produce  late  crops  of  cotton,  they  are  preferred  to- 
the  red  clays  as  being  more  productive  and  because  they  enable  the  stalks  to  stand 
the  drought  better.  They  are  also  easy  to  till,  and  a  larger  area  can  be  cultivated 
than  of  the  red  lands  with  the  same  labor.  Fresh  lands  yield  from  500  to  700 
pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre,  as  do  also  old  lands  by  the  use  of  fertilizers ;  but 
without  fertilizers  the  latter  yield  only  250  or  300  pounds  per  acre,  or  about  100 
pounds  of  lint. 

Red  Lands. — Under  the  designation  of  red  lands  are  included  both  red  sandy 
and  clayey  soils,  no  matter  from  what  source  derived.  There  are  a  great  many 
different  red  belts.  A  narrow  belt  of  mulatto  land  reaches  from  Rabun  county 
southward  into  Lumpkin,  and  thence  probably  turns  northward  into  Forsyth  and 
Milton,  but  becomes  very  much  intermixed  with  gray  soils  in  those  counties. 
Along  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Ridge  some  red  areas  also  occur,  in  Towns  and  Union 
counties,  where  there  is  much  hornblendic  rock.  Another  red  belt  from  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Cherokee  county  passes  southward  (south  of  Canton,)  into  Cobb,, 
Paulding  and  North  Carroll  counties.  Kennesaw  and  Lost  mountains,  in  Cobb 
county,  are  composed  entirely  of  hornblendic  gneisses.  From  the  Chattahoochee 
river  southward  to  the  pine  hills  the  country  embraces  the  largest  areas  of  red 
lands.  Chattahoochee  ridge  of  Habersham  county  is  composed  mainly  of  horn- 
blendic rocks,  and  on  the  south,  lying  parallel  with  the  river,  is  a  narrow  belt  of 
red  land  extending  into  Fulton  county  to  the  granite  section  at  East  Point,  with  an 
apparent  continuation  on  the  west,  into  Coweta  and  Troup  counties,  and  termina- 
ting a  little  west  of  La  Grange ;  thence,  after  a  narrow  break,  a  wide  area  extends 
southwesterly  into  Alabama.  On  the  east  and  south  of  the  central  granite  regions- 
the  red  lands  largely  predominate,  covering  large  areas  and  occurring  in  wide  belts. 
Another  extensive  belt  of  red  land  occurs  north  of  Milledgeville,  Baldwin  county,, 
and  along  the  line  of  the  southern  granite  region  westward  and  northeast  into 


GEORGIA.  171 

Hancock  county.  The  largest  of  these  belts  is  that  which  enters  the  county  of 
Franklin  from  South  Carolina  with  a  southwest  trend,  and  turning  southward 
through  Clarke,  Morgan  and  other  counties,  again  turns  southwest  to  the  sand  hills. 
The  belt  at  first  is  very  wide,  covering  nearly  the  whole  of  Franklin,  and  its  lands 
are  formed  principally  from  hornblendic  rocks ;  but  southward  it  narrows,  and 
biotite  gneisses  are  occasionally  found  associated  with  the  strata.  In  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  region  there  are  but  few  red  areas,  and  these  are  mostly  from 
hornblendic  rock,  and  lie  on  the  outskirts  of  the  granite  regions. 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  SOILS. 

The  surface  of  the  country  occupied  by  these  red  lands  is  rolling  or  undulating 
and  often  somewhat  hilly,  there  being  but  few  very  level  areas  and  then  not  in  very 
large  tracts.  Very  little  is  too  broken  for  cultivation.  The  growth  is  red  or  Spanish, 
white  and  post  oaks,  hickory,  chestnut,  dogwood  and  some  short-leaf  pine,  with 
poplar,  ash,  walnut,  cherry  and  buckeye  in  the  lowlands  of  some  of  the  counties. 

The  Red  Lands  are  usually  sandy  for  a  depth  of  several  inches,  and  hence  are 
rather  easily  cultivated,  especially  in  dry  weather.  Decayed  vegetation  frequently 
gives  to  them  a  dark  or  black  surface,  but  the  subsoils  and  underclays  are  very  red. 
The  lands  are  often  good  cotton  lands,  particularly  if  soil  be  sandy.  Yields  vary, 
according  to  quality  of  lands,  from  300  to  1,000  pounds  per  acre  on  fresh  lands. 
Lands  are  in  general  difficult  to  till  in  wet  weather,  being  sticky,  and  in  dry  seasons 
are  very  hard  and  compact.  Except  perhaps  in  the  southern  counties,  these  red 
clay  lands  are  considered  best  for  small  grain,  (especially  oats,)  as  they  are  cold,  and 
their  cotton  crops  are  late  in  maturing. 

Granitic  Lands. — Large  and  small  areas  of  gray  sandy  soils,  having  outcropping 
and  underlying  granite  rocks,  are  found  in  many  counties  of  the  Metamorphic 
region,  but  chiefly  in  its  southern  half,  and  cover  about  2,600  square  miles. 

TOPOGRAPHY   AND   SOILS. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  generally  rolling  and  broken,  with  sharply  defined 
and  rounded  hills  in  localities  which  have  the  granite  boulders  or  rounded  masses, 
and  broad,  level  areas  when  only  the  flat  rock  underlies  the  land.  The  almost 
universal  timber  growth  on  all  these  lands  is  pine'(either  long  or  short-leaf),  with 
oak,  chestnut,  hickory,  and  some  black  jack.  The  soil  is  often  a  coarse  gray  or 
gravelly  sand,  from  3  to  6  inches  deep,  with  a  subsoil  of  yellow  or  red  clay,  more 
or  less  sandy,  or  sometimes  a  whitish  impervious  clay,  the  result  of  feldspar  decom- 
position. The  soils  are  reported  by  some  as  cold,  but  are  easily  tilled  and  well 
adapted  to  cotton  culture.  The  yield  per  acre  on  these  lands  is  abount  800  pounds 
of  seed  cotton  when  fresh  and  unmanured,  equal  to  270  pounds  of  lint.  Cotton  is 
planted  only  on  the  uplands,  it  being  liable  to  rust  on  the  lowlands. 

LOCALITIES. 

The  largest  area  of  granitic  lands  lies  south  of  Atlanta,  covering  all  of  Clayton, 
Henry,  Fayette  and  Rockdale  counties,  and  portions  of  Fulton,  Campbell,  Coweta, 
Spalding,  Butts,  Newton,  DeKalb,  Walton,  Gwinnett,  and  Jackson,  while  an  offshoot 
follows  the  river  in  a  southwest  course.  It  covers  in  all  about  1,660  square  miles, 
and  has  a  general  altitude  of  from  900  to  1,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Parts  of  the 
country  are  very  broken  and  large  areas  lie  beautifully  for  farming  purposes  in 
parts  of  the  region.  The  lands  lack  lime,  but  contain  a  fair  percentage  of  potash. 

Flatwoods. — These  comprise  but  a  small  area  in  Georgia.  The  largest  belt  is 
found  entering  from  South  Carolina  above  the  mouth  of  Broad  river,  passing  with 
a  southwest  trend  across  Oglethorpe  into  the  upper  part  of  Greene  county.  In 
Elbert  county  the  belt  is  from  5  to  7  miles  wide,  and  has  a  dark  colored  soil  and  a 
growth  of  black  jack  oaks.  In  other  counties  the  belt  is  about  4  miles  wide  and  has 
a  similar  growth.  The  lands  are  very  level,  and  in  places  large  ponds  of  water  are 
found.  The  soil  is  tough  in  places  like  pipe-clay,  but  sometimes  produces  good 
cereals. 


172  GEORGIA. 

The  lands  north  of  the  Chattahoochee  river  on  the  northeast  have  almost 
entirely  gray  sandy  soils,  with  but  a  few  strips  of  red  clay.  The  subsoils  are  almost 
universally  clays.  This  section  has  been  designated  the  "  Northeast  Division  "  by 
the  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the  yield  per  acre,  with  fair  cultivation, 
is  reported  as  follows:  Corn,  20  bushels ;  wheat,  15  bushels;  oats,  25  bushels .  rye, 
8  bushels ;  barley,  25  bushels ;  hay,  from  2  to  3  tons ;  sorghum  syrup,  75  gallons. 
Tobacco,  buckwheat,  and  German  millet  can  also  be  grown  with  great  success. 
The  fruits  adapted  to  the  section  are  the  apple,  cherry,  pear,  grape,  plum  (in  all  its 
varieties),  peach,  gooseberry,  raspberry  and  strawberry. 

In  the  rest  of  the  Metamorphic  or  Middle  Georgia  region  the  products  are : 
Cotton,  corn,  oats  and  wheat,  and  all  the  grains  and  grasses,  and  even  tobacco  may  be 
grown  successfully.  After  the  coast  country,  this  division  was  the  first  settled,  and 
has  continued  to  be  the  most  populous  in  the  State.  A  large  proportion  of  the  land 
has  suffered  temporary  exhaustion  by  injudicious  culture,  which  claimed  everything 
from  the  soil  and  returned  nothing ;  but  this  ruinous  practice  is  fast  giving  way  to 
a  more  enlightened  and  economical  system.  The  abandoned  fields,  grown  up  in 
stunted  pines,  and  for  from  twenty  to  forty  years  considered  useful  only  as  pas- 
turage, have  been  restored  to  cultivation  and  are  now  among  the  most  productive 
lands  of  the  State.  The  fruits  to  which  this  section  is  best  adapted  are  the  peach, 
fig,  apple,  pear,  strawberry  and  raspberry.  The  yield  per  acre  of  the  common  crops 
Tinder  ordinary  culture  is :  Corn,  12  bushels ;  wheat,  8  bushels ;  oats,  25  bushels ; 
barley,  30  bushels ;  rye,  8  bushels ;  sweet  potatoes,  100  bushels. 

THE  CENTRAL  COTTON  BELT. 

The  Central  Cotton  Belt  includes  that  broad  strip  of  country  extending  across 
the  centre  of  the  State  in  a  slight  south  of  west  course  from  the  Savannah  river  on 
the  east  to  the  Chattahoochee  on  the  west,  and  is  included  between  the  Metamorphic 
on  the  north  and  the  long-leaf  pine  and  wire-grass  regions  on  the  south.  Its  width 
eastward  from  the  Ocmulgee  river  has  an  average  of  about  40  miles,  but  on  the  west 
of  that  river  it  widens,  its  southern  limit  passing  in  a  southwesterly  course,  via 
Albany,  to  the  southern  part  of  Early  county.  Its  extreme  width  along  the  Chat- 
tahoochee river  is  about  90  miles.  The  area  embraced  is  about  6,835  square  miles, 
and  includes  all  of  the  following  counties,  viz  :  Richmond,  Glascock,  Washington, 
Wilkinson,  Twiggs,  Houston,  Taylor  (nearly),  Macon,  Schley,  Marion,  Chattahoo- 
chee, Stewart,  Quitman,  Webster,  Sumter,  Lee,  Terrell,  Randolph,  Clay  and  Calhoun; 
the  lower  or  southern  portions  of  Columbia,  McDuffie,  Warren,  Hancock,  Baldwin, 
Bibb,  Crawford,  Talbot  and  Muscogee ;  the  upper  or  northern  portions  of  Early, 
Baker,  Daugherty,  Dooly,  Pulaski,  Laurens,  Johnson,  Jefferson  and  Burke,  and  the 
eastern  part  of  Screven,  along  the  river — all  of  twenty  and  parts  of  nineteen  coun- 
ties. Within  this  Central  Cotton  Region  there  are  three  distinct  belts,  differing 
very  widely  from  each  other.  The  first  is  the  Sand  Hills  and  Pine  Belt,  on  the 
north  and  bordering  the  Metamorphic  region  of  the  State.  The  northern  limit  of 
this  belt  is  a  few  miles  north  of  Augusta  and  Thomson,  a  few  miles  south  of  War- 
renton  and  Sparta,  to  Milledgeville,  Macon,  Knoxville,  Geneva  and  Columbus,  at 
which  point  the  metamorphic  rocks  are  found  outcropping  in  the  beds  of  the  streams 
while  the  sand  hills  extend  northward  a  short  distance  along  its  border.  The 
southern  limit  is  easily  defined  by  the  somewhat  abrupt  red  clay  hills  along  its 
border.  Its  width  varies  greatly,  but  is  greatest  on  the  east  and  west,  about  25  or 
30  miles  from  each  of  the  large  boundary  rivers.  Between  the  Ogeechee  and  Flint 
rivers  it  is  rather  narrow,  but  widens  to  the  west  to  20  miles  or  more  in  Taylor  and 
Marion  counties.  On  the  Chattahoochee  river  its  southern  limit  is  near  the  mouth 
of  Upator  creek.  The  area  embraced  in  the  sand  hills  is  about  2,950  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  embraced  in  this  belt  is  high  and  rolling,  and  this  is 


GEORGIA.  173 

especially  the  case  near  its  northern  limit  where  the  altitude  is  from  500  to  600  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  sometimes  100  feet  or  more  above  the  adjoining 
Metamorphic  region.  Southward  the  country  falls  to  the  foot  of  the  line  of  red 
hills  which  often  rise  abruptly  from  its  limit.  Again,  in  other  localities,  as 
between  the  Flint  and  Ocmulgee  rivers,  the  lower  part  of  the  belt  presents  a  broad 
plateau  which  gradually  declines  southward.  In  the  western  portion  of  the  belt 
the  transition  to  the  red  hills  is  gradual.  The  country  is  very  hilly  and  broken, 
with  a  height  of  from  100  to  150  feet  above  the  streams,  and  is  interspersed  with 
deep  gulleys,  formed  by  the  washing  away  of  clays  and  sands. 

This  belt  is  characterized  by  deep  beds  of  white  sands  and  gravel  overlying 
white  and  variegated  clay,  with  ledges  of  a  gritty  and  micaceous  mass,  called  by 
Professor  Lyell,  decomposed  granite.  The  usual  timber  growth  is  long  and  short- 
leaf  pine,  scrub  black  jack  oak,  sweet  gum,  and  some  dogwood.  The  lands  of  the 
sand-hill  regions  have  a  soil  of  white  sand  from  6  to  12  inches  deep,  and  usually  a 
sandy  soil  underlaid  by  variegated  clays,  and  are  not  very  productive,  except  where 
fresh  or  highly  fertilized.  The  yield,  after  a  few  years'  cultivation,  is  only  about 
200  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre,  but  on  the  best  lands  it  is  300  pounds.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  lands  originally  in  cultivation  now  lies  out. 

RED   HILLS. 

A  region  of  red  hills  occupies  a  narrow  and  interrupted  belt,  4  or  5  miles  wide, 
southward  from  the  sand-hills  region,  and  passes  through  the  western  part  of  the 
counties  of  Burke,  Jefferson  and  Washington,  the  middle  of  Wilkinson  and  Twiggs, 
and  the  southern  part  of  Houston  to  Flint  river.  West  of  that  river,  in  the  counties 
of  Macon,  Schley,  Sumter,  Webster,  Stewart  and  "Randolph,  the  red  clays  are  found 
scattered  over  a  large  territory,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  large  areas,  they 
are  rather  in  patches,  being  frequently  covered  by  the  white  sands  of  the  yellow- 
loam  region.  The  red-hills  region  is  characterized  by  a  high  rolling  or  broken,  and 
well-timbered  surface,  covered  with  deep  red  clay  lands,  more  or  less  sandy,  and 
having  a  thickness  of  from  20  to  50  feet,  including  siliceous  fossil  shells  and  rocks, 
and  sometimes  beds  of  green  sands. 

Soils. — The  lands  of  these  red  clay  hills  are  usually  somewhat  sandy,  and  have  a 
depth  of  from  12  to  24  inches  in  the  eastern  counties,  and  from  6  to  12  inches  in  the 
others.  The  subsoil  is  a  heavy  clay  loam,  deeper  in  color  than  the  soil  and  more 
clayey,  which  sometimes  overlies  a  variegated  and  plastic  pipe-clay.  The  growth  is 
oak,  hickory,  short-leaf  pine  and  dogwood,  with  beech,  maple  and  poplar  on  the 
lowlands.  The  lands  of  the  belt  lying  between  the  Savannah  and  Flint  rivers  are 
considered  the  best  of  the  region,  and  not  only  occur  in  larger  areas,  but  are  more 
productive  and  durable,  and  are  easily  tilled.  The  subsoil  is  stiff  and  tenacious, 
and  hard  to  break  up.  The  lands  yield  from  800  to  1,000  pounds  of  seed  cotton 
when  fresh,  and  500  pounds  after  a  few  years'  cultivation.  Reports  give  the 
product,  after  fifty  years'  cultivation,  as  300  pounds.  These  lands  are,  however, 
preferred  for  small  grain.  West  of  Flint  river  the  red  clay  lands  of  southern 
Stewart,  Webster  and  Randolph  counties  have  similar  productiveness  and  durability; 
but  the  more  sandy  of  the  red  lands  while  having,  when  fresh,  a  yield  equal  to  the 
above,  are  not  as  durable. 

THE   OAK,  HICKORY  AND   LONG-LEAF  PINE   HILLS,   OR  YELLOW  LOAM  REGION. 

This  region  forms  a  belt  of  country  across  the  State  between  the  Savannah  and 
the  Chattahoochee  rivers,  and  extends  in  width  from  the  sand  hills  south  to  the 
pine  barrens  and  wire-grass  region.  Its  width  varies  greatly.  The  entire  area  em- 
braced by  the  yellow  loam  region,  including  the  red  hills,  is  about  6,650  square  miles. 
The  surface  of  the  country  between  the  Savannah  and  Flint  rivers,  while  very  broken 
in  some  localities,  is  gradually  rolling  with  ridges  parallel  to  the  streams,  and  a 
timber  growth  of  long-leaf  pine,  post  and  Spanish  oaks  and  hickory.  The  long-leaf 


174  GEORGIA. 

pine  is  most  prominent,  and  in  many  places  is  almost  the  exclusive  timber.  This 
belt  or  region  is  underlaid  at  from  three  to  ten  feet  by  the  same  bed  of  soft  limestone 
and  marl  found  under  the  red  hills.  The  soils  of  this  eastern  part  of  the  belt 
are  sandy  and  gray,  except  on  the  immediate  surface,  where  they  are  dark  from 
decayed  vegetation.  Black,  brown  and  yellow  ferruginous  gravel  is  abundant  in 
some  of  the  counties  on  the  surface  and  mixed  with  the  soil.  The  subsoil,  at  a 
depth  of  from  3  to  9  inches  from  the  surface,  is  either  a  yellow  clay  loam  or  yellow 
sand.  Lands  having  the  latter  are  poor  and  unproductive,  except  perhaps  for  a  year 
or  two.  The  better  class  of  soils,  with  their  clay  subsoils  and  mixed  growth  of  long- 
leaf  pine,  oak  and  hickory,  are  easy  to  cultivate  and  are  well  drained,  and  yield  an 
average  of  500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre  when  fresh,  and  250  or  300  pounds 
after  a  cultivation  of  ten  years.  West  of  Flint  river  these  lands  cover  the  greater 
part  of  the  oak  and  hickory  region.  The  upper  counties  and  those  along  the  Chat- 
tahoochee  river,  as  far  south  as  Clay  county,  are  hilly  and  are  usually  covered  with 
a  heavy  deposit  of  sand.  Underneath  the  sandy  soil  are  the  red  and  yellow  clays 
over  variegated  and  joint  clays  with  cretaceous  marls.  The  growth  of  these  hills  is 
oak  and  hickory,  with  a  large  proportion  of  short  and  long-leaf  pine,  which  also 
characterize  these  lands  southward.  Ferruginous  standstone  is  abundant  in  some 
localities  on  high  points.  These  lands  are  but  sparingly  under  tillage,  owing  to 
their  broken  character  and  to  the  abundance  of  good  valley  lands.  Going  south- 
ward from  these  hills  the  country  becomes  more  level,  and  soil  is  a  finer  loam.  The 
clay  subsoil  is  covered  by  the  sandy  deposit  to  a  much  less  depth,  and  buhrstone  is 
found  in  fragments.  There  are  large  areas  of  level  uplands  in  Sumter,  Webster  and 
Stewart  counties,  in  the  lower  parts  of  Macon,  Schley  and  Marion,  and  in  the  upper 
parts  of  Lee,  Terrell,  Randolph  and  Quitman.  In  these  counties  the  clays  are 
underlaid  by  a  hard  limestone,  outcrops  of  which  are  seen  in  the  bluffs  of  the  Chat- 
ahoochee  south  of  Pataula  creek,  Clay  county,  in  the  caves  of  Randolph  county 
north  of  Cuthbert,  and  in  the  bluffs  of  Flint  river  at  Montezuma.  Pine,  oak  and 
hickory  also  characterize  the  growth  of  this  section.  Going  still  farther  south,  into 
the  counties  of  Clay,  Early,  Calhoun,  Terrell,  and  the  lower  part  of  Randolph  and 
Sumter,  we  find  the  lands  very  level  except  along  the  river.  The  sandy  soil  is  still 
more  shallow,  and  the  red  or  yellow  clay  subsoil  often  comes  to  the  surface,  forming 
by  admixture  a  mulatto  soil  sometimes  10  inches  in  depth.  Long-leaf  pine  becomes 
more  abundant  and  the  growth  more  open.  Lime  sinks  are  found  and  underground 
streams  are  frequently  seen  flowing  through  them.  Streams  disappear  and  as  sud- 
denly reappear  miles  away.  The  yield  of  the  fresh  uplands  region,  as  claimed  by 
correspondents  with  but  few  exceptions,  is  from  600  to  800  pounds  of  seed  cotton 
per  acre,  or  from  250  to  400  pounds  on  lands  of  several  years'  cultivation.  There  is, 
however,  some  difference  in  the  crops  of  various  portions  of  the  area,  some  producing 
fully  25  per  cent,  less  than  others, 

SOUTHERN   OAK,   HICKORY  AND  PINE   REGION. 

The  region  embraced  in  this  division  comprises  portions  of  the  counties  of 
Decatur,  Thomas  and  Brooks,  lying  along  and  near  the  Florida  line.  The  country 
is  for  the  most  part  high  and  rather  rolling,  and  is  about  75  feet  above  the  open 
wire-grass  country  on  the  north,  or  130  feet  above  the  river.  The  area  in  the  region 
is  about  2,317  square  miles.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  for  the  most  part  very 
open,  with  a  tall  timber  growth  of  long-leaf  pine.  The  soil  is  very  generally  sandy, 
from  6  to  12  inches  deep,  with  mostly  a  clayey  subsoil  underlaid  by  white  limestone. 
A  peculiar  feature  of  the  region  is  the  presence  of  a  red  clay  loam  in  small  localities 
where  the  timber  growth  is  oak  and  hickory.  Wire  grass  occurs  but  seldom  in  this 
region,  and  siliceous  shell  rocks  are  almost  entirely  absent,  except  in  some  lowlands. 
The  yield  is  reported  to  be  from  600  to  800  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre  after  four 
years'  cultivation. 


GEORGIA,  175 

LOWLANDS  OF  THE  CENTRAL  COTTON  BELT. 

The  bottoms  of  the  larger  streams  are  usually  liable  to  yearly  overflows,  and 
are,  therefore,  but  little  in  cultivation.  The  hummocks,  or  second  bottoms  of  the 
larger  streams,  above  overflow,  are  largely  under  cultivation,  and  on  some  of  the 
streams  are  very  extensive.  They  are  very  level,  and  have  a  growth  similar  to  the 
bottoms.  The  soil  is  a  rich  sandy  loam,  from  12  to  24  inches  deep,  with  much 
decayed  vegetation,  and  is  considered  the  most  productive  of  all  the  lands  of  the 
belt.  Of  seed  cotton  these  hummock  soils  yield  about  1,400  pounds  when  fresh, 
and  from  800  to  1,000  pounds  after  being  cultivated  a  few  years.  Heavy  clays  also 
underlie  the  lands.  These  lands  are,  however,  not  considered  best  for  cotton,  that 
crop  being  liable  to  injury  from  early  frosts  and  rust,  though  large  crops  are  pro- 
duced. They  are  said  to  be  late,  cold,  and  ill-drained.  The  alluvial  lands  of  the 
Savannah  river  are  very  level  and  wide,  and  have  a  growth  of  beech,  white  and 
water  oaks,  hickory,  ash,  holly,  bay,  birch,  walnut,  mulberry,  sycamore  and  cotton- 
wood.  The  soil,  a  fine  brown  loam  mixed  with  scales  of  mica,  is  from  2  to  3  feet 
deep,  with  a  putty-like  tenacious  pipe-clay,  which  is  hard  to  till,  and  breaks  up  in 
clods.  These  lands  are  largely  under  cultivation,  being  well  adapted  to  cotton,  corn 
and  grain,  though  the  former  suffers  much  from  rust  and  early  frosts.  The  yield  in 
seed  cotton  is  about  1,500  pounds  on  fresh  land,  and  1,000  pounds  after  a  few  years' 
cultivation ;  and,  unless  prevented  by  having  the  rows  far  apart,  or  by  other  means, 
it  grows  to  a  height  of  5  or  6  feet.  Very  little  of  this  land  lies  out. 

Along  the  Chattahoochee  river,  south  from  Columbus  to  Georgetown,  there  are 
many  level  valleys  of  open  prairie  occupying  a  position  similar  to  the  second  bottoms 
of  other  streams,  but  higher  and  without  their  growth.  In  Muscogee  county  these 
valleys  are  very  broad  and  open,  and  have  a  fine  sandy  loam  soil,  from  5  to  12  inches 
deep,  and  a  heavy  clay  subsoil.  In  the  counties  south,  where  the  blue  clay  marls 
approach  near  the  surface,  these  prairie  valleys  are  richer,  the  soil  being  darker  and 
more  tenacious.  The  sand  and  red  clays  of  the  adjoining  hills  enter  more  or  less 
into  its  composition.  In  the  southwestern  part  of  Stewart  county  this  valley  is  two 
or  more  miles  wide.  The  lands  under  cultivation  yield  from  800  to  1,200  pounds 
of  seed  cotton  per  acre  when  fresh,  and  from  600  to  800  pounds  after  five  or  ten  years 
of  constant  tillage. 

LONG-LEAF  PINE  AND  WIRE-GRASS  REGION. 

This  region  covers  a  large  portion  of  Southern  Georgia,  south  of  the  oak  and 
hickory  and  pine  lands  of  the  Central  Cotton  Belt,  extending  from  the  Savannah 
river  on  the  east  to  the  Chattahoochee  river  on  the  west,  and  including  in  its  area 
eighteen  whole  counties  and  large  parts  of  others.  The  entire  region  is,  as  it  were, 
a  vast  plain  very  nearly  level,  except  on  the  north,  and  covered  with  a  growth  of 
tall  long-leaf  pine.  Their  large  and  straight  trunks  are  devoid  of  branches  for  from 
30  to  100  feet  above  the  ground,  and  stand  so  far  apart  as  to  make  an  average  of 
only  from  50  to  75  trees  per  acre,  with  only  here  and  there  some  undergrowth.  In 
most  of  the  region  public  roads  are  of  use  only  as  guides  and  a  means  of  crossing 
any  small  streams  that  may  come  in  the  way,  and  to  avoid  the  fallen  timber  that 
marks  numerous  storm-tracks.  Over  large  areas,  where  the  lands  are  a  dark  sandy 
loam  with  yellow  sandy  subsoil,  the  roads  are  compact,  hard  and  smooth.  Houses 
in  this  region  are  few.  Lumber,  turpentine,  resin,  and  charcoal  are  prominent 
-  products.  Turpentine  farms  of  from  10,000  to  75,000  trees  each  are  found  throughout 
the  entire  region,  and  especially  in  the  middle,  eastern  and  southeastern  portions. 
The  assertion  that  the  long-leaf  pine  will  not  return  on  land  cut  over  or  burned  off, 
needs  to  be  vehemently  denied,  for  it  has  obtained  wide  credence.  Every  close 
observer,  however,  can  go  into  the  wood  and  find  pines  (long  leaf)  from  a  foot  high, 
on  through  all  sizes.  Doubtless  yearly  burnings  over  do  much  to  prevent  the  growth 


176  GEORGIA. 

of  young  pines ;  still,  even  under  these  difficulties,  plenty  of  young  long-leaf  (pinus 
AustraMs^)  pines  can  be  found.  The  region  takes  it  name  from  the  so-called  wire 
grass  that  covers  the  entire  region  from  the  Savannah  river  westward  to  the  Chatta- 
hoochee  river,  and  into  Alabama. 

STREAMS. 

The  streams  of  the  Long-leaf  Pine  and  Wire-grass  Region,  soon  after  they 
leave  the  oak  and  hickory  belts,  become  slow  in  their  movements,  and  have  banks 
from  25  to  30  feet  high  (showing  on  some  of  the  streams  heavy  beds  of  sandstone), 
with  bottom  lands  not  very  wide.  Southward  they  become  slower  in  movement, 
with  bottom  lands  increasing  in  width.  The  small  streams  are  usually  very 
sluggish,  and  dark  from  decayed  vegetation.  The  saw  palmetto  appears  on  the 
lowlands,  while  the  pitcher  plant  also  covers  large  areas. 

The  surface  of  the  upper  and  western  portion  of  this  region  is  somewhat  rolling 
or  undulating,  with  a  few  low  ridges  or  hills,  and  is  elevated  from  25  to  50  or  even 
75  feet  above  the  streams,  and  from  200  to  500  feet  above  the  sea.  This  is  especially 
the  case  in  the  northeastern  and  southwestern  portions  of  the  region,  which  also 
differ  from  tbe  rest  in  being  underlaid  by  limestone  (lime-sink  region,)  and  having 
a  better  class  of  soil,  as  indicated  by  the  occasional  admixture  of  oak  and  hickory 
with  the  long-leaf  pine. 

THE  LIME-SINK  REGION. 

The  Lime-Sink  Region  lies  chiefly  on  the  west  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  water- 
divide.  The  soft  limestone  underlying  this  section,  instead  of  the  sandstone  alluded 
to,  is  accompanied  on  the  surface,  and  sometimes  in  beds,  by  masses  of  a  siliceous 
and  aluminous  and  often  flinty  shell  rock.  The  eastern  limit  of  this  Lime-Sink 
Region  is  marked  by  a  line  of  low  ridges,  branching  off  southward  from  the  main 
divide,  and  separating  the  waters  of  the  Allapaha  and  Withlacoochee  rivers  from 
those  ol  the  Flint  river.  This  line  passes  through  the  eastern  side  of  "Worth  and 
Colquitt  counties,  and  southeastward  into  Brooks  and  Lowndes.  The  region  em- 
braces about  7,020  square  miles  and  includes  the  following  counties  and  parts  of 
counties :  Screven  (except  a  strip  along  the  eastern  and  northern  sides  of  the  county), 
the  lower  part  of  Burke,  the  upper  part  of  Bulloch,  all  of  Miller,  Mitchell,  Colquitt 
and  Worth,  the  southern  parts  of  Pulaski,  Dougherty,  Baker  and  Early,  the  northern 
parts  of  Decatur,  Thomas,  Brooks  and  Lowndes,  the  eastern  parts  of  Dooley,  Lee 
and  Dougherty,  and  the  western  parts  of  Irwin,  Berrien,  Dodge  and  Wilcox. 

In  this  Lime-Sink  Region  the  banks  of  the  streams  are  from  50  to  75  feet  high, 
and  the  bottoms  rather  narrow,  with  a  growth  of  oak,  hickory,  walnut,  magnolia 
and  dogwood.  The  water  is  generally  clear,  though  not  rapid  in  movement.  On 
the  uplands  the  timber  growth  is  almost  exclusively  long-leaf  pine,  except  in  the 
vicinity  of  large  streams,  where  oak  is  found  to  some  extent.  The  country  is  very 
open,  and  resembles  very  much  the  pine  barrens,  though  it  is  not  as  level.  The 
depressions  of  the  surface,  called  "  lime-sinks,"  are  caused  by  the  dissolution  and 
wearing  away  of  underlying  limestone.  Into  one  of  these  sinks  sometimes  a  small 
stream  falls  and  disappears,  while  in  another  the  underground  stream  may  be  seen 
flowing  past.  In  others  the  water  is  still  and  quiet,  but  rises  and  falls  in  conjunc- 
tion with  some  neighboring  large  stream,  thus  showing  underground  connections. 
Ponds  are  also  abundant ;  one  of  these,  near  Bainbridge,  Decatur  county,  being  3 
miles  in  circumference.  Caves  are  often  found  associated  with  these  sinks,  and  in 
some  the  great  rush  of  air,  that  either  enters  or  comes  from  them,  has  given  to  them 
the  name  of  "  blowing  caves  ". 

This  is  a  better  cotton-producing  region  than  the  pine  barrens.  The  uplands  of 
the  region,  with  their  long-leaf  pine  and  wire  grass,  have  a  gray  sandy  soil,  which 
is  from  6  to  12  inches  deep,  and  a  red  or  yellow  sandy  clay  subsoil.  They  yield  at 


GEORGIA.  177 

first  from  500  to  800  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre,  but  after  eight  or  ten  years, 
without  fertilizers,  this  is  diminished  to  350  or  500  pounds.  The  country  is  so 
sparsely  settled  that  the  farms  are  located  chiefly  on  the  better  classes  of  land. 
The  narrow  bottoms  of  some  of  the  creek  lands  are  very  fertile. 

PINE  BARRENS,  OR  SANDY,  WIRE-GRASS  REGION. 

The  division  known  as  the  Pine  Barrens  proper  covers  an  area  of  over  10,000 
square  miles,  and  includes  the  following  counties  and  parts  of  counties:  Tattnall, 
Montgomery,  Emanuel,  Telfair,  Appling,  Coffee,  the  middle  of  Emngham,  the 
southern  portions  of  Bulloch,  Johnson  and  Laurens,  the  eastern  parts  of  Wilcox, 
Irwin,  Berrien  and  Lowndes,  the  upper  portions  of  Pierce,  Wayne,  Mclntoshr 
Liberty  and  Bryan,  and  areas  in  Jefferson,  Washington,  Dodge,  Ware  and  Clinch. 
It  has  a  generally  level  or  slightly  undulating  surface,  and  is  underlaid  in  many 
places  by  a  sandstone,  which  juts  out  in  bold  bluffs  on  some  of  the  streams.  The 
soil  is  usually  fine  and  sandy,  with  a  yellow  sandy  subsoil,  though  clay  frequently 
underlies  it.  The  surface  of  the  country  in  the  upper  counties  is  rolling  or  undu- 
lating, but  becomes  quite  level  southward,  the  soil  also  becoming  less  sandy.  The 
lands  contain  much  ferruginous  gravel  or  brown  pebbles.  The  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
water-divide  forms  a  rolling  country  as  it  passes  south  and  then  southeast  through 
the  counties  of  Dooly,  Wilcox,  Irwin  and  Coffee. 

The  Wire-Grass  Region  terminates  near  the  coast,  forming  the  second  terrace. 
From  this  terrace  there  is  a  descent  for  15  or  25  feet  to  the  the  savannas  and  pine 
flat  and  palmetto  lands.  About  eighteen  counties  are  devoted  to  cotton  culture, 
lumber  and  turpentine  interests,  absorbing  nearly  the  whole  attention  of  its  country 
people,  especially  near  the  navigable  water  courses.  The  introduction  of  fertilizers 
in  this  section  has  made  the  cultivation  of  cotton  profitable,  and  has  broken  up  to 
some  extent  the  old  method  of  throwing  away  old  land  and  taking  in  new.  The 
soil  of  the  uplands  is  sandy  and  gray  or  ash  colored,  12  inches  deep,  and  has  a  subsoil 
of  yellow  or  orange  colored  loam.  In  the  higher  regions  there  is  sometimes  a  clay 
subsoil  approaching  the  surface,  giving  to  the  land  greater  fertility  and  durability, 
as  indicated  by  the  oak  and  hickory  growth.  The  soil  is  frequently  covered  with 
gravel,  either  of  quartz  or  ferruginous  concretions,  yellow  or  dark  brown  externally, 
and  either  smooth  or  rough  with  a  black  interior.  These  sandy  soils,  while  pro- 
ducing a  very  good  crop  of  cotton  when  new  and  fresh,  very  soon  wear  out,  and 
without  the  aid  of  fertilizers  their  cultivation  is  not  profitable.  The  yield  in  seed 
cotton  on  fresh  sandy  uplands,  without  the  aid  of  fertilizers,  is  about  500  pounds 
per  acre;  after  cultivation  for  several  years  this  is  diminished  to  about  300  pounds 
of  seed  cotton,  or  100  pounds  of  lint,  per  acre.  Of  other  crops,  corn  and  oats  yield 
10  bushels  per  acre,  while  sorghum  cane  does  very  well  and  much  attention  is 
given  to  its  cultivation.  The  bottom  lands  in  some  counties  are  considered  better 
than  the  uplands,  but  are  more  or  less  liable  to  overflow.  In  the  northern  section 
it  is  found  that  where  cotton  is  cultivated  it  suffers  from  rust,  and  is  liable  to  be 
killed  by  early  frost;  hence  corn  is  raised  instead  of  cotton.  The  soil  is  very  sandy, 
and  is  almost  colored  black  by  decayed  leaves  and  other  vegetation.  Its  depth  is  12 
inches  or  more,  and  it  is  sometimes  underlaid  by  clay.  The  growth  is  poplar, 
cypress  and  titi,  with  some  pine  and  "fever-tree"  or  Georgia  bark  (Pinckneya  pubem). 
The  second  bottoms,  or  hummock  lands,  differ  from  the  bottoms  in  being  above 
overflow,  but  their  other  features  are  similar. 

1  think  that  one  great  use  these  immense  pine  tracts  will  be  put  to  some  day 
will  be  to  convert  them  into  immense  sheep  walks,  seeding  them  to  Bermuda  grass, 
white  clover  and  red-top  or  orchard  grass.  These  gravelly  hills  will  doubtless,  in 
many  instances,  become  clad  with  vineyards.  No  doubt  the  Delaware  grape  will 
succeed  well  there. 


178  GEORGIA. 

PINE  AND  PALMETTO  FLATS. 

The  region  thus  designated  lies  in  the  southeastern  corner  oi  the  State,  around 
Okefenokee  swamp,  and  embraces  mainly  Charlton,  Echols  and  Clinch  counties 
and  large  portions  of  Ware,  Pierce  and  Wayne.  It  is  considerably  higher  than  the 
belt  of  the  coast  region  that  extends  across  other  counties  to  the  Savannah  river. 
The  country  is  very  level,  open,  and  sparsely  settled,  and  is  covered  with  many 
swamps  having  a  dense  growth  of  gums,  titi,  sweet  and  loblolly  bays,  etc.,  forming 
an  impenetrable  thicket. 

COAST  REGION. 

The  region  properly  designated  "savannas"  occupies  a  belt  of  country  from  10  to 
15  miles  wide,  between  the  pine  barrens  and  wire-grass  region  on  one  side  and  the 
coast  live  oak  lands  on  the  other,  extends  from  the  Savannah  to  the  Saint  Mary's 
river,  and  embraces  nearly  all  of  the  counties  of  Chatham,  Bryan,  Glyn  and  Cam- 
den,  and  large  portions  of  Liberty  and  Mclntosh.  The  surface  of  the  country  is 
very  level,  and  10  or  15  feet  above  tide  water,  and  comprises  what  is  known  as  the 
"first  terrace."  Its  northwestern  limit  is  the  bluff  of  the  second  or  wire-grass 
terrace,  passing  through  the  lower  part  of  Effingham  (20  miles  north  of  Savannah,) 
into  Bryan,  where  it  is  50  feet  high.  Southward  through  Liberty  county  this  bluff 
forms  the  "gravel  hill"  south  of  Hinesville,  which  has  an  elevation  of  from  15- to  30 
feet  above  the  sea.  Deep  sands  are  found  here.  Thence  the  limit  extends  through 
Mclntosh  county  to  Waynesville,  and,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Saltilla  river,  into 
and  across  Camden  county  at  a  distance  of  about  15  miles  east'  of  Colerain.  At  this 
point  the  rise  is  about  25  feet.  Within  this  region,  adjoining  the  marsh  lands,  there 
is  a  belt  of  live-oak  land,  having  a  width  of  several  miles,  which  properly  belongs 
to  the  savannas.  This  region,  along  the  first  or  lower  terrace,  is  noted  for  its  beau- 
tiful meadow  or  savanna  lands,  which  are  broad,  flat  and  open  plains,  having  no 
growth  other  than  sparse  and  tall  long-leaf  pine  and  a  thick  undergrowth  of  saw 
palmetto,  with  here  and  there  bunches  of  wire  grass  that  has  found  its  way  down 
from  the  upper  terrace.  In  the  spring  and  early  summer  months  these  plains  are 
covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  flowers  which  gives  to  them  an  enchanting  appear- 
ance. 

I  have  thus  given  great  space  to  the  many  minute  divisions  made  of  Georgia 
lands.  Georgia  is  such  an  immense  State,  so  prominent  agriculturally,  has  caught 
the  public  eye  so  thoroughly  that  I  have  felt  it  worth  while  to  show  to  the  reader, 
who  may  be  thinking  of  making  a  home  there  as  a  farmer,  as  much  of  the  State 
from  an  agricultural  standpoint  as  I  could,  particularly  displaying  topographies  and 
soils.  Having  seen  something  of  the  constituents  of  the  various  soils  and  their  needs, 
let  us  see  what  Georgia  possesses  to  supply  these  original  defects  or  impair  wasted 
fertility.  This  leads  us  to  a  consideration  of  her 

MARLS. 

Throughout  the  Central  Cotton  Belt  there  occur  extensive  beds  of  marl  and 
limestone,  beneath  the  sands  and  clays  of  the  hills,  often  exposed  along  the  banks 
and  bluffs  of  the  streams.  The  marls,  composed  of  a  mass  of  comminuted  shells, 
are  especially  valuable  agriculturally,  because  of  their  richness  in  lime,  and  some- 
times in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  They  vary  greatly  in  the  thickness  of  their 
beds  and  in  their  character  and  composition,  and  mostly  belong  to  the  class  of 
Stimulant  manures  that  serve  by  their  lime  to  make  available  for  plant  use  the  food 
elements  that  exists  in  the  soil  in  an  insoluble  condition.  There  are  also  other  beds 
containing  much  green  sand  (glauconite),  rich  in  potash  and  valuable  as  a  nutritive 
manure. 


GEORGIA. 


179 


BLUE   GREEN-SAND  MARL. 

There  is  an  extensive  lot  of  blue  marl  along  the  banks  of  the  Chattahoochee 
river,  in  Stewart  county,  which  is  rendered  valuable  by  its  green  sand  character. 
It  occurs  in  a  bed  exposed  some  15  or  20  feet,  and  for  many  miles  along  the  river, 
dips  to  the  southwest,  and  finally  disappears  below  the  water. 

TERTIARY   MARLS. 

The  tertiary  marls  are  far  more  extensive,  as  well  as  more  valuable,  than  are 
the  cretaceous  beds.  They  are  generally  a  white  and  friable  mass  of  broken  shells 
and  fine  corals,  and  are  so  compact  as  to  form  almost  perpendicular  bluffs  where 
exposed  on  the  larger  streams.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  lower  or  Clai- 
borne  beds,  which  occur  at  Fort  Gaines,  Clay  county,  forming  there  a  bed  25  feet  or 
more  thick.  This  marl  has  numerous  outcrops  eastward  to  the  Savannah  river, 
where  thick  beds  occur  at  the  foot  of  Shell  Bluff  and  at  Silver  Bluff.  It  contains 
usually  as  much  as  95  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  is  well  worth  transporta- 
tion to  the  farms  of  the  region  and  elsewhere.  Its  use  upon  the  soil  has  been 
attended  with  a  large  increase  in  productiveness,  as  attested  by  several  farmers  in 
Lee  county.  When  used  broadcast  on  the  land  its  effects  are  not  usually  apparent 
in'the  first  year's  crop ;  but  afterwards  it  produces  a  marked  and  continuous  im- 
provement, provided  there  are  fair  amounts  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  already 
present  in  the  soil.  GREEN-SAND  CLAYS. 

Overlying  these  beds  of  limestone  and  white  marl  in  the  counties  of  Twiggs, 
Wilkinson  and  Houston  are  other  beds  of  green-sand  clays  from  12  to  24  inches 
thick.  These  contain,  as  shown  by  analysis,  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  potash,  and  are 
well  worth  removal  to  those  farms  whose  soils  are  lacking  in  this  element  of  plant 
food.  A  complete  analysis  of  the  marl  has  not  been  made.  Another  bed  of  a  white 
pulverulent  marl  occurs  in  the  banks  of  the  Saltilla  river,  at  Burnt  Fort,  in  Charlton 
county ;  it  is  doubtless  also  very  rich  in  lime. 

Mr.  John  C.  Smock,  in  Williams'  Mineral  Resources  of  tlie  United  States,  gives 
the  following  localities  of  marl ;  Bibb,  Chattahoochee,  Stewart,  Quitman,  Thomas, 
Randolph,  Clay,  Crawford,  Washington,  Houston,  Pulaski,  Charlton,  Burke,  Screven, 
Effingham,  Chatham,  Bulloch,  Emmanuel  and  Jefferson  counties.  These  counties 
-occupy  central  and  southern  parts  of  the  State. 

I  take  the  following  table  from  Williams'  Mineral  Resources  of  flie  United  States, 
printed  in  1883 : 

ORES,  MINERALS  AND  MINERAL    SUBSTANCES,   OF    INDUSTRIAL    IMPORTANCE, 
WHICH  ARE  AT  PRESENT  MINED. 


Mineralogical 
Name. 


Chalcocite  . . 
Chalcopyrite 


Coal 

-Gold  . . 


Hematite. .. 


Common  Name. 


Buhrstone,  millstone. . . 

Vitreous  copper,  copper 
glance. 

Pyritous  copper  ore,  yel- 
low copper  ore,  copper 
pyrites. 

Coal  . , 


Gold 


Red  Hematite,  fossil  ore 


Remarks. 


Early,  Burke,  Screven,  Bullock  and  Jefferson  counties.. 

Canton  mine,  Cherokee  county;  other  localities  with  chal- 
copyrite. 

Canton  mine,  Cherokee  county;  other  localities  in  Lump- 
kin,  Fannin,  Townes,  Fulton,  Carroll,  Murray,  Paulding, 
Haralson,  Greene  and  Lincoln  counties. 

Bituminous  coal,  Dade  county ;  on  west  brow  of  Lookout 
mountain ;  Coal  Measures,  in  Chattooga  county,  and  in 
Walker  county. 

Auriferous  district  occupies  one-third  of  State  from  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee  southwest  and  west  to  Alabama, 
occupying  a  large  number  of  counties.  Deep  mines  and 
placers,  worked  chiefly  in  Rabun,  Lumpkin,  Dawson, 
White,  Hall  and  Union  counties.  The  mining  centres  are 
at  Dahlonega  and  vicinity,  and  about  Auraria,  in  Lump- 
kin  county.  A  third  district  is  on  the  east  side  of  State, 
in  McDuffie,  Lincoln  and  Wilkes  counties.  Gold  occurs  in 
quartz  seams  and  veins;  which  traverse  micaceous,  talcose, 
chloritic  and  hornblendic  schists.  The  soils,  disintegrated 
rocks  and  gravels,  and  sands  also  are  gold-bearing  over 
wide  areas. 

Lookout  mountain,  Dade  county,  a  continuous  stratum  i  to 
3  feet  thick  ;  McLempre's  cove,  Dade  county;  Iron  Ridge, 
Walker  county ;  Whitfield  and  Floyd  counties. 


180 


GEORGIA. 


Mineralogical 
Name. 

Common  Name. 

Remarks. 

tensive  deposits  ;  valley  of  Etowah  river,  in  Cass,  Floyd, 
Murray  and  Paulding  counties. 

Marble   

town,  Polk  county,  very  extensive  bed  ;  ^Etna  Iron  Works' 
ore  bank,  JEtna,  Polk  county  ;  ore  banks  of  Ridge  Valley 
Iron  Works,  Floyd  county;  Hall's  station  banks  and  Bar- 
ton Iron  Works,  Floyd  county  ;   Peach-tree  bank,  Barton 
county  ;  iron  ore  reported  also  in  Fannin,  Gilmer,  Whit- 
field,  Catoosa,  Gordon,  Haralson,  Milton,  Hall,  Haber- 
sham,  White,  Jackson  and  Walker  counties,  in  northwest 
and  north  part  of  State  ;  in  Greene,  McDuffie  and  Burke, 
in  central  belt. 
Near  Van  Wert  Polk  county  white  •  Fannin  Gilmer  Whit- 

Marl  

field,  Floyd,  Richmond,  Walker,  Catoosa  and  Chattooga 
counties,  all  in  northwest  part  of  State. 

Mica 

Clay,  Crawford,  Washington,  Houston,  Pulaski,  Charlton, 
Burke,  Screven,  Effingham,  Chatham,  Bullock,  Emanuel 
and  Jefferson  counties.  These  counties  occupy  central 
and  southern  part  of  State.  Marls  have  limited  use  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  diggings. 

Slate  (roofing)  

Townes  and  Carroll  counties. 
Gentry's  Quarry,  near  Van  Wert,  Polk  county  ;  Rockmart, 

Polk  county;  Gordon  and  Barton  counties. 

ORES,   MINERALS,  AND   MINERAL   SUBSTANCES    OF   INDUSTRIAL   IMPORTANCE 
AND  KNOWN  OCCURRENCE,  BUT  WHICH  ARE  NOT  AT  PRESENT  MINED. 


Rabun,  Cobb  and  Oglethorpe  counties. 
Canton  mine,  Cherokee  county. 
Rabun,  Fulton,    Townes,    Habersham,    De  Kalb,    Paulding 
and  Troup  counties. 
Near  Allatoona,  Barton  county,  extensive  bed  ;  Murray  and 
Barton  counties. 
Rabun,  Townes  and  Union  counties. 
Canton  mine,  Cherokee  county,  with  chalcopyrite  and  chal- 
cocite. 
White  and  Hall  counties.     Only  few  finds  thus  far. 
Harris'  mine,  Hall  county,  argentiferous  galena  with  pyrite; 
Cohutta  mountains;  Murray,  Floyd,  Lincoln,  Habersham, 
Hall  and  Union  counties. 

Arsenopyrite  
Asbestos  

Asbestos   

Barytes,  heavy  spar.  .  .  . 

Galenite 

Galena,  sulphide  of  lead. 

Granite  

Graphite  

Itacolumite  
Kaolinite  

Magnetite  

Molybdenite.... 
Novaculite  
Opal  .. 

Granite  

Plumbago,  black  lead.  .  . 

Flexible  sandstone  
Kaolin,  porcelain  clay  .  . 

Magnetic  iron  ore  

Stone  mountain:    Gwinnett,  DeKalb,    Heard,   Oglethorpe. 
Clarke,    Muscogee,    Columbia,    Richmond    and    Wilkes 
counties. 
Pickens   and    Carroll    counties    (specimens);    Habersham, 
Cherokee,  Carroll,  Clarke,  Elbert  and  Hart  counties. 
Hall  county. 
Cherokee,  Pickens,  Heard,  McDuffie,  Columbia  and  Rich- 
mond counties. 
Near  Rome,  Floyd  county;  near  Villa  Rica,  Carroll  county, 
no  well'definea  vein  ;  Lumpkin  and  Carroll  counties. 
Townes,  Lincoln  and  Barton  counties.     In  latter  has  been 
mined  for  use  in  manufacture  of  ferro-manganese. 
Heard  county. 
McDuffie,  Oglethorpe  and  Lincoln  counties. 
Fire-opal,  Washington   county,  good  specimens  as  gems; 
Bullock  county  ;  hyalite  in  Burke  and  Screven  counties. 
Fulton  and  Carroll  counties. 
Blue  sapphires  have  been  found  on  Sequale  creek. 
Rabun,  Townes  and  Union  counties. 
Union,  Hall  and  Murray  counties. 
Dalton,  Whitfield  county;    Cobb,  Union,  Fannin,  Gilmer, 
Hall,  Habersham,  White,  De  Kalb,  Fulton,  Murray,  Jas- 
per, Paulding,  Elbert  and  Clayton  counties. 
Polk,  Lumpkin,  Paulding  and  Cherokee  counties. 
Murray,  Whitfield  and  Lincoln  counties. 

Sulphide  of  molybdenum 
Oilstone 

Opal   (fire-opal)  

Pyrite 

Pyrites,  iron  pyrites  

Serpentine  

Serpentine  
Silver  

Talc  

Steatite,  soapstone  

Tetradymite  .  .  . 
Tripolite  

Infusorial  earth  

I  have  seen  fine  slates  from  Polk  county.  The  colors  are  black,  red  and  olive. 
A  scientist  tells  me  it  is  in  great  force  there. 

Messrs.  Campbell  &  RufTner  lately  compiled  a  pamphlet  on  a  "Physical  Survey 
of  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi  along  the  line  of  the  Georgia  Pacific  Railway," 
from  which  I  quote : 

"While  the  chief  mineral  wealth  of  Georgia  and  Central  Alabama  is  treasured 


GEORGIA.  181 

up  in  iron  ores,  limestones  and  coals,  there  are  yet  other  valuable  minerals  that 
claim  our  attention.  Of  these  Georgia  holds  a  liberal  share.  The  copper  belt  in 
Georgia  and  Alabama  possesses  some  promising  features,  and  has  already  attracted 
considerable  attention,  due  in  part  to  the  successful  utilization  of  the  sulphur  of 
these  ores,  in  making  sulphuric  acid  near  Atlanta.  Villa  Rica,  in  Carroll  county, 
38  miles  west  of  Atlanta,  is  a  good  starting  point  for  those  who  wish  to  make  special 
examinations  ol  the  present  developments  and  future  prospects  of  the  copper  ores. 
N.  P.  Pratt,  Esq.,  in  a  Report  of  Progress,  makes  the  following  summary  of  observ- 
ations near  Villa  Rica,  which  we  give  with  some  abbreviations  : 

"  'In  1852-1854  the  copper  fever  spread  here  from  Ducktown,  Tenn.,  causing 
great  excitement  over  every  spot  along  the  lode  where  hydrated  oxide  of  iron  ap- 
peared on  the  surface.  High  prices  were  refused  by  the  owners  of  the  lands,  many 
of  whom  undertook  to  open  mines  without  any  experience  or  knowledge  of  mining, 
and  the  natural  result  was  the  loss  of  capital  and  final  abandonment  of  the 
work.  The  construction  of  the  Georgia  Pacific  Railway,  and  the  Atlanta  experi- 
ment (which  has  shown  that  the  sulphur  formerly  thrown  away  may  be  profitably 
used  and  the  copper  extracted  from  the  residue),  have  given  this  matter  new  life.' 

"  Graphite  was  found  in  the  archaean  rocks  of  Cobb  county,  about  two  miles 
north  of  the  line  of  the  railway,  near  Ross'  store.  There  are  indications  of  several 
seams  running  parallel  with  one  another.  The  widest  exposure  was  about  two  feet. 
From  this  deposit  N.  P.  Pratt,  Esq.,  obtained  about  fifty  pounds  for  the  Atlanta 
Exposition.  He  also  sent  a  sample  to  New  York,  which  was  valued  at  $20  per  ton. 
The  graphite  here  is  imbedded  in  hydromica  slate.  The  outcrop  is  on  a  hill-side 
where  mining  would  be  easy.  Another  bed  of  graphite  was  cut  in  sinking  a  well 
in  Haralson  county,  (Lot  105,  Dist.  20,  Sec.  3,)  but  its  extent  has  not  been  deter- 
mined. The  mineral  occurs  also  in  Carroll  county,  Ga.,  and  in  Cleburne,  Clay 
and  Randolph  counties,  Alabama. 

"  Corundum. — Mr.  Pratt  gave  special  attention  to  this  mineral,  and  collected 
some  valuable  facts  in  regard  to  it.  He  says :  '  the  first  locality  is  about  two  miles 
south  of  Powder  Springs,  in  Cobb  county,  Ga.  *  *  *  Here,  about  160  pounds  were 
taken  from  the  surface ;  one  piece,  of  a  flesh  color,  weighing  as  much  as  3  pounds. 
*  *•  *  rjihe  average  quality  of  the  mineral  is  much  finer  than  any  I  have  seen  in 
this  country,  not  excepting  the  best  specimens  from  North  Carolina.  The  prevail- 
ing color  is  a  dark  flesh  red,  and  the  mineral  almost  free  from  impurities.  Besides 
the  large  masses,  characteristic  crystals  of  a  grayish  color  and  rough  surface  were 
also  found.  A  second  locality  of  corundum  is  near  Villa  Rica,  in  Carroll  county, 
Ga.  From  this  point  as  much  as  a  wagon  load  has  been  removed  from  the  surface 
by  different  parties.  *  *  *  Specimens  of  various  sizes  were  scattered  in  a  line 
running  southwest  through  two  forty-acre  lots.' 

"  Mica. — Very  little  attention  has  heretofore  been  given  to  this  mineral  in  either 
Georgia  or  Alabama.  Promising  samples,  however,  have  been  obtained  from  near 
McAfee's  Ferry,  in  Fulton  county,  from  several  points  in  Paulding  county,  and 
from  near  Carrollton,  Carroll  county,  Ga. 

"  Talc  (Steatite),  Soapstone. — The  best  specimens  of  soapstone  that  we  saw  were 
from  Douglas,  Fulton  and  Paulding  counties,  Georgia.  It  has  been  quarried  suc- 
cessfully about  five  miles  south  of  Douglas ville. 

"  Potter  s  Clay. — Georgia  has  beds  in  Cherokee,  Pickens,  Heard,  McDuffie,  Col- 
umbia and  Richmond  counties,  which  are  not  yet  developed.  A  white  porcelain 
clay  occurs  in  Randolph  county,  and  near  Sulphur  Springs  station,  DeKalb  county. 
This  last  locality  is  worked.  Pottery  clays  are  found  also  in  Coosa  and  Macon 
counties,  and  extensive  beds  occur  near  Jacksonville,  Calhoun  county. 

" Manganese , — The  mines  furnishing  the  most  valuable  ores  at  present  are  located 
in  the  Etowah  region,  in  Bartow  county,  Georgia.  Sometimes,  with  the  Georgia 


182  GEORGIA. 

ore,  the  amount  of  manganese  reaches  the  .neighborhood  of  80  per  cent.    It  runs- 
from  66  to  70  per  cent. 

"ANALYSIS  OF  GEORGIA  ORE: 

Water ,.I7 

Silica 4.00 

Manganese  dioxide 66 . 40 

Ferric  oxide 10.08 

Barium  sulphate o.  29 

Calcium  carbonate — trace. 

Oxide  of  manganese  other  than  dioxide 18.06 

Total 100.00  " 

In  Georgia,  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  "  intensive  system  of  culture,"  has 
excited  great  attention  and  considerable  imitation.  It  may  be  said  to  be  the  fund- 
amental and  vital  principle  of  the  revolution  impending  in  Georgia  with  reference 
to  agriculture.  Its  influence  is  communicating  to  other  States,  and  its  effects  upon 
the  State  of  Georgia  are  seen  in  many  respects— most  noticeably  in  the  greatly 
increased  production  of  agricultural  staples,  and  hi  the  elastic,  sanguine,  erect  spirit 
of  her  agriculturalists.  Her  farmers  have  seen  the  possibilities  in  the  soils  of  the 
State  with  judicious  treatment,  and,  so  far  from  the  repining,  shiftless,  despondent 
spirit  that  marked,  almost  everywhere,  Southern  agriculture  a  few  years  ago,  there  is 
an  aggressive  hopeful  spirit — an  alacrity  and  confidence  of  endeavor.  Hon.  H.  C. 
Furman,  of  Milledgeville,  Baldwin  county,  who  died  about  two  years  ago,  was  most 
prominent  because  of  his  extraordinary  success  in  producing  75  bales  of  cotton  and 
500  bushels  of  oats  from  65  acres  of  old  land  that  had  previously  yielded  but  8  bales, 
and  was  considered  worthless.  Mr.  Furman's  method  is  summed  up  as  follows : 

"  In  1878  I  took  65  acres  of  land,  the  original  growth  of  which  was  scrub  oak  and 
pine.  It  lies  well,  is  slightly  rolling,  and  was  cleared  nearly  30  years  ago.  The  soil 
is  light  sand  with  a  firm,  red  clay  subsoil  within  5  or  10  inches  of  the  surface,  and 
was  worn  out  and  considered  worthless  years  ago.  This  piece  of  land,  planted  in 
cotton  and  cultivated  carefully,  without  manure,  yielded  me  the  first  year  8  bales ; 
second  year,  with  500  pounds  of  compost  per  acre,  the  yield  was  12  bales ;  third 
year,  with  1,000  pounds  of  compost  per  acre,  the  yield  was  23  bales;  fourth  year, 
with  2,000  pounds  of  compost  per  acre,  the  yield  was  47  bales.  This  year  (1882),  I 
used  4,000  pounds  of  compost  per  acre,  and  have  gathered  75  bales.  From  5  acres 
of  this  land  I  this  year  harvested  500  bushels  of  oats.  I  then  planted  it  in  cotton 
(June  7),  and  the  yield  was  from  1|  to  2  bales  per  acre.  My  estimate  of  the  cost  of 
production  this  year  is  4£  cents  per  pound.  Up  to  this  time  I  have  made  no  great 
departure  from  the  Dickson  system  of  cultivation  and  preparation,  have  never  sub- 
soiled,  and  only  break  my  land  in  bedding,  plant  very  late,  never  till  after  May, 
manure  in  the  drill,  opening  deep  and  wide,  listing  in  the  manure  and  letting  it 
stand  until  ready  to  plant ;  then  throw  two  furrows  on  the  list  and  plant  with  a 
Dowlaw  planter,  breaking  out  the  middles  and  finishing  the  bed  after  the  cotton  is 
in  the  ground,  thus  giving  a  porus  bed  for  the  plant  and  killing  the  first  crop  of 
grass  at  the  same  time ;  cultivate  with  a  sweep,  and  let  the  cultivation  be  as  shallow 
as  possible.  I  change  the  drills  12  inches  every  year,  so  as  to  enable  me  in  four 
years  to  manure  across  my  land  with  4-foot  rows. 

"  The  true  secret  of  my  success  lies  in  the  character  of  my  compost.  I  insist 
upon  furnishing  each  crop  with  a  manure  that  contains  every  element  necessary  to 
that  crop  combined  in  the  proportions  which  the  crop  requires  them.  In  order 
to  do  this  accurate  knowledge  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the  crop  (stalk,  leaf 
and  fruit,)  is  essential.  For  cotton,  then,  my  aim  was  to  make  a  compost  that  would 
contain  the  elements  that  form  it,  viz :  Phosphoric  acid,  potash,  soda,  humus,  lime, 
silica,  and  nitrogen,  and  in  the  right  proportions.  This  compost  is  made  with  30 
bushels  of  cotton  seed,  30  bushels  stable  manure,  or  well-rotted  leaves  or  organic 
matter,  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  and  200  pounds  of  kainit.  In  this  mixture 


GEORGIA.  183 

the  kainit  is  indispensable.  It  furnishes  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  soda,  and  a  sub- 
stance called  "  bittern,"  and,  combined  with  humus,  is  a  specific  against  rust  in 
cotton.  After  manuring  in  the  drill  for  four  years  and  filling  the  ground  with 
humus  we  come  to  a  point  where  ideal  cotton  culture  can  begin.  Now  we  begin 
to  manure  broadcast,  turning  it  in  flush,  harrowing  the  ground,  laying  it  off  on  a 
level  in  rows  4  by  4  feet,  and  planting  cotton  at  the  intersection  of  each  furrow.  In 
this  system  we  dispense  with  the  hoe,  the  most  deadly  enemy  the  cotton  plant  has 
to  encounter,  and  use  the  plow  altogether,  ploughing  both  ways,  and  thinning  by 
hand  to  a  stand  of  two  stalks  per  hill.  Under  this  system  of  culture,  properly 
carried  out,  I  believe  that  an  average  production  of  three  bales  of  cotton  per  acre  is 
possible." 

From  the  use  of  agricultural  fertilizers,  from  the  influx  of  immigrants  (fro.m 
Europe  and  the  North  and  West;)  and  from  the  spread  of  this  "  intensive  system"—- 
not  forgeting  the  use  of  improved  agricultural  implements— from  these  causes 
Georgia  can  show  the  astounding  progress  she  has  made  in  a  few  years.  She  pro- 
duces now  over  twenty  million  dollars  ($20,000,000)  worth  more  of  breadstuffs  than 
in  1870.  Under  the  old  system  of  buying  corn,  pork,  hay,  flour,  etc.,  att  this  money 
would  haw  gone  into  the  pockets  of  Northern  and  Western  farmers.  Twenty  millions 
less  per  annum  to  the  West  for  one  Southern  State,  is  a  large  straw  to  show  which 
way  the  wind  blows ! 

But  to  proceed  to  Georgia's  progress  in  manufactures.  My  authority  in  these 
statistics  is  that  very  able  and  progressive  industrial  journal  the  Baltimore  Manufac- 
turers' Record,  and  the  (jhronide  and  Constitutionalist  of  Augusta,  Ga. 

In  growth  of  manufacturing  production  from  1870  to  1880  Georgia  swelled  from 
$31,196,105  to  $41,162,811,  or  $9,966,706— or  over  30  per  cent.  There  were  in  oper- 
ation in  the  year  1880  4,713  looms,  200,974  spindles,  employing  6,678  hands  and 
consuming  67,874  bales  of  cotton.  Georgia  advanced  from  fourth  to  third  place  in 
manufactured  products.  Unfortunately,  the  census  of  1880  does  not  give  the  full 
details  of  manufacture.  Georgia  had  81  kinds  of  manufactures.  The  leading 
industries  were  flour  mills,  carpentering,  blacksmithing,  lumber,  and  cotton  manu- 
facture. Georgia,  in  1870,  had  among  her  larger  specialties,  beside  these,  leather 
and  wheel  manufacture,  and,  in  1880,  iron  foundries,  brick,  tar,  turpentine,  tin, 
crackers  and  candy  on  a  large  scale.  Since  1880  Georgia  has  been  doing  a  phenom- 
inally  large  business  in  lumber,  cotton,  fertilizers,  and  tar  and  turpentine. 

We  will  take  up  the  three  controlling  staples  of  manufacture  in  all  the  Southern 
States— cotton,  flour  and  lumber.  Georgia  leads  overwhelmingly  in  cotton,  doub- 
ling any  single  State.  In  1880  she  had  63  cotton  factories,  with  a  capital  of  $6,632,- 
142,  making  a  production  of  $7,295,356.  That  gallant  little  South  Carolina  stood 
second,  with  a  production  of  $2,895,769.  The  whole  capital  in  the  South  in  cotton 
manufacture  was  $17,782,197,  of  which  Georgia  alone  had  over  one-third  and  made 
one-third  of  the  product.  North  Carolina  had  five  more  establishments,  but  made 
over  50  per  cent,  less  product.  Since  1880  Georgia  has  increased  her  cotton  mill 
capital  over  six  millions  of  dollars,  and  in  this  August,  1884,  has  $13,000,000  invested 
in  cotton  manufacture,  and  has  nearly  one-half  of  the  Southern  capital,  and  makes 
nearly  one-half  of  the  Southern  manufactured  products.  Her  products  will  go  to 
$14,000,000  annually  with  70  mills,  7,843  looms,  340,130  spindles,  employing  10,000 
hands,  and  consuming  100,000  bales  of  cotton.  From  June  1,  1880,  to  January  1, 
1884,  Georgia  increased  her  looms  from  4,713  to  7,843,  or  3,130 ;  her  spindles  from 
200,974  to  340,130,  or  139,156.  The  addition  to  her  cotton  mills  was  22. 

The  following  is  the  increase  in  cotton  milling  in  the  South  during  this  period 
from  June,  1880,  to  January,  1884,  taken  from  the  Baltimore  Manufacturer^  Record^ 
and  showing  Georgia  to  continue  her  leadership  : 


184  GEORGIA. 

INCREASE  FROM  JUNE  i,  1880,  TO  JANUARY  i,  1884. 

No.  of  No.  of  No.  of 

Mills.  Spindles.  Looms. 

Alabama 7  26,985  554 

Arkansas 2  4.285  2 

Florida i  1,102 

Georgia 22  139,156  3,T3o 

Kentucky 2  17,242  398 

Louisiana 5  33, 571  704 

Maryland 5  44,286  256 

Mississippi 3  22,956  416 

North  Carolina 43  110,595  1,583 

South  Carolina 17  98,200  1,614 

Tennessee 17  32,609  383 

Texas , 4  9,626  94 

Virginia ,             6  21,700  508 

Total 134  562,433  9,651 

Taking  the  statistics  of  flour  milling,  the  largest  single  subject  of  manufacture, 
running  in  the  South  to  an  aggregate  of  $67,769,465  of  products,  Georgia  stands 
second — Virginia  leading  with  $12,649,276  of  products,  and  Georgia  coming  next 
with  $11.232,029 ;  yet  beating  Virginia  in  this,  that  with  two  millions  less  capital 
she  made  nearly  as  much  product.  Georgia  had  1,132  flour  mills,  working  $3,103,- 
918  capital,  and  producing  $11,232,029  of  products.  Georgia  had  the  honor  of 
producing  one-sixth  of  the  whole  flour  manufacture  of  the  South.  I  think  the 
thoughtful  statistician  will  agree  that  some  day  in  the  early  future  we  shall  not  only 
do  a  large  business  in  supplying  "early  flour"  for  the  North  and  West,  but  that  the 
South  will  monopolize  the  flour  trade  of  the  vast  country  south  of  us.  Here  is  a 
tempting  field  for  disquisition. 

Coming  now  to  lumber,  we  find  that  the  lumber  production  of  the  South  ran 
in  1880  to  $36,  323,248,  and  in  this  powerful  industry,  as  in  cotton  manufacture, 
Georgia  stood  first,  leading  the  section.  She  had  655  lumber  mills,  being  exceeded 
in  this  respect  of  number  by  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Kentucky ; 
but  Georgia  had  larger  capital  and  more  products.  Her  capital  ran  to  $3,101,452, 
and  her  products  to  $4,875,310,  while  Virginia,  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  had  about 
two  millions  of  capital  each,  and  did  run  to  over  three  and  a  half  millions  of  pro- 
duct. Since  1880  Georgia  has  increased  her  capital  in  lumber  mills  three  millions 
and  her  productions  in  proportion. 

The  lumber  products  in  the  South  in  1880wereas  follows: 

Est.  Capital.  Products. 

Alabama 354  $i,545,655  $2,640,634 

Florida 135  2,219,550  3,060,291 

Georgia 655  3,101,452  4,875,310 

Kentucky 668  2,229,558  4,064,360 

Louisiana 174  803,950  1,764,640 

Mississippi 295  922,955  I,920>355 

North  Carolina 774  1,743,217  2,682,795 

South  Carolina 420  1,056,265  2,031,507 

Tennessee 755  1,004,503  3,744,905 

Texas 317  1,660,952  3,773,449 

Virginia 907  2,122,925  3,434,163 

West  Virginia 469  1,668,920  2,431,857 

5,923  $20,079,902  $36,424,266 

Georgia's  capital  in  lumber  is  to-day  over  $6,000,000,  while  the  lumber  pro- 
duction will  exceed  $7,000,000.  We  thus  see  that  in  the  leading  three  manufac- 
turing industries  of  the  South,  Georgia  is  indeed  the  Empire  State,  and  in  them  is 
distancing  her  sisters. 

In  looking  at  the  county  manufactures  of  1870,  we  see  as  follows  : 

Counties.  Capital.  Products. 

1.  Chatham £1,148,075  $2,805,771 

2.  Richmond 1,315,145  2,614,405 

3.  Fulton 434,56o  2,000,995 

4.  Muscogee 1,889,770  1,856,600 

5-     Bibb 805,704  i,497,3oi 

6.  Floyd 343,03o  1,050,620 

7.  Clarke  501,325  850,720 

8.  Cobb 535,4°°  846,220 

9.  Glynn 1 16,500  655,070 

10.  Taylor 76,740  632,585 


GEORGIA.  185 

These  were  the  leading  ten  manufacturing  counties  in  1870.  In  1880  the  ten 
leading  counties  were  as  follows : 

Counties.  Capital.  Products. 

1.  Fulton $2,682,131  $5,125,826 

2.  Richmond 2,402,275  3,490,780 

3.  Chatham 1,176,970  3,483,866 

4.  Muscogee 2,456,374  3,019,300 

5.  Bibb 657,800  1,724,125 

6.  Cobb 537,r33  i,383>322 

7.  Floyd 512,005  1,104,376 

8.  Glynn 868,000  J65>785 

9.  Clarke 568,400  629,933 

10.  Mclntosh 171,750  740,700 

The  contest  is  now  between  Richmond  and  Fulton.  We  thus  see  the  changes 
in  ten  years.  Fulton  displaced  Chatham  and  Richmond,  and  Richmond  passed 
Chatham ;  Floyd  has  been  left  by  Cobb  and  gone  ahead  of  Clarke ;  Glynn  went  up 
one,  taking  Cobb's  place,  and  Clarke  fell  back  to  Glynn's  old  place. 

The  Industries  thus  ran  in  1880 : 

Est.  Products.  Capital. 

Agricultural  Implements 20  $601,935  $200,124 

Bakery 26  464,162  118,450 

Brick '. .  76  409,025  212,600 

Wagons   59  552,58i  275,300 

Confectionery , 14  335.335  130,700 

Cotton 44  6,513,490  6,527,557 

Flour 1,132  9,793,898  3,576,331 

Leather 173  619,957  203,450 

Iron 14  990,850  1,135,900 

Foundry 39  1,299,491  916,510 

Lumber 668  5,246,510  3,223,452 

Printing 21  579,°54  506,800 

Rice 9  1,488,769  263,000 

Sash,  &c 14  366,000  760,500 

MeatPacking* 9  309,003  25,700 

Tar,  &c 84  1,445,739  513,885 

Tin 56  329,624  155,350 

Others 1,135  5,°54>445  2,576,671 

3,593     • $36,3  >9,958     $21,322250 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  the  full  increase  of  the  manufactures  in  Georgia  since 
1880,  but  we  can  approximate  it.  Let  us  take  the  three  counties  with  leading  cities. 
The  manufacturing  capital  has  grown  from  1880  to  1883  as  follows : 

1880.                     1883.  Increase. 

Fulton $2,468,456  $5,971,130  $3,502,674 

Richmond 2,402.275                5,402,275  3,000,000 

Columbus 2,456,371                5,364.109  2,907,7318 

Total  increase $9,410,402 

We  thus  have  in  three  counties  a  growth  of  manufacturing  capital  of  $9,410,402. 
The  Baltimore  Manufacturers'  Record  gave  the  enlargement  of  capital  in  the  whole 
State  of  Georgia  in  the  six  months  from  January  1,  1883,  to  June  30, 1884,  as 
$3,759,000.  Taking  those  facts  as  a  basis  of  calculation,  we  may  reasonably  esti- 
mate as  follows,  as  to  manufacturing  capital : 

Increase,  Fulton,  Richmond  and  Muscogee,  1880  to 

Increase  in  rest  of  State  to  1884 

Increase  in  State.  January  to  July,  1884 

Increase  since  1880 , $i  8,169,402 

Manufacturing  capital  in  1880 3^,399,958 

Present  manufacturing  capital $  54,569,360 

Increase,  in  less  than  five  years,  50  per  cent. 

The  following. compilation,  by  James  M.  Swank,  Esq.,  the  eminent  authority 
on  such  topics,  shows  Georgia's  progress : 

BITUMINOUS  COAL  AND  COKE  IN  NET  TONS. 

1872 ;    1873, ;    1874,5,516;    1875,12,685;   1876,10,018;   1877.9,194; 

1878,13,860;    1879,16,240;  1880,20,044;  1881,24,000;  1882,26,875. 


*  Here  is  another  field  in  which  the  South  is  bound,  some  day,  to  become  a  great  competitor  with 
the  West.  Twice  as  much  meat  can  be  put  on  a  hog  South,  with  clover,  as  at  the  West.  The  land  is 
cheaper,  ice  is  home-made  and  cheap.  Already  there  is  one  pork-packing  establishment  started  in 
Arkansas. 


186 


GEORGIA. 


Her  production  of  charcoal  pig-iron  for  the  same  time  is,  in  net  tons,  as  follows  r 

1872,  2,945;   1873,  7,501;  1874,  4,270;  1875,  3,823;  1876,  500;   1877,  4,029; 
1878,2,503;   1879,4.133;   1880,7,277;  1881,13,404;   1882,15,565. 

Still  more  impressive  is  her  progress  in  the  production  of  all  kinds  of  pig-iron, 
as  follows :  Net  tons — 

1872,2,945;   1873,7,501,;  1874,9,786:1875,16,508:  1876,10,518:1877,13,223; 
1878,16,363;    1879,20,373;    1880,27,321;    188^37,404;    1882,42,440. 

A  cognate  topic  to  the  consideration  of  the  manufactories  of  this  State  is  a  view 
of  her  water-powers.  Below  I  give  a  table  of  some  of  the  water- powers  of  the 
State,  premising  that  many  and  very  important  ones  are  omitted,  particularly  some 
that  are  utilized.  These  tables  are  from  the  Tenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  branch  of 

STATISTICS  OF  POWER  AND  MACHINERY  EMPLOYED  IN 
MANUFACTURES, 

Collected  by  George  F.  Swain,  S.  B.,  Instructor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  Mass.  The  following  will  assist  the 
reader  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  tables — an  explanation  by  the  author  of 
the  tables : 

"  In  describing  the  separate  water-powers  I  have  therefore  given  four  estimates. 
For  convenience  of  reference,  I  will  recapitulate  them  here,  noting  briefly  their 
exact  meaning : 

1.  Absolute  Minimum  can  be  depended  upon  always,  and  with  no  storage  at  all. 
Large  waste  all  the  time,  except  for  a  few  days  at  a  time  in  intervals  of  several  years. 

2.  Minimum  Low-Season  2<low,  with  no  storage,  can  be  depended  upon  at  all 
times,  except  for  a  short  time  in  some  dry  seasons — perhaps  for  a  few  days  in  the 
dry  season  of  each  year.    With  small  storage,  can  be  depended  upon  all  the  time. 

3.  Mean  Floio  in  Very  Dry  Years — Maximum  amount  permanently  available  with 
with  storage. — Storage  capacity  is  already  discussed.    With  larger  storage  a  greater 
amount  could  perhaps  be  utilized  for  several  years  in  succession,  but  not  perma- 
nently. 

4.  Low-Season  Flow  in  Ordinary  Dry  Years,  without  storage,  can  be  depended 
upon  generally,  except  in  the  low  season  of  dry  years,  when  the  supply  will  be  de- 
ficient for  perhaps  several  weeks.    In  very  dry  years,  when  the  supply  will  be 
deficient  for  a  longer  time,  and  in  ordinary  years,  when  the  supply  may  be  deficient 
for  a  few  days  at  a  time,  can  be  rendered  permanently  available  by  storage.     The 
low-season  flow  of  ordinary  years  can  be  depended  upon  less  than  the  above,  but 
generally  for  nine  months  of  every  year." 

TABLE  OF  POWER  AT  ANTHONY'S  SHOALS,  BROAD  RIVER. 


STATE  OF  FLOW. 

DRAINAGE 
AREA. 

FALL. 

FLOW  PER 
SECOND. 

HORSE-POWER  AVAIL- 
ABLE —  GROSS. 

Sq.  miles. 

1        1,467 
) 

Cubic  feet. 

(          370 

;       528 

|          1,45° 

1      600 

i  foot  fall. 
42 
60 

165 
68 

40  feet  fall, 
i,  680 
2,400 
6,600 
2,720 

Maximum,  with  storage  

,     y  y 

TABLE  OF  POWER  ON  HATTONS'  SHOALS,  TUGALOO  RIVER. 


Q06 

1 

J     255 

29 

1,131 

>   845 

39   ;  -j     " 

4,095 

) 

200 

I  287 

'  yy 

GEORGIA. 


187 


Portman's  Shoal  .  .  . 

Hatton's  shoal.... 
Guest's  shoal  

If  tiff  ! 

' 

:  :  •  •      -3 

OCONEE  RIVER. 

SENECA  RIVER 

:::.:::;     :  :  :     :  s 

:::::::::: 

:                         s* 
•;L-                 f 

•                       i** 

S 

w  p 

Oi    O 

0    0 

Distance  from 
Augusta. 

s 

^*° 

V) 
£> 
M-      10    10    '      M    10  01  01    Ox  ' 

Drainage  Area. 

00  "o  "os  •     •    "M    '•                '.    SO       so 

oxow'-to.             'S      ^ 

8;     008;     S  *  01  8   O  JiT 

:  :      :  :  :  :  H-    ° 

ol 

01  01 

£££££££***? 

Spring. 

Rainfall. 

wi 

_ 

Summer. 

H     (H 

0 

_ 

Autumn. 

TUGALOO  RIVER 

Ox 

SsSx 

Ox  Os  Os  Os  Ox  Os  OxOi  01  01  ? 

Winter. 

aS^totototctototctototc 

fc 

^^ 

<jroioioioioioioioioi  IT1 

01010101010101    N>    to    10    p 

Year. 

^.    5    00  OS  3    M  "?    OS*  01    00*  * 

II   O  0  O  —  -4-—-  0  0  O  O   0  0 

9 

S* 

^  w  M  ^  rt 
'o  w  00*  OJ  so  01  01  0   0  f 

Height. 

g 

I         -       01 

2  miles. 

n"n" 

llllllnp 

Length. 

^           8       :     §    ^ 

|o  o        |       :      |    | 

1 

it 

MM                             01  Ul     «     OX 

Ox         O    OO        01  XI    H    OxW 

O        Qsto        gx  o  Q  01  xi 
0         O  01        OoOOoi 

Minimum. 

Horse-Power  Available  —  Gross. 

V4    M    to                *                            *         SO 

10 

s 

?! 

10               H      M                          00   OX   10    -v] 

Minimum 
low  season. 

SO    10  OJ                 Ox               .           01         01 

8-oS       £       :      8°    8 

tO         OIM           OOMCoOOO 

vi       Ooi        5^ooioi<i 
u«        60         0000^ 

01 

t 

ft. 

10    M          K9 

f  11  "iifti 

Maximum, 
with  stor- 
age. 

^  r  r       ,!°       :     -10    .° 

IH    1}  |  .».* 

1 

§xf 

f  li  ilii! 

Low  season, 
dry  years. 

A             A    A 
o  ff'o  oo'oo      oc'oo^o 

0 

0   0 

!  I    iiil 

Horse-pow- 
er—  Net. 

Utilized 

OOOOOOOOvjOOoiOOx 

O 

0    0 

i       !  1  1  *f 

Fall. 

ooooooo      ooooo 

OSOJ                      M             I                         M 

hfff            :  °  °^°^ 

0 

0   0 

Per  cent,  of  Mini- 
mum utilized. 

:                :  '  :  : 

I 

No  power  utilized  or 
the  river. 

I  No  power  utilizet 
f  on  the  river. 

•  .  '%> 

o        <» 

°!5  N'S.                0. 

III    } 

II  s 

Remarks. 

188 


GEORGIA, 


:  i  ;  ;  :    ;  ;  ;  ;  H  ;;;;;;;  :  ;  i  i  ;  f\  :   ;  i 

OOO23J2O 

?i  ^  2  S*?"1" 
£  =  =  3  v'  """o* 

9       ll-S-r 

.     —  O    " 

'.           '    .    "d.'. 

— 
ct 

iiMijiiMii! 

::::••::      :  « 

:  :  :  :      :  :      :  ? 

:  :  :      :  •  :         g 
oo 

8       i  883 

Distance  from 
Milledgeville. 

3  "o  "o  b  "Q  "o  ' 

I    0    C    0    ^    0 

D  "i  ^^  'M  *w       w  *w       *w 

N              •     O\  Ox  O\ 

Drainage  Area. 

«  «  H  M  -     H  «  «  «  «  »  S  M  S  3  S  S     S  £     H 

ooooooo   j  Spring. 

Rainfall 

£££££«:££<:;;:;      wwwww^iwwww^      ££      w 

M    M    M    »0    (0    M    (0 

Summer. 

VOVCNCVCVTVOVOOOVOO        vOOvOvOvOvOvovoovOvovO        vO  VO        vO 

~ 

Autumn. 

OCMULGEE  RIVE] 

"WWWWOJW 

Winter. 

.  *.  *.  4".  *-  4^  -1 

t£t*£tt 

Year. 

5»*      w,8w^w£               ^ 

li-'iJ-.l 

popow  os^f  3  3 
0   O  tn  OO  O   ^:s 

Height. 

g 

£?§  HsSaS       1 

«O      H    OJ      M      M                                   1- 

Ln  ^j    Os        -*>•  <In  "oo^b  OJ  ^                     "c 

881?     888888          \ 

*                     OJ 

8  8 

0  0 

r     s1^ 

8 

OJ   _M            JH 

|i  i        i 

Length. 

ana       n  n  n  a  n  n                ~( 

M  itoW      i 

^              •    w 

N 

0 

O                     U\            *• 

0              O        O 

A 

Minimum. 

Horse-Power  Available  —  Gross. 

M  fktii    \ 

•  ^j 

1 

Minimum 
low  season. 

'm  rr,l?l     \ 

j          : 

_ 

VO 

Maximum, 
with  stor- 
age. 

J          :  ^ 

81 

o            0       *^i 

0               00 

iri  g&sm    i 

to 

:  :  '.     :  :  '. 

Low  season, 
dry  years. 

?          :  8 

i 

0             <*        <$ 

A 
o      oo      o      o'oo      o  '< 

IOOOOOOOCOO        00        0 

o<S£    <S  o  o 

Horse-pow- 
er—  Net. 

I 

0 
O        OO        0        O^^O        OrMOOOOOOOOOO         00        0 
•^               rf- 

M     °^ 

0  oow  oovo  0  O 

Fall. 

0   0  U»  O  O  O  O 

O        OO        0        OwO        0 

-00000 

h 

00000        00        0 

0  •              '    0  O 

Per  cent,  of  Mini- 
mum utilized. 

^^  ^        ^       33 

515)     5)               5)           5)5) 
3*  3*     31               5*            3*  3* 

|i  1       5    ,11 

S?    81             ?          S1? 

r            "if 

3  3     33 

5)     5)        5)5) 
3-3-        ?3- 

i  ?   ia 

it  i  •  '  jhr 

n 

3 

V 

GEORGIA. 

TABLE  OF  POWER  AT  AUGUSTA,  GEORGIA. 


189 


STATE  OF  FLOW. 

DRAINAGE 
AREA. 

FALL. 

FLOW  PER 
SECOND. 

HOKSE-POWER  AVAILABLE  —  GROSS. 

Sq.  miles. 
I      6,830 

Feet. 
33  to  40+ 

Cubic  feet 
1,700 

J         2,100 

1      6,000 
2,400 

i  foot  fall. 
103.2 
238.7 
681.8 
272.7 

33  ft.  fall. 
6,375 
7,877 
22,500 
9,000 

40  ft.  fall. 
7,728 
9,548 
27,272 
10,908 

50  ft.  fall. 
9,660 
",935 
34,090 
13,635 

Minimum  low  season  
Maximum,  with  storage.  .  . 
Low  season  dry  years  

ESTIMATE  OF  POWER  AT  TROTTER'S  SHOALS. 


RAINFALL. 

STATE  OF  FLOW. 

DRAINAGE 
AREA. 

FALL. 

& 

. 

1 

»; 

FLOW  PER 
SECOND. 

HORSE-POWER 
AVAILABLE  —  GROSS. 

'? 

1 

.8 

t! 

* 

$ 

^ 

& 

3 

Sq.  miles. 

Feet. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

Cubic  feet 

i  foot  fall. 

75  ft.  fall. 

i    2,664 

74.88 

15 

14 

10 

16 

55 

,        670 

J       950 

I,°75 

76.1 
108.0 
290.0 

122.2 

5,7oo 
8,100 
21,750 

Minimum  low  season  
Maximum,  with  storage. 
Low  season,  dry  years  .  . 

In  order  to  facilitate  my  researches,  and  to  give  me  the  latest  information,  I 
sent  out  a  great  many  circular  letters  making  many  inquiries.  Among  others  I  sent 
one  to  each  of  the  Governors  of  the  Southern  States.  Among  the  answers  received 
was  the  following  from  His  Excellency  Henry  D.  McDaniel,  Governor  of  Georgia, 
who  could  find  some  inclination  and  time  from  the  engrossing  cares  of  State  to 
show  his  appreciation  of  a  work  which  aims  to  build  up  his  State  in  common 
with  others  South. 

STATE  OF  GEORGIA,  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

ATLANTA,  September  26th,  1884. 
M.  B.  HILLYARD,  ESQ. 

Dear  Sir :  Governor  McDaniel,  upon  the  receipt  of  your  letter  and  circular, 
transmitted  them  to  this  Department  with  a  request  that  they  should  have  immediate 
attention.  By  a  careful  reading  of  the  circular  you  will  perceive  that  many  ques- 
tions embraced  in  its  scope  would  require  the  close  and  conscientious  labor  of  days 
to  answer  with  critical  exactness.  When  it  is  known  that  this  Department  is  not 
only  hard  pressed  with  its  current  work,  but  overwhelmed,  any  lack  of  such  critical 
exactness,  we  trust,  may  be  excused,  if  not  overlooked.  We  were  compelled  to  sus- 
pend all  work  properly  belonging  to  our  offices  and  give  attention  to  your  inquiry, 
and  by  dividing  them  out  between  three  of  our  staff,  we  have  been  able  to  accom- 
plish what  we  send.  Very  respectfully,  your  obt.  serv't, 

T.  C.  HOWARD,  Clerk  Agr.  Dept. 

The  work  of  answering  these  questions  was  parceled  out  to  various  gentlemen. 
This  explains  the  strange  succession  of  questions.  I  give  them  as  they  come,  omit- 
ting some  answers  more  fully  covered  by  my  own  work  : 

The  Principal  Streams  are  the  Savannah,  Chattahoochee,  and  the  Altamaha 
with  its  three  tributaries  Ogeechee,  Oconee  and  Ocmulgee,  in  Southern  Georgia, 
and  the  Coosa,with  its  tributaries  the  Etowah  and  Oostanaula,  in  Northwest  Georgia. 

Leading  Water-Powers. — Fine  water-powers  exist  on  all  the  principal  streams 
of  Northern  and  Middle  Georgia  and  in  many  places  in  Southern  Georgia.  Among 
the  most  important  water-powers  of  the  larger  streams  is  that  of  the  Savannah  river 
at  Augusta  and  the  Chattahoochee  at  Columbus.  The  Oconee,  Ocmulgee  and  Flint 
rivers,  for  many  miles  about  the  lower  limits  of  the  metamorphic  formation  of  the 


190  GEORGIA. 

State,  offer  fine  water-powers.  The  Etowah  and  many  of  the  smaller  streams  of 
North  Georgia  run  in  a  succession  of  rapids  for  almost  their  extent,  and  afford  fine 
powers  that  at  present  are  not  utilized  to  any  great  extent.  The  water-powers  of 
small  streams  with  high  heads,  for  this  State,  would  make  a  long  list. 

The  Principal  Mining  Industries,  &c. — The  most  extensive  mining  operations 
carried  on  in  the  State  are  for  gold,  iron,  coal,  and  pyrites  for  sulphuric  acid.  Gold 
is  found  and  worked  in  many  counties  of  Northern  and  Middle  Georgia.  Marbles 
are  found  in  inexhaustible  quantities  and  of  the  finest  qualities  in  many  counties  of 
Northern  Georgia.  White  statuary  and  variegated  marbles  are  found  in  Cherokee, 
Polk,  Pickens  and  Fannin  counties.  Variegated  marbles,  varying  from  red  and 
black  to  nearly  white,  occur  in  nearly  all  of  the  northwest  counties  of  the  State. 
Kaolin  is  found  in  Paulding,  Cobb,  Cherokee,  Fannin,  Gilmer,  Carroll,  Fulton,  and, 
in  fact,  nearly  all  of  the  counties  of  the  middle  and  northeastern  part  of  the  State,t 
and  in  many  places  of  fine  quality  and  in  great  quantity. 

Sand  for  Glass. — Sand  suitable  for  this  purpose  is  found  in  Gordon  and  Whit- 
field  counties. 

Lime. — There  are  many  lime-kilns  in  North  Georgia  that  supply  local  demands 
for  lime.  The  Howard  Cement  Works,  located  at  Cement,  near  Kingston,  in  Bartow 
county,  prepare  lime  and  hydraulic  cement  for  market.  This,  and  Ladd's  limekiln 
at  Cartersville,  and  Gray's  lime-kiln  at  Graysville,  in  Catoosa  county,  are  the  prin- 
cipal works  of  this  kind  in  the  State.  Lime  exists  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  ten 
counties  of  Northwest  Georgia  and  some  portions  of  Southern  Georgia. 

Bituminous  (Joal  is  found  in  Dade,  Walker  and  Chattooga  counties.  It  has 
been  mined  extensively  at  Cole  City  in  Dade  county,  and  to  some  extent  at  various 
outcrops  in  Walker  and  Chattooga  for  blacksmithing  purposes  only.  The  coal 
measures  cover  an  area  altogether,  in  the  three  counties  named,  of  about  200  square 
miles. 

Coke  is  prepared  at  Cole  City,  in  Dade  county.  The  markets  are  Rising  Fawn, 
Dade  county,  at  the  iron  works  in  Bartow  and  Polk  counties,  and  in  Chattanooga, 
Tennessee. 

Iron  is  found  in  all  sections  of  the  State.  Eed  fbssiliferous  iron  ore  is  found 
in  Dade,  Walker,  Chattooga,  Catoosa,  Whitfield,  Gordon  and  Floyd.  The  outcrop 
of  this  ore  amounts  in  linear  extent  probably  to  200  miles,  and  underlies  an  exten- 
sive area.  The  beds  vary  from  one  to  fifteen  feet  in  thickness. 

Limonite  is  found  in  nearly  every  county  of  North  Georgia,  and  in  vast 
quantities. 

Magnetic  and  Specular  Ores  are  found  in  Carroll,  Bartow,  Gilmer,  Cherokee, 
Paulding,  Habersham,  and  in  many  other  counties  of  the  State. 

Copper  is  found  in  Fannin,  Paulding,  Carroll  and  Cherokee  counties. 

Fir  Ore  has  not  been  found  in  quantities  sufficient  to  mine. 

Gold  is  found  in  Lumpkin,  White,  Hall,  Habersham,  Lincoln, Dawson, Carroll, 
Paulding,  Cobb,  Cherokee,  Pickens,  Troup,  Gilmer,  Fannin,  Rabun,  Union  and 
Townes  counties,  and  in  fact  in  nearly  all  the  counties  of  Northeast  Georgia  and 
Middle  Georgia.  The  most  extensive  mining  for  gold  is  in  Lumpkin  county. 

Galena — In  Hall,  Lincoln,  Habersham,  Murray,  Fannin,  Catoosa,  Floyd  and 
Bartow. 

Halloysite — In  Dade,  Whitfield  and  Chattooga  counties. 

Gypsum — In  Chattooga  county. 

2  Tie  Truck  Farmers  meet  in  convention,  and,  in  concert  with  the  railroads,  agree 
upon  a  tariff  of  rates  to  the  limits  of  the  State.  Roads  out  of  the  State  have  made 
trouble  and  refuse  such  rates  as  would  encourage  the  business  of  truck-raising.  The 
absolute  necessity  for  better  and  supporting  terms  will  compel  a  more  liberal  policy 
on  the  part  of  connecting  roads.  The  business  is  of  recent  date,  only  two  or  three 


GEORGIA.  191 

years,  and  must  attract  great  attention  from  railroad  and  transportation  companies. 
The  prices  at  the  opening  of  the  market  for  fruits  and  vegetables  rule  high,  peaches 
reaching  New  York  and  Philadelphia  by  the  first  week  in  June  bring  from  $8  to 
$16  per  crate  of  three  pecks.  Asparagus,  spring  head  cabbage,  tomatoes,  Irish 
potatoes,  snap  beans  sent  forward  early  in  the  season,  say  by  10th  of  May,  bring 
most  satisfactory  prices.  The  Alexander  peach  and  LeConte  pear  are  the  most 
remunerative  of  our  fruits  for  first  shipments.  Early  water  and  musk  melons 
of  best  quality  are  shipped  both  by  sea  and  by  rail,  and  when  rates  of  carriage 
are  fair  and  reasonable,  the  business  pays  well.  In  one  word,  in  answer  to  the 
question,  "  What  of  the  country  for  melons?"  it  may  be  claimed  that  Georgia  is 
ahead  of  the  whole  world. 

Wages. — Average  rate  for  field  hands,  without  board,  $10.75.  Truck  farmers 
pay,  during  gathering  season,  60  cents  for  men  and  50  cents  for  women. 

Woods. — From  the  mountains  to  the  seaboard  the  finest  hard  woods  can  be 
found.  On  all  the  water  courses  and  some  mountains  of  the  State  the  best 
hickory  and  white  oak  can  be  found.  The  lower  Altamaha  can  show  the  finest 
white  oak  district  in  the  world.  We  have  only  limited  supplies  of  walnut  and 
cherry  ;  but  our  beech  and  ash  are  in  great  amount  and  very  fine. 

Seminaries  of  Learning. — To  Georgia  belongs  the  high  honor  of  establishing 
the  first,  very  first,  female  college  in  the  world.  This,  the  Wesleyan  Female 
College,  has  an  endowment  of  $300,000,  and  a  reputation  throughout  the  United 
States.  Besides,  there  are  numerous  other  institutions,  of  great  merit,  for 
females.  Then  we  have  male  colleges  :  State  University,  at  Athens,  endow- 
ment $500,000 ;  North  Georgia  Agricultural  College,  at  Dahlonega  ;  Mercer 
University,  at  Macon  ;  Emory  College,  at  Oxford  ;  Pio  Nino  College,  at  Macon, 
and  Atlanta  University,  for  blacks, with  annual  contribution  from  State  treasury 
of  $8,000. 

Fish. — Fresh-water  fish  cannot  be  said  to  be  abundant  in  any  waters  in 
Georgia,  north  of  Macon,  the  central  part  of  the  State.  In  the  streams  and 
lakes  of  South  Georgia  perch,  black  bass,  suckers  and  catfish  are  plentiful. 
But  as  you  ascend  and  get  into  the  red  clay  lands  the  streams  become  so  thick 
and  muddy  that  they  are,  to  a  great  extent,  depleted  of  all  scale  fish.  In  the 
clear  mountain  streams  we  have  the  true  speckled  trout.  Fish  culture  is  greatly 
on  the  increase,  and  carp  are  widely  scattered  over  the  State  and  are  giving 
great  satisfaction  wherever  proper  care  has  been  bestowed  upon* them.  In  our 
salt  waters  fish  abound  and  of  the  very  best  sorts.  The  first  and  best  shad  of 
the  known  world  Georgia  claims.  Her  Ogeecliee,  Altamaha  and  Savannah  shad 
are  by  all  odds  the  best  in  the  markets  of  the  United  States.  Then  we  have 
mullet,  sheephead,  trout,  drum,  black  fish,  whiting — in  such  abundance  as  to 
make  our  fisheries  valuable  in  a  commercial  point  of  view. 

Is  tJie  Use  of  Laboi'-saving  Machinery  on  the  Farm  Becoming  General  ? — It  cannot 
be  said  that  it  is,  but  many  of  our  leading  minds  engaged  in  agriculture  in 
Georgia  are  setting  the  example,  and  the  diffusion  of  the  idea  is,  indeed,  very  gen- 
eral. The  lack  of  means,  and  not  the  want  of  an  intelligent  appreciation  of 
such  machinery,  is  in  the  way  of  our  people.  The  desolations  of  the  war,  and 
the  miserable  short-sighted  policy  of  manufacturers'  rings,  which  keep  up  ex- 
travagant and  extortionate  prices,  have  been  our  trouble.  But  we  will,  after  a 
while,  and  a  short  while,  be  goaded  into  self  protection  on  this  head,  as  we  have 
in  the  instances  of  spinning  and  weaving  cotton — mining  and  making  iron — and 
many  other  things.  We  are  now  making  the  cheapest,  and,  for  their  price,  the 
best  plows  in  the  United  States,  and  soon  we  will  follow  with  the  reaper  and 
mower  and  thrasher,  and  steam  engines  for  farm  use.  Nothing  that  we  must 
do  will  we  fail  to  do,  and  do  better  than  any  other  people  on  earth. 


192  GEORGIA. 

Our  whole  mountain  region  of  table  lands,  ranging  from  1,800  to  3,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  from  600  to  2,000  feet  above  surrounding  valleys,  has  at 
last  been  found  to  be,  of  all  localities,  the  best  for  the  consumptive.  The 
waters,  varying  from  pure  granite  to  sulphur,  alum,  and  chalybeate,  make  this 
region  the  exact  spot  to  cure  dyspeptics. 

Best  Locality  for  Stock  Raising  and  Profits. — The  pine-woods  country,  open 
and  unenclosed  for  thousands  of  acres,  offer  the  best  and  cheapest  stock  ranges 
in  the  Union.  No  snow  storms  or  hard  freezes.  The  grass  is  kept  growing 
most  of  the  year,  and  the  residue  of  the  turf  available  all  the  year.  Here  are 
the  walks  for  large  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep — as  large  in  certain  cases 
as  7,000  head.  The  profits  of  sheep  husbandry,  for  all  Georgia,  is  63  per  cent. 
Cattle  raising  in  this  section  of  the  State,  the  home  of  the  wire  and  Bermuda 
grass,  must  be  very  profitable,  as  the  expense  is  at  its  minimum  for  such  an 
industry. 

Progress  in  Silk  Culture. — This  industry  is  not  new  to  us,  Georgia  having  led 
all  the  States  of  the  Union  in  its  first  introduction  ;  but  the  inducements  are  not 
strong  for  its  prosecution.  Factories  are  not  sufficiently  accessible,  and  the 
prices  offered  for  cocoons  have  been  simply  ridiculous.  We  can  raise  silk,  and 
easily,  for  the  osage  orange  and  all  of  the  mulberries  are  easily  availed  of,  and 
the  climate  is  all  that  can  be  desired.  But  cotton  and  a  thousand  other  things 
for  which  we  have  better  rewards  than  silk  raising,  call  off  our  industry  and 
enterprise. 

What  of  Evergreens  and  Flowers  ?  We  suppose  the  inquiry  is  for  trees  of 
native  growth.  We  have  the  world-renowned  Magnolia  Grandiflora  wild  in 
our  swamps,  in  endless  profusion.  Then  we  have  that  beautiful  evergreen  P. 
Coronarius  or  mock  orange,  and  the  American  olive.  These  are  natives.  Of 
course,  we  have  the  whole  collection  of  exotic  evergreens,  and  in  perfection. 
Our  wildwood  flowers  are  innumerable,  and  some  of  them  of  rarer  beauty  by  far 
than  very  many  included  in  our  floral  collections  and  catalogues. 

Are  tliere  any  Tile  Factories  f  Yes  ;  one  in  Bartow  county,  and  clay  for  the 
manufacture  of  tile  in  abundance. 

New  Industries  and  their  Success. — We  have  wine  making  among  new  indus- 
tries, and  promising  well ;  marble  quarrying  and  polishing — helve  factories — 
ice  factories — plow  factories — and  many  others,  all  doing  well. 

Do  Insects  Depredate  Badly,  if  so,  What?  Have  you  the  Colorado  Beetle?*— We 
do  not  have  the  Colorado  beetle,  but  we  do  have  the  curculio  (the  cotton  and  cab- 
bage worm),  the  turnip  flea,  and  many  other  less  notorious  and  hurtful  insect 
marauders.  The  grandest  triumph  over  such  pests  that  has  been  achieved  in 
our  day  is  the  control  we  have  acquired  over  the  giant  insect  enemy  the  cotton 
worm.  This  pest  that  some  years  destroy  thirty  millions  of  wealth  we  can  now 
squelch. 

Effects  of  the  Lien  Law. — In  a  large  number  of  cases  the  facility  with  which 
farmers  of  small  means  may  purchase  supplies  on  credit,  which  should  be  pro- 
duced at  home — under  the  operation  of  the  lien  laws — has  tended  to  encourage 
speculative  farming,  relying  on  the  West  for  bacon,  flour,  corn,  etc.  The  coun- 
ties are  not  generally  in  debt  beyond  the  amount  of  one  year's  taxes.  They  are 
prohibited  from  issuing  bonds  or  incurring  extraordinary  expense,  or  from 
levying  more  than  a  specific  rate  on  the  general  State  tax,  without  special 
authority  from  the  Legislature.  The  rate  is  four-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  for 
State  purposes,  and  not  more  than  an  equal  amount  for  county  purposes,  except 

*  Doryphora.  decemlineata.     The  D.  Juntta  is  found,  and  may  deceive  the  superficial  observer. 


GEORGIA.  193 

as  before  excepted.  Farmers,  as  a  rule,  are  more  or  less  in  debt,*  but  the 
amount  is  annually  decreasing.  The  legal  rate  of  interest,  where -no  rate  is 
specified,  is  7  per  cent,  simple  ;  but  parties  may  agree  on  8.  Bank  rates  vary 
from  8  per  cent,  per  annum,  to  regular  and  approved  customers,  to  1  per  cent, 
per  month. 

Each  head  of  a  family,  or  guardian,  or  trustee  of  a  family  of  minor  children, 
or  every  aged  or  infirm  person,  or  person  having  the  care  and  support  of  depen- 
dent females  of  any  age,  who  is  not  the  head  of  a  family,,  is  entitled  to  an 
exemption  of  realty  or  personalty,  or  both,  to  the  value  of  $600.  He  shall  have 
power  to  waive  or  renounce  his  right,  in  writing,  except  as  to  wearing  apparel, 
and  not  exceeding  $300  worth  of  household  and  kitchen  furniture. 

The  general  law  of  the  State  requires  all  crop  owners  to  protect  their  prem- 
ises from  trespasses  by  stock  which  are  permitted  to  run  at  large.  But  a  gen- 
eral local-option  law  is  also  in  force  which  permits  the  qualified  voters  of  any 
county  or  militia  district  to  determine  by  an  election  (which  may  not  occur 
oftener  than  once  every  year,)  whether  they  will  adopt  the  "stock  law"  or  ad- 
here to  the  "fence  law."  The  "stock  law,"  if  adopted,  requires  owners  of  stock 
to  keep  them  within  their  own  enclosures.  About  one-fourth  of  the  counties  in 
the  State  have  adopted  the  "stock  law,"  and  the  operation  has  been  universally 
satisfactory. 

All  property  of  wife,  at  time  of  marriage,  real  or  personal,  or  choses  in 
action,  shall  be  and  remain  the  separate  property  of  the  wife  ;  and  all  property 
given  to  or  inherited,  or  acquired  by  the  wife  during  coverture,  shall  vest  in 
and  belong  to  the  wife,  and  shall  not  be  liable  for  the  debts  or  defaults  of  the 
husband.  She  may,  without  consent  of  her  husband,  devise  such  separate 
property  by  will. 

The  general  law  of  the  State  authorizes  the  granting  of  licenses  to  retail 
intoxicating  liquors,  by  the  ordinances  of  the  several  counties  and  city  author- 
ities of  cities,  upon  the  payment  of  specified  license  fees,  and  approval  by  the 
officer  granting  (he  may  withhold  license  in  his  discretion,)  of  the  character  of 
the  applicant.  Upon  granting  license,  the  applicant  must  give  bond  and  surety 
in  the  sum  of  $500,  to  keep  an  orderly  house  and  to  abide  by  the  oath  which 
he  must  take,  that  he  "  will  not,  during  next  twelve  months,  sell,  barter,  give 
or  furnish  liquors  to  any  minor,  either  white  or  colored,  without  consent  of  his 
or  her  parents  or  guardian."  A  large  majority  of  the  counties  have  availed 
themselves  of  enabling  legislative  acts  to  vote  upon  and  adopt  the  local  law 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  intoxicating  spirits  within  their  limits.  The  general 
laws  and  the  local-option  laws  are  quite  generally  and  faithfully  observed,  and 
violations  incur  the  ban  of  public  opinion  and  prompt  judicial  punishment. 

BAILKOADS. 

Centred  Railroad  of  Georgia. — Main  line  :  Savannah  to  Atlanta,  294  miles  ; 
Macon  to  Eufaula,  140  miles  ;  Fort  Valley  to  Columbus,  71  miles  ;  Fort  Valley 
to  Perry,  11  miles  ;  Cuthbert  to  Fort  Gaines,  22  miles  ;  Smithville  to  Albany,  20 
miles  ;  Albany  to  Arlington,  37  miles  ;  Milton  to  Augusta,  53  miles  ;  Gordon  to 
Eatonton,  40  miles ;  Griffin  to  Carrollton,  60  miles  ;  Barnsville,  to  Thomaston, 
16  ;  total,  764  miles. 

Western  and  Atlantic  Railroad  (belongs  to  the  State). — Atlanta  to  Chatta- 
nooga, 138  miles. 

Georgia  Railroad  (under  lease  to  President  of  Central  Railroad). — Augusta  to 
Atlanta,  170  miles  ;  Union  Point  to  Athens,  39  miles  ;  Barnett  to  Washington, 
18  miles  ;  Camak  to  Macon,  74  miles  ;  total,  301. 

*  This  is  the  case  very  generally.     It  opens  the  way  for  long  loans  at  a  good  rate  of  interest.     The 
indebtedness  is  to  the  merchant  commonly. 


194  GEORGIA. 

Richmond  and  Danville. — Main  line  (in  Georgia) :  Atlanta  to  Tugaloo  River, 
100  miles  ;  Athens  to  Clarksville,  60  miles  ;  Toccoa  to  Elberton  and  Hartwell, 
80  miles  ;  Gainesville  to  Social  Circle,  60  miles  ;  branch  to  Jefferson,  10  miles  ; 
to  Roswell,  10  miles  ;  to  Lawrenceville,  10  miles  ;  total,  330  miles. 

Marietta  and  North  Georgia  Railroad. — Completed  to  Ellijay,  75  miles. 

East  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  Georgia  Railroad. — Main  line  from  Cohutta  via 
Rome  and  Atlanta  :  Macon  to  Brunswick,  452  miles  ;  from  Rome  to  Prior's  Sta- 
tion, 40  miles  ;  total,  492  miles. 

Savannah,  Florida  and  Western  Railroad. — Main  Line  :  Savannah  to  Chatta- 
lioochee,  258  miles  ;  Waycross  to  State  line,  40  miles  ;  Thomasville  to  Albany, 
58  miles  ;  total,  356  miles. 

Atlanta  and  West  Point  Railroad. — Atlanta  to  West  Point,  87  miles. 

Brunswick  and  Western  Railroad. — Brunswick  to  Albany,  172  miles. 

Columbus  and  Rome  Railroad  (Narrow  Gauge). — Columbus  to  Chipley,  and 
extending,  30  miles. 

East  and  West  Railroad  of  Alabama. — Cartersville  to  Cedar  Town  (narrow 
gauge),  35  miles. 

Georgia  Pacific. — Atlanta  to  Talapoosa,  70  miles. 

Rome  Railroad. — Kingston  to  Rome,  20  miles.  Total  miles  of  railroad  in  the 
State,  2,870. 

In  Process  of  Construction. — Buena  Vista  Railroad,  Buena  Vista  to  Anderson, 
26  miles  ;  Americus  and  Lumpkin,  Americus  to  Lumpkin,  36  miles  ;  Richmond 
and  Knoxville,  Augusta  to  Elberton,  70  miles. 

Average  Mean  Summer  and  Winter  Temperatures  of  some  localities  for  10 

years  :  Summer.  Winter.  Summer.  Winter. 


Atlanta 77.5  degrees.  45.2  degrees. 

Rome 78.0  44.8 

Augusta 79-8        "  48.9         " 

Macon 80.7         "  51.3 

Americus 81.3         "  53-9         " 

Average  Annual  Rainfall — 

Atlanta 49  inches. 

Rome 47 

Augusta 43         " 

Macon 45         " 


Brunswick 81.5  degrees.  55.5  degrees. 

Rabun  Gap 71.7        "  41.0        " 

Gainesville.. 76.7         "  45.4         " 

La  Grange 80.2        "  48.0        " 


Brunswick 48  inches. 

Rabun  Gap , . . .  72        " 

Gainesville 55         " 

La  Grange 49        " 


Americus 47        " 

First  frost  from  October  20  to  November  20  ;  latest  Spring  frost  from  April 
1  to  April  20.  First  ice  November  1  to  10  ;  last  from  February  15  to  March  15. 

Prices  of  Land. — Middle  and  North  Georgia,  $5  to  $20  per  acre  ;  wild,  unim- 
proved lands,  much  less.  Sheep-raising  lands — for  fine  short  wools,  Southern 
Georgia — 50  cts.  to  $2.50  per  acre  ;  for  long  wools  and  mutton — Middle  and 
Northern  Georgia— $5  to  20. 

Style  of  Renting. — Share  system. 

Best  Locations  for  Various  Fruits. — Across  middle  of  State  and  Southwest 
Georgia  for  pears,  peaches,  plums  ;  North  Georgia  for  apples,  pears,  small 
fruits,  etc.  (See  White's  Gardening  for  South.) 

Character  of  Waters. — Various.  Generally  free  and  soft  in  Middle  and 
Northeast ;  hard  in  Northwest  and  Southern.  Abundant.  Wells  from  25  to  50 
(rarely  more)  feet  deep.  Temperature,  55°  in  northern  to  65°  in  southern  por- 
tions of  State.  Artesian  wells,  in  southern  half  of  State,  afford  abundant  sup- 
ply of  excellent  water,  often  medicinal,  and  greatly  mitigating  complaints 
dependent  upon  hard  water. 

Mineral  Springs.-^—  Sulphur  (warm  and  normal),  chalybeate,  etc.,  in  several 
places.  Chalybeate  very  common. 

Tobacco. — Not  much  grown,  though  climate  and  soil  well  suited. 


FLORIDA. 


I  approach  the  topic  of  this  State  with  a  certain  shrinking,  realizing  the 
impossibility  of  pleasing  both  or  either  of  two  large  classes  of  people.  One  class 
will  revolt  at  any  due  enthusiasm.  They  care  not  how  much  praise  one  bestows 
on  corn  and  hogs,  but  flowers  and  oranges  must  pass  with  frigid  mention.  Skunk 
cabbage  they  do  not  object  to,  but  a  choice  bouquet  they  have  no  use  for.  The 
other  class  will  insist  that  you  shall  paint  Florida  in — 

"The  light  that  never  was  on  land  or  sea;" 

that  he  who  shall  choose  that  laud  for  a  home  will  be — 

"A  happy  soul,  who,  all  the  way 
To  heaven,  hath  a  summer's  day;" 

that  "  every  prospect  pleases,"  and  each  day  is  "  a  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky." 

Now,  this  latter  class  err  on  the  side  of  beauty,  an  exalted  enthusiasm,  and  in 
the  direction  of  right  and  truth.  It  will  not  do  to  sneer  at  this  and  call  it  over- 
done, the  hysterics  of  aBstheticism,  sublimated  affectation,  etc.  The  love  of  moun- 
tains and  flowers,  of  balmy  climes,  is  as  practical,  as  true  as  love  of  belles  lettres,  of 
the  "  fair  humanities,"  of  painting,  of  sculpture,  or  even  of  corn  and  beef  and  pork. 
One  cannot  write  soberly  of  some,  and  I  think  the  best,  aspects  of  Florida.  The 
pulses  refuse  to  be  equable,  and  the  pen  self-contained.  One  must  feel — 

"The  exulting  sense,  the  pulse's  mad'ning  play." 

The  name  is  like  an  elixir,  and  the  imagination  is  at  once  plumed  with  it.  Nor 
is  this  responsiveness  without  its  uses,  aside  from  its  delights.  It  is  a  sort  of 
Arethusa,  or  a  spring  of  nepenthe,  where  the  wounded  sensibilities  may  find  a 
lenitive ;  where  the  "  fitful  fever  "  of  life  may  be  soothed ;  where  the  bondage  of 
routine  may  be  broken ;  where  the  dull  heart  may  be  gladdened;  where  a  refuge 
may  be  found  from  "weary,  carping  care;"  where  we  may  enjoy  the  "divine, 
enchanting  ravishment "  of  nature,  and  the  soft  witchery  of  her  lofty  spell.  And 
why  should  not  Florida  be  painted  in  brilliant  hues?  If,  in  describing  the  polar 
regions,  one  should  have  no  glow  of  language,  no  hint  of  flower  nor  fragrance, 
because  it  is  fitness,  why  should  not  one  speak  of  orange  groves,  of  a — 

"  Land  of  delicious  lights  and  floating  shades  " 

as  a  fact?  Ought  an  Italian  sunset  to  be  limned  in  the  cold,  sombre,  cheerless 
tints  of  an  Arctic  one?  We  should  be  ashamed  to  talk  about  potatoes,  cabbages, 
corn  and  hogs  in  any  but  plain  language ;  but  should  we  rob  flowers  of  their  hues, 
because  some  reader  is  color-blind ;  or  of  their  fragrance,  because  another  has  no 
sense  of  smell  ?  The  flowers  and  fruits  have  their  rights  as  well  as  potatoes,  corn 
and  hogs;  and  dollars  figure  just  as  high  and  swell  a  bank  account  as  well  from 
oranges,  pine  apples,  citrons,  lemons,  etc.,  as-  from  the  former. 

I  shall  defer  to  three  classes  of  people  in  treating  of  Florida,  looking  at  it 
from  the  standpoints  of  utilitarianism,'  of  health  and  of  aesthetics.  In  all  these 
aspects  it  has  great  usel  and  magnificent  capabilities,  and  I  regard  each  view  as 
strictly  practical. 


196  FLORIDA. 

There  have  been  so  many  books,  and  so  many  thousands  of  magazine  and 
newspaper  articles,  written  in  description  of  the  soil,  climate,  etc.,  of  Florida, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  write  anything  new  under  these  heads,  and  that  portion  of 
the  following  pages  devoted  to  these  subjects  is  largely  a  compilation.  The 
authorities  quoted  are  Reports  of  the  Tenth  United  States  Census,  and  others  as 
reliable  and  authentic. 

The  population  in  1880  was  269,493.  The  number  of  counties  in  1880  was 
forty.  The  capital  of  the  State  is  Tallahassee,  in  Leon  County.  The  names  of 
towns  of  not  less  than  4,000  population,  according  to  last  census,  are:  Jackson- 
ville, 7,650 ;  Key  West,  9,840 ;  Pensacola,  6,845.  All  these  are  very  important  and 
growing  towns.  Pensacola  is  a  great  lumber  port,  and  is  distinguished  for  its 
harbor.  Key  West  is  celebrated  for  its  immense  business  in  manufacturing  very 
superior  cigars  from  Cuban  tobacco.  Jacksonville  is  too  noted  to  require  enumer- 
ation of  its  grounds  of  distinction. 

PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Florida,  the  southernmost  State  of  the  United  States,  lies  between  the  paral- 
lels of  24°  30'  and  31°  north  latitude,  and  the  80th  and  88th  meridians  west  from 
Greenwich.  Its  total  gross  area,  as  determined  by  the  latest  measurements,  is 
58,680  square  miles.  The  greater  part  of  this  area  (about  35,000  square  miles)  is 
a  peninsula  about  350  miles  long,  with  an  average  width  of  100  miles,  separating 
the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  from  those  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  rest  of 
the  State,  known  as  Eastern,  (from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Suwanee  River,)  Middle, 
(from  the  Suwanee  to  the  Apalachicola  River,)  and  Western  Florida,  (from  the 
Apalachicola  to  Perdido  River,)  nearly  24,000  square  miles,  is  embraced  in  a  strip 
320  miles  long  and  about  75  miles  wide,  lying  immediately  south  of  the  lines  of 
Georgia  and  Alabama.  Roughly  speaking,  about  one-half  the  area  of  Eastern, 
Middle  and  Western  Florida,  and  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  Peninsula, 
are  uplands  of  various  kinds ;  the  rest,  lowlands,  including  the  level  flatlands  near 
the  coasts,*the  everglades,  savannas,  etc. 

ELEVATION  ABOVE  THE  SEA. 

The  upper  half  of  what  is  known  as  Middle  and  Western  Florida  consists 
of  uplands,  which  are  entirely  similar  to  the  corresponding  uplands  of  Georgia 
and  Alabama.  Some  parts  of  these  uplands  are  broken  or  hilly,  and  the  elevation 
above  the  sea  cannot  be  far  from  300  feet.  Toward  the  gulf  and  Atlantic  there  is 
a  gradual  slope,  and  within  ten  miles  of  the  coast  the  elevation  is  scarcely  more 
than  ten  feet  above  tide.  From  the  Georgia  line,  in  the  vicinity  of  Okeefenokee 
Swamp,  southward  down  the  Peninsula,  there  is  an  elevated  belt  of  land  known, 
in  part  of  its  coarse  at  least,  as  Trail  Ridge.  This  elevated  land  is  known  to 
extend  as  far  south  as  Polk  Country,  and  its  height  above  the  sea  is  between  200 
and  300  feet.  Between  this  maim  ridge  and  the  gulf  there  is  another  ridge,  known 
as  the  Sand  Hills,  120  feet  and  more  in  elevation.  In  Hernando  County  are  high 
hummock  lands  of  considerable  elevation,  and  Mount  Lee,  near  the  head  of 
Homosassa  River,  is  said  to  be  214  feet  high.  The  lower  part  of  the  State,  from 
Polk  County  southward,  is  generally  low,  comparatively  level,  and  with  an 
elevation  probably  not  greater  than  thirty  or  forty  feet.  The  immediate  coast  in 
some  localities  has  an  elevation  of  fifteen  feet. 

GEOLOGICAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Limestone. — A  very  considerable  portion  of  Florida  is  underlaid  with  lime- 
stone, and  the  peninsula  is  considered  by  eminent  scientists  to  be  much  narrower 
than  it  once  was,  the  limestone  extending  quite  a  distance  into  the  gulf.  Some  of 


FLORIDA.  197 

this  rock — in  Alachua  County,  for  instance — contains  as  much  as  sixteen  per  cent, 
of  phosphoric  acid— an  easy  explanation  of  the  heavy  growth  of  live  oak,  water 
oak,  Spanish  oak  and  other  hard  woods.  This  rock  is  of  a  yellowish  to  white  color, 
somewhat  granular,  and  in  disintegrating,  breaks  up  into  small,  rounded,  pebbly 
masses.  Disseminated  through  the  soil,  it  imparts  to  it  a  great  degree  of  fertility. 
Along  the  gulf  coast,  especially  from  Wakulla  County  down  to  Hillsborough,  there 
are  frequent  spots,  sometimes  quite  extensive,  where  the  tertiary  limestone  lies  near 
the  surface,  and  its  reaction  upon  the  sandy  soil  brings  about  the  modification 
known  as  gulf-hummock  laud.  This  land  will  yield  a  bale  of  lint  (Sea  Island) 
cotton  to  the  acre  in  some  localities ;  the  average,  however,  would  probably  be 
less.  The  growth  is  the  usual  hummock  growth  given  above.  The  color  of  the 
soil  in  some  localities  in  Wakulla  county  is  light  gray,  nearly  white,  looking  very 
much  like  white  sand.  In  this  place  the  limestone  is  a  white,  pulverulent  mass, 
with  shells.  An  analysis  of  marl  shows  that  it  contains  over  thirty  per  cent,  of 
lime,  and  over  twenty-four  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid.  The  intermingling  of  this 
substance  with  the  sandy  soils  gives  to  this  hummock  its  high  degree  of  fertility. 

DRAINAGE. 

Rivers. — The  principal  streams  of  Florida  are  the  Apalachicola,  the  Suwanee, 
the  St.  Mary's,  St.  John's,  Kissimmee  and  Indian  rivers,  the  last  named  being 
merely  an  arm  of  the  sea,  running  parallel  with  the  eastern  coast.  The  St.  John's 
and  the  Kissimmee,  in  some  parts  of  their  courses,  consist  of  a  chain  of  lakes  con- 
nected by  the  wrater  courses,  the  former  rising  in  the  region  surrounding  the 
everglades,  flowing  northward,  and  the  latter  flowing  southward  toward  the  ever- 
glades, the  two,  in  part  of  their  courses,  flowing  approximately  parallel  to  each 
other,  but  in  opposite  directions,  and  at  no  great  distance  (twenty  to  thirty  miles) 
apart. 

Lakes. — In  the  number  and  variety  of  its  lakes,  Florida  is  distinguished 
among  the  States.  These  lakes  vary  in  size  from  mere  ponds  to  vast  sheets  of 
water,  like  Lake  Okeechobee,  which  has  an  area  of  more  than  500  square  miles. 
In  some  instances  they  are  apparently  fed  from  underground  sources  and  form 
the  headwaters  of  streams ;  in  other  cases  the  streams  flow  through  them,  which 
thus  appear  as  mere  local  widenings  of  the  channels ;  and  in  still  other  cases,  lakes 
which  receive  the  drainage  of  large  areas  by  means  of  rivers  have  no  visible  out- 
let, the  waters  being  removed  by  evaporation  or  by  subterranean  outlets.  The 
waters  of  Lake  Okeechobee  are  apparently  generally  connected  with  those  of  the 
Everglades,  which  are  carried  off  to  the  sea  by  a  number  of  channels.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  form  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  lakes,  large  and  small,  with  which  the 
scenery  of  Florida  is  diversified ;  for  in  some  parts  of  the  State  one  may  travel  for 
days  a  t  a  tyne  without  being  out  of  sight  of  these  sheets  of  water.  In  those  sec- 
tions where  the  lakes  are  most  abundant,  they  receive  the  drainage  over  large 
areas,  and  the  water  courses  are  subterranean.  The  headwaters  of  most  of  the 
streams  of  Southern  Florida  are  found  in  the  Everglades;  and  Lake  Okeechobee, 
which  seems  to  be  a  merely  open  lagoon,  receives  the  waters  of  at  least  one  large 
stream,  the  Kissimmee  River. 

Springs.— The  country  is  well  watered,  not  only  by  its  larger  and  smaller 
rivers  and  lakes,  but  by  innumerable  creeks  and  springs.  Springs  of  great  volume 
are  found  in  every  portion  of  the  State,  some  of  such  magnitude  that  they  form 
navigable  rivers  from  their  source.  Of  such  are  the  Blue  Springs,  in  Jackson 
County,  in  the  west;  Wakulla  Springs,  in  Wakulla  County,  in  the  middle;  Silver 
Springs,  in  Marion  County,  in  the  east;  the  very  large  Blue  Spring,  on  the  St. 
John's,  in  Volusia  County  ;  the  Green  Cove  Spring,  in  Clay  County,  on  the  shore 
of  the  St,  John's;  also  Clay  Spring,  in  Orange  County.  Some  of  these  are  medici- 


198  FLORIDA. 

nal,  white  sulphur,  iron,  etc.  Good  water,  so  universally  desired,  is  found  easily 
at  a  depth  of  from  eight  to  fifty  feet,  according  to  locality,  generally  from  twelve 
to  twenty  feet,  but  through  the  country,  the  many  lakes  and  springs  and  branches 
afford  ample  supply  for  house  and  farm  purposes.  An  ordinary  gas  pipe  of  one 
and  a-half  or  two  inches  in  diameter,  shod  with  a  conical  plug  of  iron,  and  per- 
forated for  a  distance  of  one  or  two  feet  above  the  plug,  will,  when  driven  into  the 
ground  to  a  depth  of  thirty  to  forty-five  feet,  afford  a  never  failing  flow  of  water, 
at  all  times  cool  and  refreshing,  slightly  tinctured  with  the  carbonate  of  iron  and 
trace  of  sulphur.  The  flow  is,  in  many  cases,  so  strong  that  faucets  are  placed  on 
the  pipe  from  thirty  inches  to  three  feet  above  the  ground  in  order  to  check  it. 

SOIL. 

The  soil  in  the  greater  portion  of  the  State  is  a  sandy  loam,  except  in  the  hill 
lands  and  hummocks,  where  large  portions  of  clay  and  alluvium  are  found.  The 
so-called  sand  of  Florida,  however,  is  not  the  sharp,  silicious  sand  of  the  ocean- 
washed,  beach,  or  the  fine  inorganic  sand  which  forms  the  pine  barrens  of  the 
North  and  West.  Composed,  in  great  part,  of  a  mixture  of  humus,  lime  and  loam, 
the  surface  sand  of  Florida  has  good  fertilizing  qualities.  Florida  lands  are  ordi- 
narily classified  as  pine  lands,  hummocks  (lauds  covered  with  hard  woods),  and 
swamp  lands.  The  greater  portion  of  the  State  is  covered  with  pine — the  pitch 
and  yellow  pine.  The  hummocks,  high  and  low,  are  densely  covered  with  hard 
wood,  such  as  live  oak,  oak,  magnolia,  gum,  hickory,  etc.  The  swamp  lands  are 
more  or  less  timbered  with  pine,  cypress,  cedar  and  soft  woods.  The  first  rate 
pine  lands,  so  called,  are  generally  elevated  and  rolling,  covered  with  a  dark  vege- 
table mould  or  humus,  several  inches  deep,  resting  on  a  chocolate-colored,  sandy 
loam,  mixed  with  pebble  and  lime;  under  this,  clay  and  soft  limestone  rock.  These 
lands  have  a  durable  fertility,  and  are  well  adapted  to  the  usual  agricultural 
products  and  semi-tropical  fruits.  They  are  found  to  withstand  drought  well, 
and  in  rainy  seasons  growing  crops  are  not  affected,  except  favorably.  They  are 
healthy,  the  water  is  pure,  and  it  costs  little  to  prepare  the  soil  for  cultivation.  It 
is  noticeable  that  the  early  settlers  selected  these  lands  especially  for  residences 
and  home  farms,  health,  pure  water,  freedom  from  insects,  good  soil  for  crops  and 
fruit,  and  ease  of  cultivation.  They  produce  well  for  years  without  fertilizing, 
but  readily  respond  in  increased  products  to  fertilizers.  The  second  rate  pine 
lands,  which  are  also  timbered  with  pine,  are  more  or  less  high  and  rolling,  are 
well  watered,  the  surface  soil  is  not  deep,  are  underlaid  with  clay  or  limestone, 
and  produce  well  for  a  few  years.  Fertilized,  they  yield  good  crops  of  cotton, 
coin,  cane  and  root  crops;  when  properly  cultivated,  they  are  superior  for  semi- 
tropical  fruits.  Experienced  growers  have  selected  this  class  of  land  for  orange 
groves.  • 

The  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Lands  and  Immigration  for  1875,  gives  a 
very  thorough  and  comprehensive  description  of  the  soils: 

"  The  bulk  of  the  lands  in  the  State  are  what  is  denominated  pine  lands,  and 
are  divided  into  first,  second  and  third  rate.  The  soil  of  the  first  rate  pine  land 
rests  upon  a  substratum  of  clay  or  marl,  overtopped  by  a  dark  mould  of  decom- 
posed vegetable  matter.  This  land  is  exceedingly  fertile,  producing  splendid 
yields  of  the  most  exhausting  crops  for  several  years  in  succession  without  any 
need  of  fertilization.  There  are  several  large  bodies  of  these  lands  scattered 
throughout  the  northern  tier  of  counties  and  along  the  gulf  coast. 

"The  second  class  of  pine  lands  are  only  a  trifle  less  productive  than  those  of 
the  first  class.  Generally  speaking,  these  lands  are  high  and  rolling,  and  are 
characterized  by  a  heavy  growth  of  pitch  and  yellow  pine  timber.  They  rest 
upon  a  basis  similar  to  that  of  the  first  class,  but  the  mould  is  lighter,  and  they 
show  signs  of  exhaustion  after  a  few  years.  A  little  fertilization,  however, 
restores  their  vigor.  'Cow-penning'  is  the  favorite  mode  of  restoration,  and 
treated  in  this  manner,  they  will  yield  a  bale  of  cotton  of  300  pounds  to  the  acre. 


FLORIDA.  199 

"  The  third  class  of  pine  lauds  are  distinguished  by  being  covered  with  a 
growth  of  saw-palmetto,  black-jack,  and  a  shrub  called  the  '  gall-berry.'  The 
presence  of  the  latter  is  a  certain  test  of  poor  soil.  Another  feature  of  this  land 
is  the  presence  of  'hard'  or  'slush'  pine,  the  roots  of  which  are  to  be  found  run- 
ning very  near  the  surface.  These  lands  are  not  worthless,  but  can  only  be  made 
to  yield  remuneratively  after  much  labor  and  heavy  fertilization.  Sisal  hemp  can 
be  grown  very  successfully  on  them,  and  with  proper  machinery  to  crush  and 
prepare  the  fibre  for  market,  their  value  would  be  equal  to  that  of  any  other  class 
of  pine  land. 

"There  is  another  species  of  pine  land  called  by  the  natives  'flatwoods.' 
About  four  feet  from  the  surface  of  this  land  a  stratum  of  wThat  is  called  sand- 
rock  is  found.  This  is  composed  of  common  fine  sand,  and  cemented  by  sulphate 
of  iron  and  aluminum,  and  a  subsoil  thus  formed  is  almost  impenetrable  to 
moisture.  As  a  consequence  it  holds  up  all  the  rainfall,  so  that  the  land  becomes 
packed,  and  is  known  to  the  natives  as  '  sobbed  land.'  Such  soil  is  of  very  inferior 
quality,  and  is  scarcely  fit  for  profitable  agriculture. 

"  But  by  far  the  finest  lands  in  the  State  are  known  as  '  swamp,'  '  low  hum- 
mock '  and  '  high  hummock '  lands. 

"  The  swamp  lands  are  the  richest  in  the  State.  They  are  formed  entirely  of 
humus,  or  decayed  vegetable  matter,  of  an  extraordinary  depth,  and  when  ren- 
dered fit  for  cultivation  by  ditching,  give  evidence  of  an  inexhaustible  fertility.  It 
has  been  demonstrated  that  these  lands  will  yield  four  hogsheads  of  sugar  to  the 
acre — a  most  convincing  proof  of  their  value,  especially  when  it  is  borne  in  mind 
that  sugar-cane  is  one  of  the  most  exhausting  crops  known.  Immense  bodies  of 
these  lands  are  located  in  Central  and  Southern  Florida.  Drainage  is  necessary, 
however,  to  render  the  greater  portion  available  for  purposes  of  agriculture. 

"The  lands  denominated  'low  hummock'  rank  next  to  the  swamp  lands  in 
fertility.  They  are  generally  moist,  and  some  ditching  is  required  for  successful 
cultivation.  They  will  sustain  a  succession  of  the  most  exhausting  crops  for 
several  years  with  as  much  apparent  vigor  as  the  swamp  lands,  but  are  not  so 
durably  rich,  and  need  fertilization  after  some  time. 

"  High  hummocks  are  the  most  desirable  lands  in  the  State  for  purposes  of 
agriculture.  They  are  covered  with  a  growth  of  live  oak,  hickory  and  magnolia, 
and  the  surface  is,  for  the  most  part,  high  and  gently  undulating.  The  soil  is 
exceedingly  rich  and  will  produce  all  the  crops  of  the  country  in  a  highly  remu- 
nerative degree.  Their  productiveness  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  three  hogs- 
heads of  sugar  per  acre  have  been  made  from  them.  The  chief  labor  connected 
with  their  cultivation  is  the  clearing.  The  timber  is  generally  very  heavy,  and 
the  cost  of  clearing  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  quality  of  land  in  the  State. 
Once  cleared,  however,  they  are  free  from  pernicious  weeds  and  grasses,  and  but 
little  labor  is  required  in  working  them.  These  lands  are  very  abundant.  In 
Levy  County  alone  there  are  perhaps  over  one  hundred  thousand  acres  of  first 
class  hummock  land,  while  in  Leon,  Gadsden,  Jefferson,  Jackson,  Marion  and 
Alachua  Counties  they  form  the  great  bulk  of  the  land,  and  can  be  purchased  at 
from  two  to  ten  dollars  per  acre." 

Large  bodies  of  these  lands  have  been  sold  since  the  above  was  written, 
Disston's  purchase  alone  being  4,000,000  acres. 

The  cost  of  clearing  land  depends  on  whether  sparsely  timbered  or  of  thick 
growth;  whether  pine,  hummock  or  swamp  land;  and  also,  whether  the  land  is  to 
be  planted  in  orange  groves  or  usual  crops.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  simply 
girdle  the  trees  and  remove  the  fallen  timber.  This  was  done  quickly  and  cheaply, 
and  crops  put  in  the  same  season. 

To  clear  ordinary  pine  land,  removing  the  timber  will  cost  from  $12  to  $15 
per  acre;  hummock  lands  will  cost  more — from  $15  to  $30,  according  to  the 
density  and  size  of  timber. 

For  a  new  place,  the  Virginia  rail  fence  is  cheapest,  as  timber  is  on  the  spot 
and  splits  freely.  There  are  saw  mills  throughout  the  State,  so  that  boards  and 
posts  may  be  substituted. 

The  new-comer,  anxious  to  have  a  roof  over  his  head  and  be  ready  to  go  to 
work,  will  hasten  to  build  him  a  house.  Now,  here  is  room  and  range  for  any 
person  to  exercise  his  taste,  talent,  extravagance  or  economy.  A  comfortable  log 
house  for  a  moderate  sized  family  can  be  built,  say,  for  $50 ;  a  good  frame  build- 


200  FLORIDA. 

ing,  with  four  or  five  rooms,  will  cost  from  $200  to  $800.  Lumber  of  fair  quality 
from  $5  to  $12  per  1,000  feet,  at  mills. 

Any  one  moving  his  family  to  a  new  State  should  have  either  money  or  pro- 
visions to  last  until  he  can  raise  crops. 

A  homestead  to  the  extent  of  160  acres  of  land,  or  the  half  of  one  acre  within 
the  limits  of  any  incorporated  town  or  city,  owned  by  the  head  of  a  family  resid- 
ing in  this  State,  together  with  $1,000  worth  of  personal  property  and  the 
improvements  on  the  real  estate,  are  exempted  from  forced  sale  under  any  process 
of  law,  and  the  real  estate  shall  not  be  alienable  without  the  joint  consent  of  hus- 
band and  wife,  when  that  relation  exists ;  but  no  property  shall  be  exempt  from 
sale  or  from  the  payment  of  obligations  contracted  for  the  purchase  of  said 
premises  or  for  the  erection  of  improvements  thereon,  or  for  house,  field,  or  other 
labor  performed  on  the  same.  The  exemption  herein  provided  shall  not  extend 
to  more  improvements  or  buildings  than  the  residence  and  business  house  of  the 
owner. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

The  lands  of  Florida  produce  nearly  all  the  crops  and  fruits  of  the  Middle, 
Northern  and  Southern  States,  and,  in  addition,  a  great  variety  of  semi-tropical  and 
tropical  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  most  of  the  best  known  and  valuable  medicinal 
and  fibrous  plants.  The  settler  may  turn  his  attention  to  almost  any  crop  with 
equal  hope  of  success.  For  instance,  he  may  raise  rye,  corn,  oats,  rice,  beans,  peas, 
etc.;  or  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar,  indigo,  sisal  hemp,  jute,  etc,;  or  Irish  potatoes, 
sweet  potatoes,  yams,  turnips,  beets,  cabbages,  rutabagas,  squashes,  etc. ;  or  straw- 
berries, melons,  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  etc. ;  or  go  largely  into  fruits,  as  oranges, 
limes,  lemons,  peaches,  figs,  grapes,  pawpaw,  plums,  etc. ;  or  if  he  elects  to  settle 
in  the  more  southern  portion  of  the  State,  he  may  include  the  cocoanut,  pine- 
apple, banana,  plantain,  guava,  etc.,  etc.  Cassava,  arrowroot  and  comptie  are  also 
receiving  marked  attention  throughout  Southern  Florida,  due  to  their  astonishing 
yield  per  acre,  and  the  large  return  realized  by  those  engaged  in  their  cultivation. 

All  crops,  whether  of  fruits  or  vegetables,  mature  so  much  earlier  than  further 
north,  that  the  producers  receive  a  threefold  price  as  compared  with  other  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  raising  of 

EARLY  VEGETABLES 

for  shipment  to  Northern  markets  is  now,  and  always  will  be,  extremely  profit- 
able in  Florida.  This  business,  which  began  in  a  small  way  near  Fernandina  and 
Jacksonville  a  few  years  ago,  has  already  assumed  very  extensive  proportions, 
and  will,  in  all  time  to  come,  prove  a  most  important  and  profitable  industry. 

In  South  Florida,  tomatoes,  cucumbers  and  beans  thus  far  have  been  the  lead- 
ing articles  for  shipment.  The  tomato  has  been  the  most  profitable.  In  that 
section  of  the  State  the  fall  and  winter  months  are  best  suited  for  vegetable  grow- 
ing. Beans,  peas,  cucumbers,  potatoes  and  cabbages  can  be  grown  at  seasons 
which  command  for  them  monopolizing  prices.  Five,  six  and  seven  hundred 
dollars  per  acre  have  been  realized,  both  from  cabbages  and  tomatoes.  Cucum- 
bers have  paid  as  much  to  the  area  in  tillage,  to  the  early  grower,  as  any  vegetable 
on  the  list.  The  great  drawback,  thus  far,  to  the  early  market  gardeners,  has  been 
the  want  of  ready  and  reliable  transportation  facilities.  These,  however,  are  rap- 
idly multiplying  and  extending.  And  the  vegetable  and  fruit  trade  will  soon  be  so 
immense  in  its  proportion  as  to  command  for  their  use  all  the  commercial  facilities 
that  human  skill  and  industry  can  supply.  The  State  seems  likely  soon  to  become 
one  vast  orchard  for  fruits  and  garden  for  vegetables. 

The  Sweet  Potato  comes  nearer  being  a  universal  crop  in  Florida  than  any 
other  the  soil  produces.  It  is  easily  propagated  from  the  roots,  sprouts  and  vine, 


FLORIDA.  201 

and  sometimes  the  seed,  though  the  latter  mode  is  rarely  used.  From  its  easy 
propagation  and  cultivation,  its  large  yield,  and  the  variety  and  excellence  of  the 
dishes  prepared  from  it,  it  is  one  of  the  indispensable  crops.  In  the  southern 
counties,  it  may  be  planted  at  any  season  of  the  year,  and  generally  is  not  taken 
from  the  ground  until  heeded  for  use. 

The  Irish  Potato,  or  "  White  Potato,"  is  accredited  with  being  a  native  of 
Chili  and  Peru,  and  was  introduced  into  North  America  by  the  Spaniards,  from 
whence  it  was,  in  1586,  carried  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  to  England,  and  perhaps 
acquired  its  name  of  "  Irish  "  from  the  extent  to  which  it  is  grown  in  Ireland,  and 
the  excellence  with  which  the  Irish  soil  produces  it.  This  tuber  has,  within  the 
last  few  years,  taken  a  very  prominent  place  among  the  very  profitable  early  crops 
in  Florida.  On  the  best  class  of  lands,  truckmen  have  been  getting  about  an 
average  of  thirty  barrels  of  first  class  shipping  potatoes  per  acre,  wThich,  getting 
into  the  Eastern  markets  about  the  time  the  old  crop  is  exhausted,  have  been  net- 
ting, over  cost  of  shipping  and  selling,  about  $4  per  barrel,  making,  say,  from  $100 
to  $120  per  acre  realized  from  land  in  a  short  period  of  generally  one  hundred 
days,  and  leaving  the  ground  ready  for  some  other  crop  by  first  of  May.  These 
figures  have  been  very  much  exceeded  in  many  localities.  On  the  excellent  farm 
lands  of  Middle  Florida,  some  wonderful  results  have  been  attained. 

Strawberries  are  one  of  the  prominent  subjects  of  interest  to  the  fruit  growers 
and  market  gardeners.  This  delightful  fruit,  so  eagerly  sought  after  in  every 
market,  grows  to  great  perfection  throughout  the  State  of  Florida.  The  fruit 
comes  into  market  too  early  to  find  competition  from  any  other  section,  and 
Florida  strawberries  enjoy  a  monopoly  in  the  Eastern  seaboard  markets  for  many 
weeks  during  January,  February  and  March.  The  production  and  shipment  of 
the  berries  North  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  has  now  assumed  such  proportions  as 
to  secure  the  provision  by  the  transportation  companies  of  suitable  refrigerating 
cars  for  their  proper  preservation  in  transitu. 

Melons  of  every  variety  abound  in  Florida,  are  of  the  very  finest  quality,  and 
in  the  cantaloupe  and  watermelon,  furnish  only  an  additional  entry  to  the  ship- 
ping list  of  the  truckman,  and  are  by  no  means  one  of  the  least  profitable 
interests. 

Blackberries  grow  wild  all  over  the  State  in  great  profusion.  Some  attention 
lias  been  given  in  Middle  Florida,  where  labor  is  abundant  and  cheap,  to  drying 
the  berries  for  shipment.  The  dried  fruit  commands  fourteen  cents  per  pound, 
net,  and  is  becoming  the  source  of  considerable  revenue  to  those  who  have  under- 
taken its  preparation  and  shipment. 

There  are  in  Florida  many  plants  from  which  starch  may  be  obtained,  but 
there  are  three  from  which  its  preparation  is  the  leading  use.  These  are  the 
Arrowroot  of  Commerce,  Coontie,  or  "Florida  Arrowroot,"  and  the  Cassava. 
Arrowroot  grows  well  on  good  land.  It  is  not  extensively  grown  for  market,  but 
frequently  is  grown  and  utilized  for  food  purposes,  as  well  as  starch  making. 
Coontie  is  indigenous  to  the  southern  counties,  where  is  grows  most  luxuriantly. 
On  the  Miami  River,  in  Dade  County,  parties  have  been  engaged  in  manufac- 
turing starch  from  this  plant  for  the  Key  West  market.  It  is  there  sometimes 
appropriated  to  the  uses  of  the  table.  Doubtless  tillage  would  improve  it  in  its 
useful  properties,  just  as  other  plants  have  been  thus  improved  and  developed. 
Parties  who  have  cultivated  Cassava  pronounce  it  to  be  a  most  excellent  food 
crop  for  fattening  hogs ;  that  an  acre  of  this  crop  will  go  further  in  feeding  than 
an  acre  of  potatoes.  Like  the  potato,  it  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the 
stems.  From  this  plant  is  prepared  the  Tapioca  of  commerce.  Recently  this 
plant  has  been  utilized  in  the  production  of  glucose,  which  it  is  found  to  yield  in 
such  quantities  as  to  make  its  manufacture  a  leading  purpose. 


202  FLORIDA. 

Tobacco  has  been  found,  from  the  earliest  settlement  of  Florida,  to  be  well 
adapted  to  both  the  climate  and  soil,  and  has  been  at  different  periods  and  in 
different  localities  extensively  produced.  Several  varieties  of  marked  difference 
in  character  and  quality  are  commonly  cultivated.  Experience  has  taught  that 
Florida  tobacco  possesses  a  fineness  and  toughness  of  leaf  that  admirably  suits  it 
to  the  use  of  wrappers  for  cigars.  Before  the  war,  a  wide  reputation  was  estab- 
lished by  the  planters  in  the  County  of  Gadsden  for  the  production  of  what  is 
termed  the  "Florida  Speckled  Leaf,"  which  was  pronounced  the  very  best  for 
wrappers  grown  anywhere,  and  commanded  unusually  high  prices.  The  lands 
of  that  county  were  found  to  be  peculiarly  suited  to  its  production.  One  thousand 
pounds  was  the  average  yield  per  acre,  and  several  handsome  fortunes  were 
amassed  by  its  culture.  A  highly  flavored  and  fragrant  article  of  tobacco  is  being^ 
extensively  planted  for  home  consumption  in  many  portions  of  the  State.  This 
quite  equals,  in  the  excellence  of  its  flavor,  the  Cuban  weed ;  is  indeed  grown  from 
seed  originally  introduced  from  that  island.  What  are  known  as  shell  hummocks 
in  the  County  of  Wakulla,  in  Middle  Florida,  and  indeed  in  many  other  parts  of 
the  State,  are  most  admirably  suited  to  the  production  of  this  Cuba  variety,  and 
are  just  now  attracting  renewed  attention  for  that  purpose. 

Silk  might  easily  be  made  a  most  profitable  industry  in  Florida.  The  Morus 
Nulticaulis  and  N.Alba  both  grow  most  luxuriantly.  Cuttings  of  either  laid  hori- 
zontally in  furrows  and  covered  in  early  spring,  put  up  a  vigorous  sprout  at  every 
joint,  and  grow  in  ten  years  to  be  hedges  of  stout  canes.  These  kept  cut  back,  so> 
as  to  stool  and  multiply  the  number  of  sprouts,  and  not  allowed  to  grow  into  trees, 
and  thus  elude  the  reach,  will,  the  third  year  and  thereafter,  furnish  heavy  crops 
of  foliage  for  feeding  the  worms.  In  many  places  careful  experiment  with  choice 
varieties  of  European,  American  and  Asiatic  varieties  of  worms  have  proven  very 
satisfactory. 

Honey  is  rapidly  becoming  a  staple  product  of  Florida,  whose  climate  and 
flora  seem  specially  adapted  to  the  propagation  of  bees.  Even  in  the  winter 
months,  in  South  Florida,  there  is  a  supply  of  flowers  quite  sufficient  to  support 
the  hives.  This  permits  heavier  tolls  to  be  made  on  them,  as  less  honey  must  be- 
left  to  feed  during  the  winter.  Bees  work  in  South  Florida  all  winter. 

TROPICAL  AND  SEMI-TROPICAL  FRUITS. 

First  and  most  important  is  the  Orange.  The  cultivation  of  the  orange  is  dis- 
tinctively a  Florida  industry,  and  probably  three-fourths  of  all  who  go  to  Florida 
have  in  view  the  possession  of  an  orange  grove.  However  extravagantly  the  sub- 
ject of  orange  growing  has,  in  many  instances,  been  treated  by  some  writers,  not 
always  without  selfish  purposes  in  inducing  sale  and  settlement  of  lands,  there  is 
no  shadow  of  doubt  as  to  the  really  sure  and  safe  ground  for  the  investment  of 
thousands  of  dollars  in  making  orange  groves. 

One  thousand  dollars  per  acre  per  annum  has  time  and  again  been  realized 
from  this  business.  Indeed,  double  that  amount  per  acre  has  been  frequently 
made;  and  with  proper  culture  and  fertilization,  where  the  latter  is  needed,  $1,000 
per  acre  is  an  available  crop.  Like  all  excellent  things,  orange  culture  has  many 
and  serious  obstacles  to  its  successful  accomplishment.  Being  a  new  business, 
there  is  not  a  great  amount  of  experience  to  govern  and  direct  the  beginner. 
Almost  as  many  different  theories  exist  as  to  the  most  approved  methods  of  cul- 
ture as  there  are  men  engaged  in  it. 

The  natural  enemies  of  the  tree  and  fruit  are  numerous,  and  not  very  well 
understood.  An  entomologist,  sent  from  the  Bureau  at  Washington,  reports 
having  discovered  no  less  than  thirty-five  different  insects  that  are  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  damaging  to  the  orange.  Judicious  selection  of  locality,  as  well 


FLORIDA.  203 

as  location  for  groves,  are  most  important  matters.  The  selection  of  stocks, 
buds,  seeds,  and  the  best  methods  of  planting,  protecting  and  cultivating,  are  all 
material  factors  of  success.  Frosts,  droughts,  gales  and  other  casualities  are  to  be 
considered,  and  time  is  largely  of  the  essence  of  the  undertaking. 

Orange  growing,  while  it  can,  of  course,  be  engaged  in  at  a  decided  advan- 
tage by  those  who  have  means  to  conduct  it  on  a  cash  basis,  and  be  independent 
of  support  until  such  time  as  the  grove  is  an  assured  success,  does  not,  neverthe- 
less, present  any  insurmountable  features  to  poor  men — by  which  term  I  mean,  in 
this  instance,  men  without  ready  money,  and  dependent  upon  their  own  labor  for 
a  support.  But  for  fear  of  misleading  minds  prone  to  overlooking  the  details 
when  so  dazzling  a  prospect  is  offered  them  of  converting  in  a  few  years  acres  of 
$1.25  land  into  bonanzas  yielding  princely  incomes,  I  caution  them  that  there  is  a 
long,  hungry  gap  between  raw  pine  woods  and  groves  of  bearing  orange  trees. 
It  takes  many  hard  licks,  plenty  of  pluck,  assured  health,  good  luck  and  favorable 
auspices ;  to  all  of  which,  a  large  family,  bad  health,  indolence,  inexperience  or 
accident  are  possible  drawbacks. 

It  has  been  urged  that  the  profits  of  orange  growing  would  directly  attract  so 
many  to  the  business  as  to  overstock  the  market  and  break  it  down,  but  a  little 
reflection  will  dissipate  such  fears.  Apples  sell  as  readily  now,  and  at  as  good 
prices,  as  they  did  forty  years  ago,  and  yet  there  are  millions  of  acres  suitable  to 
growing  apples  where  there  are  hundreds  suitable  to  growing  oranges,  and  there 
are  millions  of  apples  now  on-  the  market  where  there  used  to  be  one.  If  the 
apple  market  cannot  be  so  overstocked  as  to  break  it  down,  much  less  can  the 
market  for  oranges.  The  consumption  of  the  orange  within  the  United  States  is 
put  down  at  600,000,000  per  annum.  A  little  above  80,000,000  of  that  supply  is 
furnished  at  home;  the  remainder,  as  shown  at  the  custom  houses,  is  made  up  of 
receipts  from  abroad.  Florida  furnishes  about  one-seventh  of  the  supply,  while 
foreign  sources  furnish  the  balance.  The  ease  by  which  Florida  can  effectually 
occupy  the  market  when  its  supply  is  sufficiently  enlarged  is  shown  in  the  fact 
that  the  foreign  fruit  is  frequently  sold  in  the  market  as  "Florida"  fruit,  to  pro- 
cure for  it  a  more  ready  sale.  Florida  fruit  is  of  a  better  quality  and  richer  flavor, 
and  the  foreign  article  finds  a  market  only  because  the  home  supply  fails  to  meet 
the  demand ;  and  this  demand  is  increasing  almost  as  rapidly  as  orange  trees  in 
Florida  are  multiplying. 

The  natural  increase  of  American  population — that  is,  the  number  of  births 
over  the  number  of  deaths,  is  only  about  one-third  of  the  real  increase.  More 
than  half  a  million  people  from  foreign  lands  will  arrive  upon  our  shores  during 
the  present  year  with  the  intention  of  permanent  residence  among  us.  Then 
every  railroad  in  the  other  American  States,  as  well  as  every  railroad  and  canal 
added  in  Florida,  increases  the  facility  and  lessens  the  cost  of  putting  this  tropical 
fruit  at  every  man's  door. 

In  making  an  orange  grove,  the  judicious  selection  of  the  land  is  the  first 
and  most  important  point,  for  on  this  success  in  a  great  measure  depends.  Choose 
high  dry  hummock,  or  high  rolling  pine  land  that  has  natural  drainage  and  a  yel- 
lowish subsoil.  Avoid  low,  flat  palmetto  or  gallberry  lands.  Most  of  these  are 
underlaid  with  hard-pan,  or  sandstone  mixed  with  oxide  of  iron.  The  most 
favorable  locations  are  on  the  southeast  side  of  wide  sheets  of  water  or  high 
lands,  .which  are  more  generally  free  from  frost.  The  cost  of  a  five-acre  grove 
at,  say,  five  years  from  planting,  at  a  liberal  estimate  where  high  pine  land  is 
chosen,  will  be  about  as  given  below.  If  hummock  land  is  taken,  the  cost  ot 
clearing  will  be  more.  ,  The  grove  will  have  begun  to  yield  at  the  end  of  the 
period  named.  Rev.  T.  E.  Moore,  Fruit  Cove,  Florida,  has  published  a  good 
treatise  on  orange  culture. 


204  FLORIDA. 

COST  OF  GROVE. 

Five  acres  of  good  land,  variously  estimated,  depending  on  location. 

Cutting  timber — clearing $  75  oo 

Fencing  (post  and  board  fence)  and  breaking  up 75  oo 

Three  Hundred  trees,  and  setting  out 200  oo 

Manures,  labor,  cultivating,  taxes,  etc.,  for  five  years 500  oo 

Total,  less  cost  of  land ! $850  oo 

Such  a  grove  would  readily  sell  now  in  Florida  for  $1,000  per  acre.  From 
and  after  five  years  the  annual  growth  of  trees  and  increase  of  fruit  is  constant, 
and  thereafter  the  grove  will  hold  its  vigor  and  fruit-producing  qualities  for  a 
century  or  more.  The  orange  is  a  hardy  tree;  will  stand  great  extremes  of  rain 
and  drought;  it  will  show  the  effects  of  a  single  season's  neglect,  and  quickly 
show  a  single  season  of  care  and  attention. 

The  general  varieties  of  the  orange  are  the  sour,  the  sweet  and  the  bitter- 
sweet. The  sour  and  bitter-sweet  are  supposed  to  be  indigenous,  growing  wild 
in  the  forests.  The  orange,  as  also  all  of  the  same  family,  can  be  grown  from  the 
seed,  grafting,  budding  and  cuttings.  All  are  rapid  in  growth,  annual  and  abun- 
dant bearers,  long-lived,  easily  cultivated,  hardy,  and  not  as  subject  to  disease  or 
destruction  as  most  trees.  Budded,  the  sweet  orange  will  commence  to  bear  the 
third  year;  the  seedling  in  the  sixth  year,  increasing  each  succeeding  year;  at 
fifteen  to  twenty  years  averaging  at  least  1,000  each. 

Besides  the  orange,  other  members  of  the  citrus  family,  viz :  the  lemon,  lime, 
citron,  grape-fruit  and  shaddock,  can  be  successfully  grown  in  at  least  a  large 
portion  of  the  State.  The  lime  and  lemon  will  be  about  as  widely  used  as  the 
orange,  though  not  so  abundantly,  and  as  not  a  tithing  of  so  many  are  engaged 
in  growing  them,  they  will,  perhaps,  be  about  as  profitable. 

Tlie  Grape-fruit  is  only  a  larger  and  coarser  variety  of  the  orange.  The 
shaddock  is  a  yet  larger  fruit,  measuring  some  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter. 

The  Citron  is  a  healthy,  vigorous  grower  and  prolific  bearer,  though  less 
hardy  than  the  lenion  or  orange.  By  a  process  as  yet  not  understood  in  Florida, 
from  this  fruit  is  prepared,  in  the  East,  the  citron  of  commerce,  which  art,  when 
acquired  here,  will  develop  only  another  source  of  industry  and  revenue  to 
the  State. 

The  Banana  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  tropical  productions.  It  is  gener- 
ally relished  from  the  first ;  but  even  this  fruit  requires  a  little  practice  to  develop 
in  full  a  palatable  sense  of  its  richness  and  delicacy.  Moreover,  it  belongs  to  the 
iamily — the  plantain,  which  is  claimed  to  be  the  richest  of  all  the  fruits  in  nutri- 
tious matter.  It  has  a  number  of  varieties.  The  hardiest  of  these,  and  the  one 
most  widely  scattered  over  the  State,  is  the  African.  This  variety  needs  to  be 
quite  ripe  to  be  in  its  highest  degree  palatable.  Most  of  the  other  varieties,  as 
the  French,  Fig,  Dwarf,  Red,  Cavendish,  Lady-finger  and  Apple,  are  regarded  as 
more  delicate  in  their  flavor. 

TJie  Pineapple  is  largely  an  air  plant,  and  in  a  suitable  climate  will  do  well, 
even  in  a  poor  soil.  Very  fine  pineapples  have  been  grown  as  far  north  as  Tampa, 
about  28°  north  latitude,  and  will  do  well  up  to  29°.  On  the  islands  between  Key 
West  and  the  mainland  it  is  a  staple  crop,  as  also  in  Dade  Count}".  Indeed,  it 
may  and  will  be  grown  profitably  anywhere  south  of  29°  north.  It  is  only  await- 
ing convenient  transportation. 

The  Cocoanut  just  at  present  is  attracting  great  attention.  There  is  a  "boom" 
in  its  production  in  the  counties  of  Monroe  and  Dade.  There  are  trees  in  pros- 
perous and  prolific  bearing  at  Fort  Myers,  near  the  northern  boundary  of  Monroe 
County.  With  a  little  protection  to  the  plant  for  the  first  several  years  during 
the  coldest  nights,  it  will  do  well  as  far  north  as  the  Manatee  River. 


FLORIDA.  205 

The  Date-palm,  from  which  is  obtained  the  date  of  commerce,  is  a  somewhat 
hardier  plant  than  the  cocoanut,  and  will  do  well,  therefore,  something  further 
north.  Date  trees,  and  very  old  ones,  are  bearing  at  St.  Augustine,  and  in  Frank- 
lin County,  at  Apalachicola.  As  yet  this  fruit  has  not  attracted  much  attention 
as  an  investment,  as  about  twenty  years  are  generally  required  to  obtain  fruit 
from  the  seed. 

The  Guana,  a  tree  in  its  size  and  shape  and  manner  of  growth  not  unlike  the 
peach  tree,  does  about  as  well  in  the  southern  counties  of  Florida  as  it  can  any- 
where. From  its  fruit  is  made  the  guava  jelly  of  commerce,  so  widely  and  so 
favorably  known  over  the  world.  The  taste  for  the  fruit,  like  the  taste  for  most 
tropical  fruits,  is  an  acquired  one,  but  when  acquired  is  fully  endorsed.  Some 
persons  like  the  fruit  upon  first  tasting  it,  but  the  majority  require  frequent 
tasting  before  the  flavor  becomes  decidedly  agreeable.  The  full  crop  ripens  in 
August  and  September,  but  the  trees  have  blossoms  and  fruit  all  the  year,  and  all 
the  year  the  fruit  is  ripening.  They  grow  with  less  attention  than  the  peach,  and 
sometimes  bear  the  second  year  from  the  seed.  The  fruit  is  ordinarily  abo^t  the 
size  of  the  peach,  and  fully  as  varied  in  size  and  quality.  So  far  experience  has 
demonstrated  no  other  means  of  utilizing  this  fruit  for  market  than  by  canning, 
or  as  jelly  or  marmalade.  As  to  its  exact  profitableness,  even  in  one  of  these 
forms,  we  have  no  very  reliable  data. 

The  " Sugar-apple"  in  local  nomenclature,  the  Spaniards  put  at  or  near  the 
head  of  the  fruit  list  for  its  excellency.  In  its  flavor  it  is  one  of  the  most  concen- 
trated sweets  known  among  fruits,  but  the  first  taste  has  a  smack  of  something 
repulsive,  soon  lost  in  a  few  repetitions,  and  then  the  acquired  taste  is  very  agree- 
able. It  grows  upon  a  shrub  but  little,  if  any,  larger  than  the  pomegranate,  and 
in  size  and  shape  is  somewhat  like  the  pine  cone.  It  decays  too  soon  after  ripen- 
ing for  transportation,  and  as  yet  has  established  a  use  only  at  home.  It  thrives 
as  far  north  as  Tampa. 

The  Pomegranate,  several  varieties  of  sweet  and  sour,  grows  finely  in  every 
part  of  the  State.  It  is  not  a  marketable  product,  but  when  properly  prepared 
makes  a  most  delightful  sub-acid  summer  drink — is  a  decided  febrifuge  much  in 
vogue.  The  tree,  witn  its  rich,  foliage  and  brilliant,  coral-like  flowers,  is  highly 
ornamental. 

The  Coffee  Plant  has  attained  maturity  in  the  open  air  in  but  one  county  in 
the  State,  or  even  the  United  States.  It  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  ten  or 
twelve  feet.  Whether  it  can  be  grown  profitably  on  a  large  scale,  and  will  figure 
among  the  available  crops  of  Florida,  is  yet  to  be  tested. 

The  Mango  is  another  tropical  fruit  of  high  flavor,  and  is  now  bearing  abun- 
dantly as  far  north  as  the  28th  degree  of  north  latitude.  In  size  and  shape  it 
somewhat  resembles  a  pear,  and  in  flavor  has  been  likened  to  the  apricot. 

The  Sappadillo,  after  a  little  familiarity  with  it,  is  a  very  luscious  and  desir- 
able fruit.  The  tree  attains  about  the  dimensions  of  the  orange,  but  will  not  stand 
the  cold  quite  so  well.  A  few  trees  are  growing  astfar  north  as  the  Manatee  River. 
They  are  not  yet  in  bearing,  but  as  they  grow  finely,  promise  well. 

The  Alligator  Pear,  or  Laurus  Persea  (Linnaeus,)  is  a  tree  somewhat  larger 
than  the  orange,  resembling  in  the  general  appearance  of  its  foliage  and  growth 
the  magnolia.  The  fruit,  when  matured,  is  about  the  shape  and  color  (the  only 
similarities)  of  the  pear;  is  palatable;  flavor  peculiar  to  itself;  preferred  by  many 
to  any  other  tropical  fruit ;  is  marketable ;  bears  transportation  quite  as  well  as 
the  orange;  attains  perfection  as  far  north  as  29°  north  latitude. 

The  Japan  Plum  or  Loquat,  as  well  as  the  Japanese  persimmon,  flourish 
throughout  the  State.  Both  are  excellent  fruit,  with  growing  popularity,  and 
promise  to  be  profitable  products  for  markets  beyond  the  State.  The  persimmon 


206  FLORIDA. 

is  as  large  as  an  apple,  and,  in  some  of  its  varieties,  very  much  the  same  shape. 
Some  specimens  of  the  fruit  are  seedless.  The  flavor  is  rich  and  pleasant. 

TJie  Peach,  though  it  grows  about  as  well  in  the  far  south  of  the  State  as 
farther  north,  yet  does  not  fruit  as  regularly.  Sometimes,  for  several  years 
together,  the  tree  will  cast  every  bloom.  In  the  northern  counties,  while  the 
orange  tree  grows  well,  and  even  better  than  in  the  thinner  lands  of  the  southern 
counties,  and  for  ,the  last  half  a  century  have  grown  full  crops  for  more  than 
three-fourths  of  the  years,  yet  are  liable  occasionally  to  be  killed  down  by  a  severe 
freeze;  but  the  peach,  in  at  least  its  earlier  varieties,  offers  a  high  remuneration 
for  its  tillage.  In  North  Florid*  it  can  be  ready  for  the  earliest  market  and  com- 
mand monopolizing  prices.  The  Peen-to  or  Flat  Peach,  of  China,  begins  to  ripen 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Tallahassee,  in  Leon  Cpunty,  in  the  last  week  in  April, 
and  continues  for  a  month.  These  peaches  brought  most  extravagant  prices  in 
New  York  the  past  spring. 

Pears  of  very  many  varieties,  but  especially  the  Dwarfs,  have  been  for  many 
years  favorite  incumbents  of  the  orchards  in  th.e  northern  and  middle  portions  of 
the  State,  and  are  found  to  succeed  well.  Standards  have  been  extensively  planted 
of  late  years.  Among  these,  the  Bartlett  has  so  far  proven  the  most  satisfactory. 
The  introduction  within  the  last  few  years  in  the  northern  counties,  especially  in 
Leon  and  Jefferson,  of  the  celebrated  LeConte  variety,  has  given  an  impetus  to 
the  production  of  this  fruit  that  amounts  to  a  boom,  and  promises  to  rival  in 
extent  the  orange  industry.  The  LeConte  is  a  most  vigorous  grower,  comes  into 
bearing  the  fourth  year  from  the  cutting,  attains  a  growth  of  twenty-five  or  thirty 
feet,  and  is  the  most  prolific  and  sure  bearer  of  any  character  of  fruit  tree  experi- 
mented with  in  Florida.  The  fruit  is  not,  perhaps,  as  excellent  in  quality  as  some 
of  the  more  choice  varieties,  but  is,  nevertheless,  a  very  edible  and  readily  market- 
able fruit.  The  rapidity  of  its  growth,  the  small  amount  of  capital,  labor  and  time 
required  to  secure  bearing  orchards  of  any  extent,  its  wonderful  prolificness,  excel- 
lent shipping  properties  and  earliness  of  ripening,  make  the  production  of  this 
pear  deservedly  one  of  the  most  popular  investments  in  Florida.  Prices  in  New 
York  so  far  have  been  most  satisfactory,  and  have  stimulated  the  production  of 
the  LeConte,  so  that  in  the  two  counties  of  Leon  and  Jefferson  many  thousands  of 
these  trees  have  been  put  out  within  the  two  years  past. 

Grapes  of  several  varieties  grow  wild  throughout  Florida.  They  rarely,  if 
ever,  occur  in  the  pine  woods,  but  in  hummock  land  trees  are  hung  and  festooned 
in  every  direction  with  the  luxuriant  growth  of  vines.  In  many  localities  con- 
siderable attention  has  been  given  to  the  cultivation  of  domesticated  varieties. 
The  Concord,  Catawba,  Ives,  Clinton  and  other  American  grapes  of  that  family 
have  been  found  to  grow  and  fruit  well  wherever  the  proper  attention  has  been 
given  the  pruning,  etc.  The  Scuppernong  has  been  more  extensively  propagated 
than  any  other  grape.  Of  the  production  of  any  varieties  of  European  wine 
grapes,  I  am  unable  to  give  any  reliable  information.  Many  experiments  have 
been  made,  and  none,  I  think,  have  so  far  been  very  favorable.  This  may  be 
entirely  owing  to  the  want  of  proper  knowledge  of  the  best  methods  of  pruning, 
etc.  The  so-called  wines  manufactured  in  Florida  and  other  parts  of  the  South 
are  only  cordials,  made  by  the  addition  of  sugar  or  spirits  to  the  juice  of  the  grapes. 
They  are  sweet,  heavy  drinks  generally,  with  decided  flavors  peculiar  to  them- 
selves; are  palatable  drinks  when  a  taste  is  acquired  for  them,  but  are  not  wines 
in  a  commercial  sense.  Very  considerable  profit,  however,  attends  their  manufac- 
ture and  sale. 

Apples,  so  far  as  I  know,  have  never  been  extensively  or  very  satisfactorily 
grown  in  Florida.  There  are  in  some  of  the  northern  counties  small  orchards  of 
considerable  age  that  have  borne  fruit  abundantly  for  years,  but  are  not  of  choice 


FLORIDA.         ,  207 

varieties.  By  proper  selection  of  suitable  varieties,  and  the  adoption  of  a  system 
of  culture  that  experience  will  prove  to  be  adapted  to  the  Florida  climate  and 
seasons,  there  is  little  doubt  that  on  the  stiff,  rolling  lands  of  the  hill  country  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  State,  apples  may  yet  become  a  prominent  feature 
among  the  industries. 

Figs  of  every  known  variety  do  well  in  Florida,  but  in  the  most  southern 
counties  are  a  little  uncertain  about  fruiting.  When  it  does  bear  in  those  sections 
the  fruit  is  quite  as  good  as  that  grown  further  north,  and  it  may  be  that  pains- 
taking in  its  tillage  will  discover  a  remedy  for  this  irregularity.  In  the  East  it  is 
an  article  of  great  commercial  value,  and  when  Florida  becomes  fully  exercised  in 
fruit  growing,  and  has  acquired  skill  in  preparing  her  fruits  for  market,  the  fig 
will  probably  become  prominent  among  the  list.  The  tree  attains  great  age,  and 
continues  to  bear  indefinitely.  Every  home  has  its  fig  trees  of  different  varieties, 
and  the  fruit  is  among  the  most  wholesome  articles  of  diet. 

Plums  of  many  wild  varieties  are  found  throughout  the  State.  Little  atten- 
tion has  been  bestowed  on  them.  Some  of  the  early  Southern  varieties  have  been 
found  profitable  for  shipment  North.  They  ripen  about  the  first  of  April,  «nd  can 
be  put  into  the  Northern  market  at  a  time  when  they  have  no  other  fruit  to  com- 
pete with. 

The  Pecan  of  the  West  grows  finely  all  over  the  State.  It  requires  no  tillage 
and  nursing;  comes  into  bearing  from  the  planting  of  the  nuts  in  ten  or  twelve 
years.  The  fruit  is  abundant,  falls  when  ripe,  is  easily  and  cheaply  gathered,  bears 
keeping  and  rough  shipment  any  distance  in  any  climate. 

STOCK  RAISING. 

In  all  the  southern  counties  are  to  be  found  large  and  small  herds  of  cattle. 
These  run  at  large  through  the  pine  woods,  swamps  and  vast  prairies  of  the 
Kissimmee  and  Caloosahatcliie  Valleys,  and  thrive  on  the  coarse  pasturage  in  a 
manner  quite  remarkable  and  satisfactoiy  to  their  owners,  who  "  round-up  "  once 
a  year,  mark  and  brand  the  young  calves,  and  give  little  other  attention  to  them. 
So  little  expense  attends  this  sort  of  stock  raising,  that  notwithstanding  the  small 
size  of  the  cattle  produced,  they  prove  most  profitable  for  shipment  to  the  Cuban 
markets.  Indeed,  the  hide  and  tallow  of  a  five-year-old  steer  would  return  a  good 
profit  on  the  cost  of  his  keeping.  The  cattle  are  not  so  large  as  those  grown  in 
Texas,  because  less  attention  has  been  given  here  to  improving  the  native  breeds 
of  stock.  The  cattle  raised  in  Florida  are  small,  with  thick  heavy  necks  and  fore 
parts  and  narrow  loins ;  but  when  fat,  a  four-year-old,  when  dressed,  will  weigh 
from  400  to  500  pounds. 

The  buyers  in  the  Cuban  markets  (to  which  shipments  are  made  to  the  extent 
of  50,000  head  per  year)  prefer  Florida  to  Texas  beef.  The  grasses  in  the  southern 
counties  are  more  nutritious,  and  seem  to  impart  a  more  agreeable  flavor  to  the 
flesh,  than  in  the  northern  part  of  Florida.  That  this  business  pays  well  has  this 
practical  proof:  More  money  has  been  made  in  stock  raising  in  South  Florida 
than  any  other  enterprise  in  the  State  until  quite  recently,  and  a  number  have 
thus  grown  wealthy  from  their  herds.  The  improving  of  the  breeds  of  cattle,  and 
proper  experiments  with  the  grasses  which  may  be  grown  successfully  here,  will 
make  stock  raising  in  Florida  as  general  as  it  is  profitable,  and  will  give  a  value 
to  a  vast  area  in  the  State  now  practically  a  wilderness. 

FISH. 

The  great  variety  and  excellence  of  the  fish  in  Florida  is  not  one  of  the  least 
attractions,  whether  to  the  sportsman  or  more  practical  housewife.  The  lakes 
and  streams  of  the  fresh  waters  abound  in  fish  of  the  finest  quality,  prominent 
.among  which  are  the  black  bass,  pike,  jack,  bream,  and  many  varieties  of  the 


208  FLORIDA. 

perch  family.  Along  the  coast  the  list  of  varieties  is  longer  than  the  fisherman's 
list  of  names  for  them.  Red  snapper,  black  snapper  or  grouper,  sheep's-head,  red 
fish,  black  fish,  pompano,  Spanish  mackerel,  rock  fish,  mullet,  and  a  long  list  of 
small  "pan  fish"  are  chief  among  the  marketable  varieties.  The  pompano  is 
regarded  as  the  choice  among  epicures.  The  snapper  and  grouper  are  both  deep 
water  fish,  and  are  taken  in  great  numbers  by  smacks  on  the  banks  off  shore  for 
the  Havana,  New  Orleans  and  Galveston  markets.  They  can  be  kept  for  weeks 
in  the  "wells"  of  the  fishing  smacks  without  injury  to  them.  On  both  the 
Atlantic  and  gulf  coasts  there  are  extensive  fisheries,  where,  in  the  season  of  the 
"  run,"  mullet  are  taken  in  vast  numbers  on  the  seine-yards.  Some  of  the  strikes 
made  by  the  fortunate  seine-masters  number  hundreds  of  barrels.  These  fish  take 
salt  quite  as  well  as  the  mackerel  of  the  northern  waters,  and  furnish  an  abundant 
supply  of  cheap  and  wholesome  food  to  the  inhabitants. 

Along  the  gulf  coast,  west  of  the  Suwanee,  and  especially  on  the  coast  line  of 
Wakulla  and  Franklin  Counties,  the  revenue  derived  from  this  industry  is  con- 
siderable. The  proximity  of  those  points  to  the  southern  counties  of  Alabama  and 
Georgia  enables  the  small  farmers  of  those  sections  to  reach  the  Florida  coast  in 
their  farm  wagons.  About  the  first  of  October,  when  the  "  run  "  of  the  fish  com- 
mences, the  Georgia  and  Alabama  farmer  takes  his  wife  and  children  in  his  wagon 
and  journeys  southward.  A  week  of  recreation  is  spent,  after  the  year's  work,  on 
the  beach,  where  these  "up-country"  folk  enjoy  the  salt  air  and  water,  and  return 
home  with  several  barrels  of  pickled  fish  to  be  eaten  during  the  winter.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  more  than  three  hundred  Georgia  wagons  pass  through  Tallahassee 
alone,  in  the  fall,  on  their  way  to  the  fisheries.  Perhaps  no  waters  abound  in  fish 
in  greater  quantity  or  of  better  quality  than  the  waters  of  the  coast  of  Florida. 
Recently  the  catch  of  several  fisheries  along  the  coast  have  been  utilized  in  the 
manufacture  of  a  fish  fertilizer,  which  is  taking  a  high  place  among  the  farmers, 
and  promises  to  develop  into  an  extensive  industry. 

Green  Turtle  may  be  mentioned  as  another  commodity  of  the  Florida  coast. 
In  Key  West  the  beef  and  turtle  markets  adjoin.  They  are  both  supplied  with 
about  equal  regularity,  and  very  many  prefer  the  turtle  to  the  beef,  particularly 
after  the  latter  has  been  submitted  to  the  hardships  of  a  voyage  from  the  main- 
land. Turtle  are  shipped  alive  to  the  Northern  markets  from  Key  West,  and 
sometimes  car  loads  of  them  pass  over  the  Florida  Transit  and  West  India  Rail- 
road from  Cedar  Keys  on  their  way  North.  One  of  the  sports  of  persons  living 
near  the  coast  is  walking  the  beach  in  April  and  May,  wratching  for  and  "turning" 
the  turtle  that  crawl  out  upon  the  shore  in  that  season  to  lay.  When  they  find 
the  turtle  making  her  nest  or  laying  her  eggs,  a  sufficient  number  of  persons  lay 
hold  and  turn  her  upon  her  back.  She  is  then  helpless,  unable  to  re-turn  herselfr 
so  as  to  have  the  use  of  her  feet.  Parties  are  thus  supplied  with  both  the  turtle 
and  her  eggs,  and  both  are  prized  as  savory  food. 

Oysters  are  so  continuous  around  the  coast,  that  when  the  railroad  and  canal 
system  shall  have  been  completed,  a  supply,  at  short  notice,  will  reach  any  part  of 
the  interior  of  the  State  in  a  few  hours,  at  the  expense  of  gatherimg  and  short 
freightage.  The  supply  seems  inexhaustible. 

Sponge. — The  gathering  of  sponge  along  the  gulf  coast  is  rapidly  becoming  an 
industry  of  considerable  dimensions.  The  principal  sponge  reefs  lie  to  the  south- 
eastward of  the  port  of  St.  Marks,  between  that  port  and  Cedar  Keys.  A  fair 
estimate  of  the  value  of  the  whole  amount  of  sponge  taken  in  the  year  is  little 
short,  if  any,  of  $750,000. 

The  lumber  business  is  the  most  important  manufacturing  interest  in  the 
State,  and  the  number  of  mills  is  steadily  increasing.  Saw  mills  of  all  sizes,  rang- 
ing in  value  from  a  few  thousand  to  fifty  thousand  or  more  dollars  in  value,  are 


FLORIDA.  209 

scattered  over  the  State,  sawing  lumber  for  local,  Northern  and  foreign  demand. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  compute  the  immense  value  of  Florida's  enormous 
timber  resources,  and  as  Northern  forests  become  more  and  more  exhausted,  the 
timber  land  of  Florida  and  of  the  other  Southern  States  will  greatly  increase  in 

value, 

SOCIETY. 

All  classes  are  found  as  in  other  States,  and  the  question  of  nativity,  ante- 
cedents, and  political  or  religious  views,  creates  as  few  distinctions  as  can  probably 
be  found  in  any  community  in  the  world.  The  stranger  is  welcomed,  and  the 
new-comer  finds  friendly  neighbors  around  him.  Within  the  last  ten  years 
thousands  of  Northern  people  have  settled  in  Florida,  and  engaged  in  fruit  and 
vegetable  growing,  as  well  as  other  business  and  professional  occupations.  This 
large,  new  element  is  regarded  and  treated  by  native  Floridians  as  most  welcome 
and  desirable,  and  the  State  authorities  and  private  citizens  join  in  making  their 
coming  pleasant  and  their  residence  satisfactory. 

GOVERNMENT  OF  FLORIDA. 

The  Legislature  meets  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  January, 
every  two  years,  and  may  hold  its  sessions  not  longer  than  sixty  days.  Senators 
are  chosen  for  four  years.  The  election  for  members  of  the  Assembly  is  on  the 
first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November.  Each  county  shall  have  at 
least  one  representative;  none  more  than  four.  Senators  never  less  than  one- 
fourth  nor  more  than  one-half  of  the  whole  number  of  the  Assembly.  The  Gov- 
ernor is  elected  for  four  years.  To  be  eligible,  he  must  have  been  for  nine  years 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  three  years  a  citizen  of  Florida.  Suffrage. — 
One  year's  residence  qualifies. 

The  present  Constitution  of  Florida  was  adopted  in  1868.  It  is  similar  to  the 
later  constitutions  of  the  North  and  West,  somewhat  modified,  being  more  liberal 
in  suffrage  and  exemption  clauses.  Foreigners  who  may  become  residents  enjoy 
the  same  rights  as  to  property  as  native-born  citizens.  All  property  of  wife 
owned  before  or  acquired  after  marriage  is  made  separate,  and  not  liable  to  debts 
of  the  husband. 

SCHOOLS. 

According  to  a  recent  address  of  Governor  Bloxham,  the  number  of  schools 
on  March  20,  1884,  was  1,479 — the  increase  in  the  last  three  years  being  348.  The 
attendance  of  pupils  in  1876  was  28,444,  and  in  1882  51,945 — the  increase  in  six 
years  being  23,501.  In  1876  the  expenditures  amounted  to  $158,846.99;  in  1880 
$124,082.91;  in  1883  the  expenditures  amounted  to  $262,348.02— showing  an 
increase  of  $103,502.03.  The  principal  of  the  common  school  fund,  which  had 
accumulated  from  1845  up  to  1882,  amounted  to  $250,284.25,  while  to-day  it 
amounts  to  $429,984.25 — showing  an  increase  in  two  years  of  $178,700,  being 
nearly  seventy-five  per  cent,  increase  in  two  years. 

CLIMATE. 

The  climate  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  rare,  the  temperature  in  winter  seldom 
falling  below  32°,  and  in  summer  seldom  rising  above  90°.  The  average  tempera- 
ture for  the  summer  is  78°;  for  the  winter,  60°.  The  daily  ocean  breezes  temper 
the  heat  of  summer,  the  breeze  from  the  Atlantic  lasting  during  the  day,  while  the 
gulf  breeze  sets  in  about  nightfall. 

The  mean  temperatuie  of  Jacksonville,  latitude  30°  19'  38",  calculated  upon 
twenty-seven  years'  observations,  is,  for  spring,  70.06°  Fah. ;  for  summer,  81.82°; 
for  autumn,  70.35°;  for  winter,  56.33°.  The  mean  temperature  of  St.  Augustine, 


210  FLORIDA. 

calculated  upon  twenty  years'  observations,  is,  for  spring,  68.54°;  for  summer, 
80.27°;  for  autumn,  71.73°;  and  for  winter,  58.08°.  The  mean  temperature  of 
Tampa,  which  is  on  the  western  coast,  1°  48"  further  south  than  St.  Augustine, 
calculated  upon  twenty-five  years'  observations,  is,  for  spring,  72.06° ;  for  summer, 
80.2°;  for  autumn,  73.08°;  for  winter,  62.85°.  The  mean  temperature  of  Key 
West,  in  latitude  24°  32'  calculated  upon  fourteen  years'  observations,  is,  for 
spring  75.79°;  for  summer,  82.51°;  for  autumn,  78.23°;  for  winter,  69.58°.  The  air 
is  bland,  not  hot,  in  summer. 

FROSTS. 

At  Jacksonville,  frosts  are  possible  any  month,  from  October  to  April  inclu- 
sive. Dr.  Baldwin  found,  from  twenty-seven  years'  record,  an  average  of  2.3 
frosts  for  November,  5.2  for  December,  5.4  for  January,  3.1  for  February,  1.3  for 
March.  In  April  and  October  there  is  .2  of  a  likelihood  of  frost ;  none  between. 
As  the  traveler  goes  southward  along  the  peninsula,  the  number  of  frosts,  of 
course,  diminishes;  and  at  Key  West  and  along  the  southern  tier  of  coast 
counties  they  practically  disappear.  Much  inquiry  left  me  unable  to  fix  any  line 
north  of  this  where  it  could  be  said  one  had  gotten  below  frost ;  but  the  phenom- 
enon is  rare,  at  any  rate,  below  28°  latitude. 

RAINFALL  AND   HUMIDITY. 

During  something  over  sixteen  years  the  average  rainfall  at  Jacksonville  was 
50.29  inches.  Only  7.06  inches  of  this  amount  fell,  on  the  average,  in  winter; 
9.19  inches  during  the  spring;  leaving  20.5  inches  for  the  sunmmer,  and  12.98 
inches  for  the  autumn. 

The  average  annual  amount  of  humidity  at  Jacksonville  was  found  to  be  5.7 
grains  of  water  to  the  cubic  foot  of  air.  This  is  said  to  be  about  enough  to  be 
pleasant  for  respiration. 

NUMBER   OF   CLEAR   DAYS. 

During  a  period  of  twenty  years  (and  some  years  longer,  for  several  of  the 
months  hereinafter  mentioned),  it  was  found  that  at  Jacksonville,  January 
averaged  about  twenty  clear  days,  February  nineteen,  March  twenty,  April 
twenty-five,  May  twenty-two,  June  seventeen,  July  eighteen,  August  nineteen, 
September  seventeen,  October  nineteen,  November  twenty,  and  December  twenty. 
It  is  not  to  be  understood,  by  any  means,  that  the  cloudy  days  in  this  calculation 
were  rainy  days.  Probably,  on  something  like  half  of  them,  rain  fell. 

THE  WINDS. 

The  northwest  wind  is  the  cold,  dry  wind  of  Florida.  It  is  the  wind  that  kills 
the  orange  trees.  The  northeast  wind  is  the  cold,  wet  wind.  The  east  wind  is  a 
delightful  wind.  The  south  wind  is  somewhat  like  it  in  the  temperature  it  brings 
and  the  sensation  it  produces.  Dr.  Baldwin  also  speaks  of  how  visitors  at  coast 
resorts  on  the  Atlantic  side  are  disgusted  with  the  northeast  winds  from  the 
Atlantic,  and  how  much  colder  they  seem  than  they  are.  I  think  this,  however, 
is  a  characteristic  of  the  northeast  winds  (and  even  winds  from  the  east  consider- 
ably higher  up  the  coast)  from  the  Atlantic.  They  punish  and  deceive  every  one 
from  a  western  climate,  and  any  climate  where  one  is  not  familiar  with  them. 
"Raw"  is  the  word  applied  to  them,  and  one  seems  almost  freezing  when  the 
thermometer  is  not  at  the  freezing  point. 

The  winds  from  the  gulf  are  quite  different.  Here  is  a  very  happy  bit  of 
description  from  Lanier:  "There  is  a  certain  large  blandness  in  the  atmosphere, 
a  sense  of  farawayness  in  the  wide  water  stretches,  an  indefinable  feeling  of  with- 
drawal from  harsh  life,  that  give  to  this  suave  region,*  as  compared  with  others, 


*He  is  speaking  of  Pensacola. 


FLORIDA.  211 

the  proportion  which  wild  dreams  bear  to  reality.  It  is  a  sort  of  Arabian  Nights 
vaguely  diffused  and  beaten  out  into  long,  glittering,  sleepy  expanses,  and  the 
waters  presently  cease  to  be  waters,  and  seem  only  great,  level  enchantments — 
that  shine." 

This  "drowsy  charm"  is  one  of  the  great  characteristics  of  the  gulf  coast, 
(varied  by  moods  of  elevation  and  inspiration  very  marked  at  times),  and  is 
unspeakably  tranquilizing  in  nervous  diseases,  one  would  think,  and  deliciously 
narcotizing. 

THE  HEALTHFULNESS  OF  FLORIDA 

is  attested  by  reports  of  army  officers  who  kept  for  years  and  made  statistical  reports 
on  the  subject  from  various  military  stations  in  the  State.  I  quote  from  the  report 
of  Surgeon-General  La'wson.  of  the  United  States  Army,  who  says :  "  Indeed,  the 
statistics  of  this  bureau  show  that  the  diseases  which  result  from  malaria  are  of  a 
much  milder  type  in  Florida  than  in  other  States  in  the  Union ;  and  the  number 
of  deaths  there  to  the  number  of  cases  of  remittent  fever  has  been  much  less  than 
among  the  troops  serving  in  other  portions  of  the  United  States.  In  the  Middle 
Division  (meaning  military  division  of  the  United  States),  the  proportion  is  one 
death  to  thirty-six  cases  of  remittent  fever;  in  the  Northern,  one  to  fifty-two;  in 
the  Southern,  one  to  fifty-four;  in  Florida,  it  is  but  one  to  287.  *  *  From  the 
carefully  collected  statistics  of  this  office,  it  appears  that  the  annual  rate  of  mor- 
tality of  the  whole  peninsula  of  Florida  is  2.06  per  cent.,  while  in  other  portions 
of  the  United  States  3.03  per  cent.  Indeed,  it  may  be  asserted  without  fear  of 
refutation,  that  Florida  possesses  a  more  agreeable  and  salubrious  climate  than 
any  other  State  or  Territory  in  the  Union." 

Prominent  among  the  causes  of  Florida's  superior  healthfulness,  is  its  long, 
narrow  figure,  north  and  south,  in  its  peninsular  portion,  and  in  its  proximity  to 
the  gulf  in  the  narrow  strip  of  it  stretching  westward  along  the  coast.  This  pecu- 
liarity of  shape  exposes  it  to  the  breezes,  which  remove  most  of  the  resulting 
malaria  or  other  atmospheric  poison. 

The  larger  portion  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  pine  forests,  Jwhose  tall 
trees,  with  branches  near  the  tops  only,  give  to  the  winds  but  little  obstruction, 
especially  near  the  surface,  while  these  trees  perfume  them  writh  a  resinous  exhala- 
tion, healthful  in  its  influence.  Moreover,  scientific  tests  have  demonstrated  that 
ozone,  that  peculiar  modification  of  oxygen,  which  gives  to  it  its  purifying 
properties,  exists  more  abundantly  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  ocean  and  along  the 
coast  than  in  the  atmosphere  of  places  further  inland,  and  no  one  of  the  American 
States  has  so  much  coast  line  as  Florida,  except,  perhaps,  California.  Some  learned 
medical  men  hold  that  turpentine  exhaled  from  the  pine  forest  possesses,  in  a 
larger  degree  than  all  other  substances,  the  property  of  converting  the  oxygen  of 
the  atmosphere  into  ozone.  (See  proceedings  of  Medical  Association  of  Florida 
for  1880,  page  71.) 

Dr.  Chas.  H.  Lee,  editor  of  Copeland's  Medical  Dictionary,  as  quoted  in  the 
authority  referred  to,  says;  "Mildness  and  equability  are  the  two  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  the  climate  of  the  Florida  peninsula."  The  mortuary  statistics 
of  Florida,  reported  to  the  Census  Bureau  for  a  number  of  decades,  represent  her 
as  among  the  most  healthful  States  of  the  Union. 

I  have  given  the  above  data  from  the  practical  side ;  and  yet,  even  from  the 
standpoint  of  utilitarianism,  into  the  "horn  of  plenty,"  along  with  the  oranges, 
lemons  and  pineapples,  Pomona  pours,  Flora  will  put  her  flowers.  It  does  not 
detract  from  the  sweetness  of  perfumes  because  one  puts  them  in  the  marts  for 
sale.  Mere  money-getting  in  Florida  has  a  halo,  a  fragrance,  an  atmosphere  about 
it  that  it  has  not  elsewhere.  This  exaltation,  this  almost  glorification  of  industry, 
this  aureola  about  the  brow  of  thrift,  is  one  of  the  unique  phases  of  Florida  life. 


212  FLORIDA. 

Nowhere  else  does  money-making  seem  so  much  a  pastime  and  labor  a  holiday. 
The  sweat  of  the  brow  is  transmuted  to  perfume;  "  dry"  statistics  become  bloom- 
ing and  odorous;  utilitarianism  is  idealized;  capital  is  aestheticised ;  thrift  is 
glorified,  and  the  duty  and  dignity  of  labor  are  veiled  by  its  beauty  as  by  a  rosy 
cloud.  "  The  chink  of  the  guinea"  finds  an  endearing  and  excellent  accord  in  the 
melodies  of  bird-songs.  Embellishment  is  not  only  the  embodiment  of  the  soul's 
aspirations  after  the  beautiful,  not  only  the  pledge  and  promise  of  remuneration, 
but  remuneration  itself.  Industry  does  not  swelter  in  the  sweat  of  toil,  but  is 
bathed  in  the  elixir  of  delight.  It  brings  not  only  money,  as  do  hogs  and  hominy, 
but  the  blissful  remunerations  of  flowers  and  beautiful  fruits.  Indeed,  labor  is  not 
only  the  handmaid  of  thrift,  but  his  enchanting  mistress. 

But,  whatever  one  may  think  of  Florida  from  the  standpoints  of  money- 
making  or  health,  her  name  is  certainly  a  spell.  It  is  not  only  suggestive  of  fra- 
grance, but  almost  redolent.  It  acts  like  an  incantation  upon  the  imagination. 
Her  clime  is  at  once  bounty  and  beauty.  She  seems  the  theatre  of  "selectest 
influences  "  of  nature  in  her  softer  moods,  the  haunt  of  the  muses,  the  land  of  soft 
and  fragrant  airs,  perpetual  flowers  and  unfailing  bird-songs.  It  is  such  a  place 
as  is  dreamed  of  and  sighed  for  by  young  lovers,  in  the  engrossing  reveries  of 
entranced  day-dreams.  It  is  the  Mecca  of  the  cultured  voluptuary,  and  the 
asylum  of  the  invalid.  And  not  only  is  her  spell  upon  the  imagination,  but  upon 
the  memory.  The  pages  of  history  and  poetry  revive ;  pages  where  genius  has 
recorded  her  highest  triumphs  of  description.  Arcady  and  the  vales  of  Cash- 
mere bloom  afresh ;  Cathay  and  Candahar  revive ;  the  Tuscan  fields,  the  famous 
Arno  and  "  star-bright  Italy,"  and  the  place  of — 

"  Dance  and  Provencal  song  and  sunburnt  mirth." 

Why  should  she  not  become  the  future  nursery  of  poets ;  a  precious  reposi- 
tory of  the  beautiful ;  at  once  a  glorious  picture  gallery  and  nursery  of  genius ; 
where  may  be  stored  the  ripe  fruits  of  genius,  and  where  genius  may  find  her 
highest  inspirations  and  most  rapturous  solaces?  Why  should  not  there  be  a 
civilization  of  as  high  a  type  and  more  romantic  than  marked  the  old  world; 
where  poetry  and  art  and  song  can  grow  side  by  side  with  a  seemly  utilitarianism 
—a  utilitarianism  not  hard  and  cold  and  all  engrossed  in  money-making,  but 
where  time  and  opportunity  are  given  for  a  sumptuous  taste  and  a  munificent, 
superb  sestheticism  to  revel  in;  where  the  triumphs  shall  be  of  the  poet's  page, 
the  painter's  canvas,  the  sculptor's  marble  ? 

Florida  will  be  studied  in  this  aspect  by  him  who  seeks  "  a  refuge  from  the 
vulgarity  and  irritation  of  business;"  who  recognizes  the  music  of  the  "inner 
voice  "  in  the  river ;  who  feels — 

"A  distant  dearness  in  the  hill, 
A  secret  sweetness  in  the  stream  ;" 

who  finds — 

"  Sermons  in  stones,  tongues  in  the  trees, 
Books  in  the  running  brooks." 

To  such,  even  the  most  rapturous  rhapsody  would  need  no  apology ;  for  there  is 
a  time  for  rhapsodies,  as  well  as  for  plodding,  groveling,  gain-getting. 

I  have  referred  to  Florida  as  a  reviver  of  recollections  of  poetry.  One  might 
almost  think  some  of  the  pictures  of  other  climes  were  drawn  for  Florida.  Take 
some  scenes,  for  instance,  from  Tennyson's  "Recollections  of  the  Arabian 
Nights:"— 

"  The  sloping  of  the  moonlit  sward 
Was  damask  work,  and  deep  inlay 
Of  braided  blooms  unmown,  which  crept 
Adown  to  where  the  water  slept. 
*  *  *  * 

Imbower'd  vaults  of  pillar' d  palm, 
Imprisoning  sweets,  which,  as  they  clomb 
Heavenward,  were  stay'd  beneath  the  dome 


FLORIDA  213 

Of  hollow  boughs. 

Far  off  and  where  the  lemon  grove 

In  closest  coverture  upsprung, 

The  living  airs  of  middle  night 

Died  round  the  mock-bird*  as  he  sung." 

Or,  as  one  walks,  some  bright  day  in  winter,  through  scenes  where  wealth 
and  taste  have  reveled  in  adornment,  this  description  from  the  "  Gardener's 
Daughter,"  by  the  same  poet,  would  not  be  amiss : — 

"All  the  land  in  flowery  squares, 
Beneath  a  broad  and  equal  blowing  wind, 
Smelt  of  the  coming  summer." 
*  *  *  « 

"  Heaven  was  pure 
Up  to  the  sun,  and  May  from  verge  to  verge." 

'Take  some  lines  from  Byron : — 

"  Fair  clime,  where  every  season  smiles, 
Far  from  the  winters  of  the  west, 
By  every  breeze  and  season  blest, 
Returns  the  sweets  by  nature  given 
In  softest  incense  back  to  heaven, 
And  grateful  yields  that  smiling  sky 
Her  fairest  hue  and  fragrant  sigh." 

—  The  Giaour. 


"The  dewy  morn 

With  breath  all  incense  and  with  cheek  all  bloom." 
—  Childe  Harold. 

"  It  is  a  goodly  sight  to  see 
What  heaven  has  done  for  this  delicious  land  ; 
What  fruits  of  fragrance  blush  on  every  tree." 
Childe  Harold. 

And  who  does  not  think  of  what  can  be,  for  the  most  part,  in  Florida — only 
better — as  he  remembers  parts  of  Selim's  Feast  in  the  "Light  of  the  Harem,"  in 
Lalla  Rookh  ?— 

"  The  board  was  spread  with  fruits  and  wine, 
With  grapes  of  gold  like  those  that  shine 
On  Casbin's  hills;  pomegranates  full 
Of  melting  sweetness,  and  the  pears 
And  sunniest  apples  that  Cabul, 
In  all  its  thousand  gardens,  bears. 
Plantains,  the  golden  and  the  green, 
*  *  *  * 

And  Bassa  dates  and  apricots." 

And  one  is  tempted  to  quote  the  spread  that  Porphyro  laid  for  Madelaine,  in 
Keats'  "Eve  of  St.  Agnes;"  and  one  thinks  of  the  spirit  in  "Comus,"  in  Ihe 
epilogue,  as  it  flies  to  where — 

"  West  winds,  with  musky  wing, 
About  the  cedarn  alleys  fling 
Nard  and  Cassia's  balmy  smells  ;" 

:and  gorgeous  descriptions  from  other  poets.  Coleridge's  "Kubla  Khan,"  the 
famous  scene  in  "  The  Lady  of  Lyons,"  and  more ;  woo  the  pen,  seeking  quota- 
tion ;  but  their  suit  must  be  rejected. 

Thus  the  memory  reverts  to  scenes  where  the  rich  redundance  of  oriental 
magnificence  and  splendor  have  been  glorified  by  genius.  And  there  is,  for  many 
poetic  temperaments,  that  atmosphere  for  the  imagination  which  almost  makes 
such  an  one  the  inhabitant  of  the  "lazy-pacing  clouds,"  and  to  float  over  enchanted 
palaces  whence  strains  of — 

"  Divine,  enchanting  ravishment  arise," 

and  which  are  peopled  with  ladies  fair  and  plumed  knights ;  where  life  is  a  revel^ 

"  Of  love,  of  joyance  and  of  gallantry." 

Suppose  Florida  were,  in  fact,  only  some  "  delicious  land,"  where  the — 

"  Graces,  knit  with  the  hours  in  rosy  dance, 
Lead  on  perpetual  spring." 


*I  have  substituted  the  mocking-bird  for  the  bulbul.     He  often  sings  during  much  of  the  beautiful 
nights  far  South. 


214  FLORIDA. 

Even  then  it  would  have  its  uses,  as  I  have  said.  The  ennuied  millionaire, 
the  overworked  scholar,  the  professional  man  worn  with  a  long  life  of  toil,  the 
tradesman — all  who  seek  to  get  out  of  the  hurly-burly,  the  dust  and  jostle  of 
this  feverish,  work-a-day  world,  and  find  a  respite  from  it,  and  who  seek  rest  to 
the  overstrung  nerves  and  the  jaded  powers,  will  find  a  charm  in  Florida,  a  harm- 
less DUt —  "  Pleasing  sorcery  that  charms  the  sense, 
And  laps  it  in  Elysium," 

as  did  the  song  of  the  lady  in  "  Comus."  Therefore,  if  Florida  were  an  Arcady,  that 
were  enough.  But  Florida  is  not  a  fancy,  but  a  fact.  You  see  it,  "  not  in  the  frenzy 
of  a  dreamer's  eye,"  but  as  "a  sober  certainty  of  waking  bliss."  These  indescrib- 
able lakes,  these  orange  groves,  copses  of  camellia,  pittosphorum,  oleander,  sweet 
olive,  roses,  viburnum,  these  bowers  of  live  oak,  magnolia,  all  this  "  wilderness  of 
sweets,"  this  wealth  of  shade  and  color  and  fragrance,  are  all  real.  "  Fancy  lags 
behind  fact,  the  imagination  becomes  barren  and  uninventive  "  when  one  attempts 
the  theme  of  description. 

And,  while  there  is  no  glory  of  time,  no  halo  of  history  about  Florida,  none  of 
that  hallowing  effect  that  endears  decayed  splendor  and  bathes  it  in  the  purple 
light  of  bygone  centuries ;  while  there  is  none  of  this  prestige  of  age,  this  conse- 
cration of  decadence,  I  cannot  see  why  Florida  should  not  prove  a  resuscitation 
of  Spain  in  her  palmy  days,  her  "  golden  prime,"  when  the  latter  furnished  olives 
and  olive  oils,  raisins,  oranges,  figs  and  other  choice  fruits,  and  the  wondrous 
fabrics  of  her  looms,  to  commerce.  Florida  may  prove  a  repetition  of  these.  Her 
silk  and  woolen  and  canning  factories  will  spring  up,  and  the  wealth,  splendors 
and  sumptuous  magnificence  of  her  products  will  vie  with  those  times,  without 
their  ignorance  and  superstition.  She  will  prove  of  joy  the  sojourn,  of  sickness 
the  asylum,  of  richest  and  most  beautiful  commerce  the  mart,  the  home  of  art,  and 
the  most  fascinating  scene  in  which  to  enjoy  the  dolce  far  niente.  It  surely  ought 
to  be  a  pride  of  patriotism,  a  solace  to  national  pride,  that  if  other  lands  have  had 
their  vales  and  mountains  embalmed  in  song,  we  have  our  Florida,  where  one  can 
revel  in  the  rich  bounties  nature,  unpersuaded,  yields,  and  where  immense 
rewards  of  beautiful  luxuriance  await  those  who  will  woo  her  tender  responsive- 
ness, with  apposite  cultivation.  And,  while  we  exult  in  our  magnificent  vastness 
o$  areas,  our  great  rivers,  our  lofty  mountains  and  fertile  valleys,  why  may  we 
not  cherish  the  land  of  orange  bowers;  where  the  landscape  is  perpetually  a 
flower,  and  ever  redolent  with  myriad  fragrances?  And  I  love  to  think  of  the 
solid,  enduring  contributions  to  our  future  literature  which  the  inspirations 
Florida  will  awaken  shall  yield.  The  imagination  will  not  be  cheated  of  its 
enchantments  and  the  exalted  sensibility  of  its  opportunities.  If  the  nightingale 
will  sing  on  the  heath,  her  temptation  to  sing  will  be  none  the  less  in  a  bower.  If 
the  lower  slopes  of  Parnassus  yield  such  inspiration,  what  will  its  "heaven- 
kissing"  heights  afford?  Up  there  are  the  finer  vistas,  "the  brighter  ether,  more 
purpureal  gleams."  So,  if  the  prairie  poet,  with  pig-sty  odors  haunting  his  sense,, 
and  with  corn  cribs  and  hogs  in  sight,  with  a  kindled  imagination,  "bodies  forth" 
groves  of  flowers  and  "  blasts  of  balm  "  in  his  "  fine  frenzy,"  will  not  those  sus- 
ceptibilities be  exalted  and  his  fancy  take  higher  flights,  if  he  shall  breathe  the 
odors  and  pluck  the  fruit  of  orange  groves,  hear  the  songs  of  mocking-birds,  see — 

"  Fields  ever  fresh  and  groves  forever  green," 

and  be  intoxicated  with  odors  undreamed  of,  exhaled  from  flowers  always  abloom; 

Where—  »  He  sleeps  and  wakes  in  scented  air;" 

where  the  spirit  of  fragrance  is  not  only  up  with  the  day,  but,  like  a  fond, 
serenading  lover,  is  abroad  all  the  night?  If  a  Milton  glorifies  the  tame 

«  Russet  lawns  and  fallows  gray, 
Where  the  nibbling  flocks  do  stray" — 


FLORIDA.  215 

in  his  musical  poem,  what  may  not  some  future  Milton  do  for  the  enameled  fields 
of  Florida? 

And  then  I  think  one  of  the  sweetest  beauties  of  Florida  is  a  subtle  power  of 
rejuvenation,  that  springs  from  some  mystic  source,  we  know  not  where  or  how; 
when  the  feelings  of  early  youth  revive,  and  of  the  days  when  we  used  to  pluck 
the  daisies,  chase  the  butterflies,  wade  in  the  brook ;  when  our  tears  were  only 
of  the  eye  and  not  the  heart ;  when  sorrow  was  as  evanescent  as  an  April  shadow 
upon  a  gladsome  bird;  the  days  of  the  "  sunshine  of  the  breast,"  when  the  "spirits 
flew  in  feathers ;"  when  we  were  "  blithesome  and  cumberless,"  like  Hogg's  sky- 
lark, or  as  lightsome  as  the  swallow,  "  chasing  itself  at  its  own  wild  will "  over 
the  glassy  lake  or  flowery  mead ;  the  days  ere  care  came  or  poverty  (or  if  the 
the  latter,  heeded  not,  in  blissful  compensations);  the'days  ere  the  vanishment  of 
loved  ones,  or  ever  the  golden  chalice  of  hope  was  broken,  that  used  to  be  "brim- 
med with  such  delirious  draughts  of  richest  joy."  Thankful  are  we  for  any  "joy- 
font  "  whence  we  can  quaff  one  fill  of  rapture  from  life's  embittered  cup — and  that 
fountain,  from  the  mystic  somewhere,  springs  in  Florida. 


HOMOSASSA,  ON  THE   GULF  COAST  OF  FLORIDA. 

rTlHE  Spaniards  who  first  visited  Florida  found  its  centers  of  aboriginal 
population,  not  along  the  eastern  coast  and  the  St.  John's  River,  but 
•*•  among  the  salubrious  hills  and  rich  hammocks  of  the  central  portion  of 
the  peninsula,  and  about  the  headwaters  of  the  spring-fed,  crystal  streams  which 
flow  westward  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  De  Soto,  starting  on  the  memorable 
expedition  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  Mississippi,  landed  at  Tampa, 
on  the  gulf  coast,  in  about  latitude  28°,  and  began  his  explorations  thence  in  a 
northerly  direction.  The  accounts  of  that  expedition,  gleaned  from  the  manu- 
scripts of  old  Spanish  chronicles,  teem  with  descriptions  of  the  luxuriant  fruitful- 
ness  and  dense  population  of  this  wonderful  region. 

The  Indians  of  De  Soto's  time  appear  to  have  been  dispossessed  by  the 
Seminoles.  When  this  brave  tribe  finally  succumbed  to  the  power  of  the  white 
race,  these  conquerors  instinctively  turned  towards  the  west,  and,  among  the 
fertile  fields  whence  the  preceding  races  had  been  ejected,  founded  some  of  their 
first  settlements  and  established  their  most  productive  and  extensive  plantations. 

Many  of  these  scenes  lay  in  what  is  now  known  as  Hernando  County,  which, 
in  location,  soil  and  climate,  has  natural  advantages  that,  as  they  are  now  about 
to  be  better  known,  cannot  fail  to  vindicate  the  judgment  of  the  pioneers  of 
history.  Its  boundary  on  the  north  and  west  is  the  Withlacoochee  River,  a  deep, 
dark  stream,  with  high,  heavily- wooded  banks,  and  navigable  for  steamboats  for  a 
hundred  miles.  On  the  west  is  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  forming  its  coast  boundary 
for  70  miles.  Southerly  it  reaches  to  within  10  miles  of  the  waters  of  Tampa  Bay. 
It  extends,  therefore,  very  nearly  from  the  28th  to  the  29th  parallel  of  latitude. 
In  the  eastern  and  central  portions  of  the  county  the  surface  is  rolling,  and 
broken  by  high  hills  and  beautiful  lakes,  and  heavily  timbered  with  pine.  The 
western  portion  is  a  gentle  slope  towards  the  gulf,  and  is  covered  for  the  most 
part  by  a  dense  hard-wood  or  hammock  growth.  It  is  traversed  also  by  several 
bright,  broad  streams,  gushing  with  great  volume  and  power  from  the  recesses  of 
the  earth,  clear,  swift  and  deep  from  their  springs  to  the  gulf. 

Most  notable  of  these  streams  is  the  Homosassa.  Nearly  midway  of  the  coast 
line  of  the  State,  and  at  the  point  where  the  distance  between  the  gulf  and  the 
Atlantic  is  least,  this  river  bursts  suddenly  out  from  the  earth  in  two  powerful 
springs,  and  flows  westerly  eight  miles  to  the  gulf.  The  strong  current  cuts  its 
channel  clean  and  deep,  making  the  river  navigable  nearly  to  its  source.  The 
transparency  of  the  river  waters  is  something  wonderful.  On  the  springs  the 
floating  boat  seems  poised  in  mid-air,  and  small  objects  are  as  distinct  at  a  depth 
of  60  feet  as  if  seen  through  a  sheet  of  window  glass.  Even  here  innumerable 
fish  from  river  and  gulf  of  all  variety  and  size,  impeded  in  their  upward  course, 
linger  and  play  as  if  loath  to  leave  so  bright  a  pool.  As  one  passes  up  or  down 
the  river,  shoals  of  fish  beneath  dart  away  in  such  crowds  it  seems  as  if  the  very 
bottom  were  moving  out  from  underneath.  The  banks  are  fringed  with  a  growth 
of  the  greatest  luxuriance,  the  marvellous  richness  of  the  soil  declaring  itself  in 
gigantic  and  picturesque  oaks,  bays,  magnolias,  palms  and  cedars,  with  a  dense 
undergrowth  of  strange  and  tropical  beauty.  Many  islands  embraced  in  the 
broad  and  winding  current  are  clothed  in  the  same  bright  garb.  Among  the  salt 
bayous  that  back  up  from  the  gulf  to  meet  the  river  in  its  lower  course,  the  lands 
stretch  away  in  vast  salt  meadows,  interspersed  with  islands  of  palm,  like  oases, 
though  instead  of  desert  sands,  the  picture  is  a  scene  of  outspread  verdure. 

The  shell-rock  which  underlies  the  soil,  broken  abruptly  at  the  water's  edge, 
gives  a  singular  firmness  of  line  to  the  shore  and  affords  landing  places  at  many 
points,  and  at  some,  perfect  piers  extending  far  into  the  deep  water.  This  same 
rock  often  forms  a  natural  bridge  among  the  little  islets  and  inlets  of  the  river. 
Thus,  on  Otter  Creek,  a  stream  of  dark  and  wondrous  beauty  overarched  by 


FLORIDA. 


217 


218  FLORIDA. 

bright-leaved  trees,  the  rock  in  one  place  casts  over  it  a  perfect  bridge,  broad  and 
strong  enough  for  heavy  travel. 

On  several  of  the  islands  in  the  lower  river,  the  shores  are  lined  with  deep 
shell  mounds,  some  covering  acres  and  20  or  30  feet  thick,  in  which  are  not  only 
bones  and  teeth  of  animals,  but  also  fragments  of  pottery  curiously  wrought,  and 
some  of  them  with  no  mean  attempt  at  artistic  ornament.  Live  oaks  many  cen- 
turies old  are  growing,  deep-rooted,  out  of  some  of  these  mounds. 

In  the  rich  hammocks  on  the  banks  and  islands  of  this  beautiful  river  the 
Seminole  Indians  made  one  of  their  principal  strongholds,  which  they  fought 
desperately  to  defend.  On  the  charming  lathloe  Island,  four  miles  from  the 
springs  and  also  from  the  river  mouth,  the  famous  war-chief  Tiger-Tail  made  his 
home  and  surrounded  himself  with  his  chosen  braves.  At  an  early  period  of 
colonization  a  settlement  of  Swedes  was  made  on  a  fine  eminence  just  below  the 
springs.  They  were  all  massacred  by  the  Indians.  These  fields — a  hundred  acres 
or  more — are  known  as  the  "  Harold  Fields." 

Soon  after  the  close  of  the  Seminole  war  the  Hon.  D.  L.  Yulee,  with  an  entire 
State  to  choose  from,  selected  as  the  site  of  the  great  enterprises  he  contemplated 
the  rich  hammock  lands  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Homosassa.  He  purchased 
about  5,000  acres,  with  a  river  front  of  four  miles,  including  the  "  Harold  Fields" 
and  lathloe  Island.  Of  this  dense  hammock  he  cleared  a  thousand  acres,  built  a 
small  town  of  "quarters"  for  his  army  of  slaves,  erected  the  finest  sugar  mill  in 
the  State,  with  storehouses,  shops  and  all  necessary  accessories,  and  entered  upon 
the  production  of  sugar  on  a  vast  scale.  For  his  own  residence  he  selected  the 
former  home  of  the  Seminole  chief,  and  011  lathloe  Island,  or,  as  it  was  thence- 
forward more  commonly  called,  Tiger-Tail,  he  built  a  commodious  house  and 
established  his  family  in  a  luxurious  home.  The  yield  of  these  fields  that  had 
slumbered  so  long  beneath  the  primeval  forest  was  enormous,  averaging  a  ton  to 
the  acre,  besides  the  molasses.  Indeed,  a  single  acre,  where  the  soil  was  thinnest 
above  the  table-rock,  with  a  little  care  to  cover  the  roots  and  entirely  without 
fertilizers,  produced  2,7.~0  pounds  of  sugar. 

During  the  great  days  of  its  prosperity  the  Homosassa  was  full  of  trading 
vessels  and  pleasure  craft ;  a  mail  steamer  made  weekly  trips  to  its  head  from 
Cedar  Keys,  40  miles  away,  and  no  settlement  on  the  gulf  coast  showed  greater 
activity 

But  the  blighting  breath  of  war  swept  away  these  solid  structures  of  civiliza- 
tion and  culture  almost  as  completely  as  it  had  done  before  to  the  traces  of  the 
ruder  life  of  Seminole  and  aborigine.  A  gunboat  of  the  Federal  blockading 
squadron  of  the  gulf  entered  the  river,  steamed  up  among  its  beautiful  banks  and 
islands,  bearing  destruction  with  it  and  leaving  ruin  to  mark  its  course.  The 
luxurious  home  on  lathloe  vanished  like  a  dream ;  ashes  and  crumbled  heaps  of 
stone  remained  alone  to  mark  its  place.  Although  the  dense  belt  of  timber  that 
fringed  the  river  bank  shut  out  from  view  of  the  gunboat  the  sugar  mill  and 
quarters  beyond,  so  that  they  for  the  time  escaped  destruction,  yet  the  slaves  all 
fled  under  such  terrors  that  they  never  returned.  It  was  not  strange  that  confla- 
gration soon  swept  away  the  sugar  mill  and  other  remnants  of  its  busy  life,  and 
that  the  plantation  should  be  left  a  picture  of  desolation.  But  exuberant  nature, 
with  marvellous  rapidity,  has  covered  these  ruins  with  a  glory  all  her  own.  The 
fields  are  already  for  the  most  part  thickly  shaded  by  the  vigorous  growth  of  pal- 
mettoes  and  other  hard- wood  trees,  the  stone-heaps  adorned  with  tracery  of  vines 
and  climbing  plants,  and  the  furrows  in  the  open  carpeted  by  richest  sward  of 
green.  Of  the  old  quarters  a  few  cabins  stand,  with  huge  stone  chimneys  and 
open  fireplaces,  beneath  outspreading  live  oaks  and  palmetto  and  date  palms. 
Near  by  is  the  ivy-mantled  chimney  marking  the  site  of  the  old  plantation 


FLORIDA. 


219 


220  FLORIDA. 

church,  and  farther  on  the  great  stone  chimney  of  the  sugar  mill,  massive  and 
grand  as  the  tower  of  some  ancient  castle,  festooned  from  base  to  summit  with 
thick  clustering  ivy,  woodbine  and  flowering  vines,  while  beneath  are  strewn  the 
scattered  parts  of  the  magnificent  machinery,  half  concealed  by  a  tropical  luxuri- 
ance of  shrubs  and  vines  and  young  forest  trees. 

Among  the  things  that  could  not  be  wholly  destroyed  is  the  far-famed  orange 
grove  on  lathloe  Island,  whose  fruit,  known  as  the  Homosassa  orange,  has  long 
been  the  chief  prize-taker  at  fairs  and  eagerly  sought  in  all  markets  where  it  is 
known.  This  grove  and  the  loveliness  of  lathloe  Island  attracted  some  enter- 
prising parties  to  erect  upon  the  ruins  left  by  the  gunboat  a  commodious  house 
and  a  number  of  cottages,  where  for  some  little  time  flourished  one  of  the  most 
attractive  winter  resorts  in  Florida. 

But  these  structures  and  tokens  of  human  comfort  and  appreciation  were 
destined  soon,  as  if  by  some  strange  fate,  to  perish  by  conflagration. 

Still  the  native  loveliness  remains,  and  nature  unconquerable  rises  in  fresh 
magnificence  upon  the  ruins  of  the  old.  The  scars  of  fire  and  flame  have  healed 
upon  the  orange  trees,  or  where  they  were  struck  down,  vigorous  shoots  have 
sprung  up  from  their  roots;  grand  old  fig  trees  and  luscious  lemons,  bananas, 
guavas  and  other  fruit-bearing  shrubs,  gorgeous  cactus  and  agaves,  clustering 
oleanders  that  are  no  longer  shrubs  but  trees,  make  the  thrice-ruined  place  still  a 
home  of  beauty. 

The  soil  of  the  Homosassa  region  is  in  striking  contrast  with  that  of  most 
other  portions  of  the  State,  and,  indeed,  quite  remarkable.  It  is  a  rich  loam, 
almost  without  sand,  formed  of  decomposed  vegetable  matter  from  the  luxuriant 
growth  of  centuries,  mixed  with  disintegrated  shell  and  lime.  Beneath  this  is  a 
sheet  of  level  rock,  which  seems  to  be  a  conglomerate  of  the  debris  of  coral  and 
other  marine  shells,  and  still  underneath  this  firm  foundation  are  frequently  found 
beds  of  marl.  Upon  this  table-rock  the  soil  lies  some  three  feet  thick  a  little 
remote  from  the  river,  but  at  its  edge  often  not  more  than  as  many  inches ;  in  a 
few  places,  in  fact,  the  rock  is  quite  bare.  The  appearance  to  one  looking  for 
deep  and  fertile  soils  is  somewhat  disheartening,  but  these  appearances  are  greatly 
corrected  by  experience.  The  rock  is  so  porous  that  the  roots  of  plants  once 
started,  go  through  it  with  ease,  and  from  it  draw  the  moisture  which  it  retains 
like  a  sponge,  and  also  other  elements  which  contribute  to  the  perfection  of  the 
plant.  It  is  said  that,  in  the  old  plantation  times,  the  negroes  employed  in  plant- 
ing cane,  upon  coming  to  one  of  these  bare-rock  surfaces,  would  lay  a  joint  down 
and  run  for  a  hoeful  of  earth  to  cover  it.  This  was  all  that  was  needed.  This 
joint  W7ould  grow  as  luxuriantly  as  any  of  its  fellows  planted  in  deeper  soil.  This 
thin  and  rock-supported  soil  will  also  produce  grasses  of  the  sweetest  and  most 
succulent  character,  which  is  a  circumstance  quite  different  from  the  case  of  other 
more  familiar  Florida  soils. 

Back  from  the  river,  in  the  midst  of  the  hammock  lands,  the  soil  is  deeper  by 
several  feet,  and,  of  course,  adapted  to  a  deeper  culture,  especially  that  of  orange 
and  lemon  groves ;  but  any  of  it,  even  the  thinnest,  is  well  suited  for  the  smaller 
fruits,  such  as  strawberries  and  pineapples,  and  many  garden  vegetables,  as  cab- 
bages, melons,  tomatoes,  peas  and  beans,  and  other  profitable  crops. 

On  the  river  banks  and  islands  below  the  old  fields,  the  numerous  shell 
mounds  five  to  twenty  feet  deep  afford  inexhaustible  fertility  for  every  sort  of 
agriculture,  from  the  orange,  lemon,  fig,  guava  and  banana  to  the  finest  small 
fruits  of  the  garden. 

As  to  the  native  woods,  the  characteristic  ones  are  the  palms,  the  bays,  inclu- 
ding the  magnolia,  which  flourishes  here  to  a  wonderful  degree ;  including  also 
the  red  bay,  a  wood  firm  and  fine  of  grain  and  susceptible  of  beautiful  polish, 


FLORIDA. 


221 


222  FLORIDA. 

with  a  color  between  the  cherry  and  the  mahogany ;  the  oaks  of  all  species,  the 
sweet  gum  and  the  fragrant  red  cedar.  Not  only  do  the  cedar  forests  fill  the  air 
with  their  rich  aroma,  but  the  wood-piles  in  the  door  yards  are  positively  attrac- 
tive by  reason  of  their  fragrance.  This  is  a  luxury  which  even  the  poor  man  has. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  pine  and  the  cypress  are  absent,  the  sand  for  the  one 
and  the  swamp  for  the  other  not  being  found  near  the  banks  of  the  Homosassa, 
but  only  at  a  distance  of  three  to  five  miles. 

As  to  the  animal  products  of  the  woods  and  waters,  nature  as  yet  dominates. 
In  the  old  fields  and  the  surrounding  hammocks,  and  on  the  palm-clad  islands  of 
the  savannas,  wild  deer  abound,  and  the  wild  turkey  is  an  easy  prize.  Bears,  too, 
are  common,  and  the  wild  cat  makes  himself  quite  at  home.  The  panther  or 
tiger,  or  Florida  lion,  may  sometimes  be  seen  or  heard,  though  seldom  met. 
Coons  and  'possums  make  sport  for  the  sportsman  who  likes  variety. 

Many  curious  birds  rarely  found  in  other  regions  make  their  haunts  among 
the  untraversed  woods  and  streams,  while  geese,  brant  and  ducks  in  great  flocks 
frequent  the  lower  waters  of  the  river  and  the  lagoons  and  bayous  near  the  coast. 

Among  the  edible  fish  frequenting  the  river  are  the  sheep's-head,  mullet,  sea 
trout,  black  bass,  blue-fish,  red  and  channel  bass,  skip-jack  or  silver  fish,  bream, 
roach,  red  snapper,  catfish,  sailor's  choice,  cavalla,  white  ray,  pompano  and  tarpon. 
Of  shell-fish  there  are  crabs,  and  turtles  in  several  varieties,  and  the  salt  bayous 
that  lead  into  the  river  in  its  lower  course  are  literally  choked  with  oysters  of  the 
finest  kind.  There  are  also  porpoise  of  three  varieties,  and  some  fish  of  not  so 
agreeable  form  and  habit,  as  the  saw-fish,  gar-fish,  jew-fish,  drum-fish,  needle-fish, 
dog-fish  and  sting-ray.  Alligators  are  seen  occasionally  in  the  lagoons,  and  some- 
times by  the  river  side  where  the  banks  are  low.  The  famous  gulf  fisheries  are 
not  far  off  the  Homosassa  coast.  These  are  of  the  mullet,  the  grouper,  the  red 
snapper  and  Spanish  mackerel.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  broad  bays  of  the 
lower  Homosassa  should  not  be  made  a  rendezvous  of  fishermen,  and  a  station 
for  curing  and  traffic  in  this  line  The  sponge  fisheries,  too,  are  a  local  industry 
of  the  gulf  coast.  The  green  turtle  fishery  also  is  rapidly  attaining  prominence, 
and  the  ports  at  which  this  traffic  is  carried  on  are  on  either  side  of  the  Homo- 
sassa— namely,  at  Cedar  Keys  and  Key  West.  People  are  just  beginning  to 
realize  what  can  be  made  of  the  oyster  business  in  Florida.  Their  beds  are 
innumerable  all  along  the  brackish  lagoons  and  bayous  oi  the  lower  Homosassa. 
Besides  the  immense  traffic  that  might  be  carried  on,  almost  every  resident  on  the 
river  could  have  his  own  oyster  bed  for  his  household  supply. 

But  it  is  the  climate,  above  all,  which  is  the  chief  attraction  at  Homosassa. 
It  compares  favorably  with  St.  Augustine,  undoubtedly  the  favorite  seaside  resort 
of  Florida,  while  it  is  free  from  the  sudden  damps  and  raw  north  winds  which 
sometimes  visit  that  charming  place.  Not  only  is  the  temperature  here  remark- 
ably equable  and  free  from  extremes — the  frost  point  being  rarely  touched  in 
December,  and  the  summer  temperature  seldom  standing  above  90° — but  the 
atmosphere  is,  to  a  surprising  degree,  free  from  moisture.  It  may  seem  strange, 
but  the  relative  humidity  of  this  region  of  the  gulf  coast  in  winter  compares 
favorably  with  that  of  the  high  altitudes  recommended  as  health  resorts  in  our 
Northwestern  States.  The  almost  total  absence  of  the  "  Spanish  moss"  from  the 
trees  shows  that  there  is  some  peculiarity  in  the  atmospheric  conditions  here,  as 
compared  with  that  of  very  many  favorite  places  in  the  interior  and  on  the  east 
coast ;  but  from  whatever  combinations  of  the  elements — of  earth,  waters,  sea  or 
air — it  may  have  resulted,  the  fact  is  clear  that  the  climate  here  is  both  delightful 
and  salubrious.  As  to  the  other  side  of  the  picture — what  are  called  the  "outs" 
of  the  case — it  is  true  that  in  the  hammocks  the  mosquitoes  and  midges  are  very 
annoying  in  the  rainy  summer  season ;  but  they  are  not  so  troublesome  by  far, 


FLORIDA. 


224  FLORIDA. 

either  in  their  character  or  their  numbers,  as  in  similar  situations  on  the  east 
coast,  and  scarcely  more  so  than  in  many  famous  places  of  resort  in  the  North. 
The  red-bug  is  the  pest  of  the  woods,  but  can  easily  be  guarded  against.  From 
snakes  and  venomous  insects  this  region  seems  to  have  peculiar  exemption.  Such 
few  as  there  are  here  disappear  at  the  first  approach  of  cold,  and  do  not  emerge 
until  hot  weather  conies  on.  They  are  rarely  seen  from  October  to  May.  It  is  in 
the  summer  season,  of  course,  that  one  encounters  the  special  ills  of  a  semi- 
tropical  climate.  The  gulf  coast  of  Hernando  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its 
comparative  healthfulness,  and  it  is  a  familiar  sight  to  find  families  from  the 
interior  camping  for  the  summer  on  the  banks  and  islands  of  the  Hoir.osassa. 
Still,  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  Northerner  who  becomes  a  permanent  resi- 
dent anywhere  m  South  Florida  should  exercise  much  care  at  first  if  he  would 
avoid  a  disagreeable  initiation  into  so  unaccustomed  surroundings.  But  with 
•  anything  like  reasonable  prudence,  a  smiling  earth,  comfortable  temperature, 
bright  sun  and  pure  air,  inviting  to  a  life  out  of  doors  all  the  year  round, 
cannot  fail  to  furnish  good  assurance  of  health. 

The  exceptional  attractions  of  this  region  have  induced  a  number  of  gentle- 
men, representing  all  sections  of  the  country,  to  unite  their  efforts  to  open  these 
rich  resources  to  their  appropriate  uses.  They  have  purchased  some  ten  or  twelve 
thousand  acres  of  choice  and  selected  lauds  along  the  \vhole  course  of  the  Homo- 
sassa  River,  including  all  the  Yulee  estate,  and  they  are  now  expending  large 
sums  in  improving  these  natural  advantages,  so  as  to  make  them  available  for 
visitors  or  settlers.  A  careful  topographical  survey  has  been  made,  the  lands 
lotted  and  mapped,  avenues  and  parks  laid  out,  and  works  are  now  going  on  to 
bring  to  the  best  effect  every  natural  point  of  interest  or  advantage.  The  pro- 
prietors will  invite  gentlemen  to  erect  villas  along  the  picturesque  banks  of  the 
river;  they  will  provide  steam  launches  and  pleasure  boats,  and  open  shady  walks 
and  drives  paved  with  white  shells  from  the  gulf  beaches,  leading  to  the  points  of 
most  interest  and  beauty  ;  they  will  reserve  for  the  prc:ent  the  beautiful  lathloe 
Island,  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  a  tropical  garden,  where  the  flowers  and 
fruit-bearing  trees  and  rarest  vines  and  shrubs  of  the  gulf  coasts  will  be  gathered 
as  a  type  of  that  Mediterranean  loveliness.  The  fertile  lands  most  suited  for 
general  agriculture  will  be  opened  to  settlers  at  prices  that  will  be  within  the 
means  of  all.  The  abundance  of  valuable  woods,  such  as  the  live  oak,  magnolia, 
red  bay,  red  cedar  and  palmetto,  will  invite  to  profitable  industries  in  wood- 
working, such  as  fine  finish  for  houses,  boat  building,  cabinet  and  furniture 
making,  &c.  There  is  also  demand  even  now  for  workmen  at  various  trades, 
such  as  coopers,  wheelwrights,  blacksmiths  and  carpenters.  There  are  many 
situations  here  peculiarly  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  the  lemon,  the  guava,  the 
pineapple  and  other  very  profitable  fruits.  Horticulture  in  Florida  is  in  its 
infancy.  The  capabilities  of  such  soil  and  climate  as  characterize  the  Homosassa 
region  can  only  be  dreamed  of  by  one  accustomed  to  other  climes  who  sees  how 
prodigal  nature  is  of  her  returns  for  such  rude  attentions  as  are  paid  to  her  here. 
This  gulf  coast  is  destined  to  be  the  early  garden  of  the  United  States. 

The  means  of  communication  and  transportation  which  have  so  long  been 
desired  are  now  about  to  be  made  ample.  The  old  familiar  route  from  Cedar  Keys 
by  the  gulf  and  river  will  be  reopened.  The  Silver  Springs,  Ocala  and  Gulf  Rail- 
road is  vigorously  advancing  by  way  of  Blue  Spring  and  Crystal  River,  and  it  is 
believed  will  reach  Homosassa  in  the  course  of  the  winter  of  1885-86.  The 
Florida  Southern  Railroad  is  already  at  Brooksville,  on  the  southern  side  of 
Homosassa,  about  20  miles  away,  and  the  project  is  now  under  consideration  of 
bringing  it  through  to  the  river  this  winter.  Meantime,  a  comfortable  stage  line 
will  be  run  from  Brooksville  to  Homosassa,  connecting  with  the  trains  of  the 


FLORIDA.  225 

Florida  Southern,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  another  line  will  run  between 
Homosassa  and  Blue  Spring,  on  the  north. 

In  anticipation  of  these  openings,  a  hotel,  with  the  best  of  accommodations, 
is  to  be  erected  by  the  Homosassa  Company  in  season  for  the  visitors  who  will 
seek  this  favorable  opportunity  for  recreation,  investment  or  permanent  settle- 
ment. Indeed,  the  numerous  applications  on  all  these  scores  already  received 
abundantly  ensure  the  success  of  this  enterprise. 


ALABAMA. 


This  State  has  been  brought  into  very  prominent  notice  by  its  enormous  coal 
and  iron-ore  deposits,  and  is  receiving  the  attention  of  manufacturers  and 
investors  probably  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  Southern  State. 

Alabama  is  situated  between  the  85th  and  89th  degrees  of  west  longitude, 
and  the  31st  and  35th  parallels  of  north  latitude.  The  total  area  is  estimated  to 
be  52,250  square  miles,  and  the  total  land  surface  51,540  square  miles.  The 
population  of  the  State,  according  to  the  census  of  1880,  was  1,262,344,  of  which 
661,986  were  white  and  600,358  colored;  1,252,694  native  born  and  9,650  foreign. 

In  the  general  description  of  the  State  I  have  drawn  largely  upon  the  Report 
of  the  Tenth  Census. 

SURFACE  CONTOUR. — Leaving  out  of  account  the  minor  irregularities,  the 
surface  of  the  State  may  be  considered  as  an  undulating  plain,  whose  mean  eleva- 
tion above  sea-level  cannot  be  much  less  than  600  feet.  Toward  the  north  and 
east  the  surface  rises  above  this  level,  and  toward  the  south  and  west  it  sinks 
below  it.  The  arc  of  a  circle,  with  Chattanooga  as  a  center,  described  from  the 
northwestern  corner  of  the  State  around  to  the  Chattahoochee  River  at  Columbus, 
would  include  the  area  whose  general  elevation  is  above  600  feet.  The  axis  of 
this  elevation,  which  is  the  southern  terminus  of  the  great  Apalachian  mountain 
chain,  runs  northeast  and  southwest,  and  the  altitude  increases  toward  the  north- 
east. There  is  thus  a  general  slope  away  from  this  elevated  region  toward  all 
points  of  the  compass  from  southeast  around  to  northwest.  The  mountains  of 
the  State  rest  upon  this  high  land,  and  often  reach  an  elevation  above  it  of  1,200 
or  1,500  feet,  or  above  sea-level  of  2,000  or  2,500  feet. 

The  rest  of  the  State  outside  of  the  area  above  mentioned,  and  whose  general 
altitude  is  less  than  600  feet,  has  a  slope  south  and  southwest  toward  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Along  this  slope  the  streams  have  excavated 
their  channels  and  produced  the  various  topographical  features,  none  of  which 
are  due  to  elevation  above  the  general  surface. 

RIVER  SYSTEMS. — There  are,  in  the  most  general  terms,  two  things  which 
have  determined  the  drainage  system  of  Alabama.  These  are,  first,  the  slopes 
toward  the  northwest  and  the  southeast,  away  from  the  axis  of  elevation  above 
spoken  of;  and,  second,  the  more  general  slope  of  the  surface  of  the  State,  taken 
as  a  whole,  southwest  toward  the  axis  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  An  inspection 
of  the  map  will  show  that  the  latter  cause  has  greatly  outweighed  the  former  in 
fixing  the  direction  of  the  watercourses,  with  the  result  of  giving  a  general  south- 
west direction  to  the  whole  drainage  system  of  the  State,  with  the  single  exception 
of  that  of  the  Tennessee  River.  In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State  the  north- 
east and  southwest  direction  of  the  valleys  and  ridges  has  also  been  largely 
instrumental  in  turning  southwestward  (down  the  valleys)  the  waters  whose 
natural  fall  is  southeastward  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  elevation  of  this 
mountainous  region. 


ALABAMA.  227 

Tennessee  River. — Looking  beyond  the  limits  of  the  State  northeastwardly, 
we  find  the  Blue  Ridge,  of  which  the  elevated  country  in  Alabama  is  but  a  part, 
acting  as  a  water-shed  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
drainage  slopes  are  therefore  toward  the  northwest  and  the  southeast.  At  the 
northwestern  foot  of  this  water-shed,  in  North  Carolina,  are  the  headwaters  of 
the  Tennessee  River.  Its  natural  northwesterly  flow  is  interfered  with  by  the 
topographical  features  of  the  country,  the  most  formidable  of  which,  according  to 
Professor  Safford,  is  the  great  Cumberland  table-land.  Parallel  with  this  the  river 
flows  through  a  large  part  of  Tennessee,  and,  cutting  through  a  detached  part  of 
the  Cumberland  range  at  Chattanooga,  enters  the  Sequatchie  Valley,  which  it 
follows  to  Guntersville,  in  Alabama,  where  it  cuts  through  the  rest  of  the  Cum- 
berland range,  and  flows  thence  down  the  northwesterly  slope  to  its  confluence 
with  the  Mississippi  River.  The  Tennessee  is  thus  exceptional  among  the  rivers 
of  Alabama. 

The  Chattahoochee. — This  is  a  boundary  stream,  and  is  but  slightly  related  to 
Alabama,  as  its  headwaters  are  principally  in  Georgia.    Its  tributary  streams  on  f 
the  Alabama  side  are  mostly  short  and  insignificant. 

TJie  Tallapooaa,  Coosa,  Alabama,  Warrior  and  Lower  Tombigbee  Rivers  have 
many  things  in  common.  They  all  have  their  headwaters  in  the  elevated  region 
above  alluded  t«,  and  all  flow  south  and  southwest  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  »In 
their  upper  parts,  with  the  exception  of  the  Tombigbee,  their  flow  is  alternately 
southwest  down  one  of  the  valleys  spoken  of,  and  then  south  across  a  ridge  to 
resume  their  southwestern  courses.  Where  they  leave  that  elevated  region  (which 
is  in  general  formed  of  the  tough  and  hard  rocks  of  the  older  formations)  and 
pass  into  the  territory  formed  by  the  newer  and  softer  rocks,  there  appear  the 
cascades  which  form  the  first  obstructions  to  navigation.  These  falls  or  rapids 
are  seen  at  Columbus  (Georgia),  Tallahassee,  Wetumpka,  Centerville,  Tuscaloosa 
and  Muscle  Shoals,  on  the  principal  rivers,  and  at  corresponding  localities  on  the 
smaller  streams. 

The  Coosa  River,  from  Rome,  Georgia,  down  to  Greensport,  Alabama,  flows 
in  general  along  the  strike  of  the  rocks,  and  has  no  serious  obstructions.  Below 
Greensport  it  turns  across  these  rocks,  and  rapids  are  formed,  which  alternate 
with  stretches  of  open,  smooth  waters  dow^n  to  Wetumpka,  where  the  last  falls  are 
situated.  This  river  has  thus  two  navigable  sections  separated  by  nearly  200  miles 
of  alternating  cascades  and  pools.  None  of  the  other  rivers  in  this  part  of  the 
State  are  navigable  above  the  lower  falls. 

The  Choctawhatchie  and  Conccuh  Rivers,  with  their  tributaries,  Pea  River, 
Patsaliga,  Sepulga,  etc.,  are  all  turned  southward  by  a  prominent  topographical 
feature  known  as  Chunnenugga  Ridge,  which  divides  the  waters  flowing  north- 
westward into  the  Tallapoosa  and  Alabama  Rivers  from  those  flowing  southward 
by  various  channels  into  the  Gulf.  It  will  be  seen  that  their  general  direction  is 
west  of  south,  as  determined  by  the  general  slope  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  State. 

MOUNTAINS  AND  TABLE-LANDS. — The  mountainous  region  of  the  State  is 
confined  to  the  northeastern  quarter,  as  before  defined,  and  the  higher  portions 
lie  in  the  eastern  half  of  this  area.  The  Valley  of  the  Coosa,  from  the  State  line 
down  to  the  southern  line  of  Shelby  and  Talladega  Counties,  divides  this  region 
into  parts  which  have  very  different  characters.  Southeast  of  this  Valley  are 
some  of  the  highest  lands  of  the  State,  and  the  height  of  the  mountains  decreases, 
as  a  rule,  going  southeast.  In  all  this  region  the  summits  of  the  mountains  are 
irregular,  and  sometimes  sharp  crested,  from  the  outcropping  edges  of  the  gener- 
ally highly-inclined  strata.  Northwest  of  the  Coosa  Valley  the  mountains  are 
generally  level  on  top,  forming  table-lands  10  to  15  miles  broad,  separated  by  long 
and  narrow  valleys.  Beyond  the  Tennessee  River  these  table-lands  are  cut  by 


228  ALABAMA. 

erosion  into  a  number  of  detached  peaks,  each  with  a  level  or  nearly  level  top. 
These  peaks  overlook  the  valleys  in  steep  escarpments  which,  especially  in  the 
northeast,  often  attain  truly  mountainous  proportions. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  State  there  are  no  elevations  which  at  all  deserve  the 
name  of  mountains,  and  the  highest  hills  of  this  region  are  due  solely  to  erosion — 
the  wasting  of  the  softer  rocks  by  the  action  of  water. 

VALLEYS. — Many  of  the  valleys  of  the  elevated  region  show  a  close  depend- 
ence upon  the  geological  structure ;  and  while  they  are  all  due  to  erosion,  their 
position  has  been  in  most  cases,  if  not  in  all,  determined  by  the  relative  positions 
of  the  outcropping  edges  of  the  strata  of  different  degrees  of  hardness. 

All  the  valleys  in  the  mountainous  region  of  the  State,  like  the  mountain 
ranges  themselves,  have  a  northeast  and  southwest  direction.  The  most  important 
of  these  valleys  in  many  respects  is  that  of  the  Coosa,  which  is  the  southern  end 
of  a  series  of  valleys  extending  from  New  York  to  Alabama,  and  known  in  New 
York  as  the  Valley  of  the  Hudson,  in  Pennsylvania  as  the  Kittatinny  or  Cumber- 
land Valley,  in  Virginia  as  the  Great  Valley,  in  Tennessee  as  the  Valley  of  East 
Tennessee,  and  in  Alabama,  as  we  have  just  seen,  as  the  Coosa  Valley.  The 
several  outliers  of  this  valley,  which  separate  the  parts  of  the  table-lands  and 
coal-fields,  belong  to  the  same  general  system. 

The  sandstones  which  form  the  capping  of  the  mountain  plateaus  rest  upon, 
softer  strata  of  shales  and  limestones,  and  the  dip  of  all  the  strata  is  at  a  gentle 
angle  toward  the  south  or  southwest,  while  the  river  cuts  across  at  nearly  right 
angles.  These  are  the  conditions  under  which  escarpments  are  formed,  such  as 
make  the  southern  border  of  the  Tennessee  Valley  across  the  State. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  State,  the  valleys,  like  the  hills,  have  very  little 
relation  to  the  geological  structure,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Prairie  Region? 
which  may  be  considered  as  a  wide  valley,  since  it  is  many  feet  below  the  hills 
that  border  it  on  the  north  and  south. 

CLIMATE. — The  most  potent  influences  which  determine  climate  are  latitude 
or  distance  from  the  equator,  elevation  above  tide  and  configuration  of  mountain 
chains,  proximity  to  the  sea  and  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  In  all 
these  particulars  the  position  of  Alabama  is  favorable  for  a  temperate  and  uniform 
climate.  The  geographical  position  and  the  mean  elevation  of  the  State  have 
already  been  subjects  of  discussion. 

Winds. — The  prevailing  winds  during  the  autumn  and  winter  months  are 
from  the  northeast  and  northwest;  during  the  spring  and  summer,  from  the 
southeast;  and  for  the  whole  year,  from  the  southeast  and  south,  but  the  yearly 
mean  directions  are  nearly  evenly  balanced. 

Temperature. — Extremes  of  temperature  are  comparatively  rare,  and  the 
extremes  of  heat  during  the  summer  months  are  especially  moderated  by  the 
tempering  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  those  parts  of  the  State  most 
remote  from  the  gulf,  their  elevation  above  sea-level  secures  immunity  from 
excessive  heat.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  State  is  about  64.58°  F. 
The  means  for  the  seasons  are  as  follows :  Spring,  63.9°;  summer,  79.5°;  autumn, 
64.5°;  winter,  50.4°.  The  maxima  and  minima  of  temperature  fall,  almost  without 
exception,  in  the  months  of  July  and  January,  respectively. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  State,  below  the  latitude  of  Montgomery,  the  mean 
temperature  for  the  winter  and  for  the  year  are  nearly  normal — that  is,  the  lines 
of  equal  temperature  run  across  the  State  from  east  to  west,  approximately 
parallel  to  the  lines  of  latitude,  the  temperature  depending  thus  almost  exclu- 
sively upon  the  latitude.  Above  Montgomery,  however,  two  things  interfere  with 
this  regularity,  viz :  1.  The  cooling  influence  of  the  mountains,  which  has  the 
effect  of  deflecting  the  isothermals  southward.  2.  The  hen  ting  influence  of  wide 


ALABAMA.  229 

river  valleys  like  those  of  the  Coosa,  Warrior  and  Tennessee,  that  are  sunk  in  these 
highlands.  By  this  cause  these  lines  are  carried  northward  of  their  normal  position. 

With  these  general  principles  in  view,  the  distribution  of  the  temperature  will 
be  readily  understood. 

The  line  of  mean  annual  temperature  of  68°  F.  crosses  the  State  just  south  of 
Mobile;  that  of  64°  just  above  Montgomery,  curving,  however,  southward  from 
Montgomery  to  Eufaula.  The  line  of  60°  follows  approximately  the  curve  spoken 
of  as  running  from  Columbus,  Georgia,  around  to  the  northwestern  corner  of  the 
State — that  is,  it  follows  the  borders  of  the  elevated  or  mountainous  region,  being, 
however,  carried  northward  by  the  Coosa  and  the  Warrior  Rivers,  and  eastward 
by  the  Tennessee.  The  line  of  56°  is  confined  to  the  northeastern  corner  of  the 
State,  but  is  brought  far  to  the  south  by  the  mountain  plateau  lying  between  the 
Coosa  and  the  Tennessee  Rivers. 

The  case  is  similar  with  the  lines  of  equal  temperature  for  the  winter.  That 
of  52°  runs  nearly  parallel  with  the  31st  degree  of  latitude;  that  of  48°  has  its 
normal  course  through  Selma  and  Montgomery,  but  is  carried  by  the  Coosa  River 
as  high  up  as  the  crossing  of  the  Selma,  Rome  and  Dal  ton  Railroad  at  Coosa 
Bridge;  and  that  of  44°  folknvs  the  margin  of  the  mountainous  region,  except 
where  it  is  carried  by  the  Coosa  River  above  Talladega,  and  by  the  Tennessee 
River  eastward  nearly  to  Decatur.  The  line  of  40°  includes  only  the  northeastern 
corner  of  the  State,  to  which  it  is  crowded  by  the  Coosa  and  the  Tennessee  Rivers. 

The  lines  of  equal  temperature  for  the  summer  show  much  greater  irregu- 
larity, caused  apparently  by  the  preponderating  influence  of  the  river  valleys. 
Thus  the  line  of  80°  runs  diagonally  from  Tallahassee,  in  Florida,  up  to  Tusca- 
loosa,  by  reason  of  the  Alabama,  Tombigbee  and  Warrior  Rivers.  The  line  of  78° 
curves,  like  some  of  those  above  mentioned,  around  the  border  of  the  mountainous 
region,  being  considerably  indented  by  the  Coosa  and  Warrior  Rivers,  while  it 
follows  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee  River  through  the  whole  of  Northern 
Alabama  into  the  State  of  Tennessee  beyond  Chattanooga 

In  the  latitude  of  Montgomery  the  last  frost  occurs,  as  a  rule,  between  the  5th 
and  the  25th  of  April,  and  where  the  last  frost  is  recorded  in  March  the  records 
show  that  its  actual  formation  in  April  was  prevented  by  unfavorable  conditions, 
such  as  cloudy  weather  or  brisk  winds.  The  first  frosts  occur  usually  between 
the  10th  and  the  25th  of  October.  When  the  first  frost  falls  in  November,  the 
records  always  show  that  some  time  in  October  the  temperature  was  sufficiently 
low  for  frost,  the  actual  formation  of  which  was  prevented  by  the  unfavorable 
conditions  above  mentioned. 

The  influence  of  topography  upon  the  formation  of  frost  is  clearly  seen  in 
those  parts  of  the  State  where  the  variations  in  level  are  considerable ;  for  though 
both  the  mountains  and  the  valleys  are  exposed  to  the  same  conditions,  and  radia- 
tion from  each  goes  on  at  the  same  rate,  the  effects  of  the  radiation  will  be  felt  in 
different  degrees.  As  the  air  is  cooled  it  becomes  more  dense,  and  in  consequence 
flows  down  the  slopes  to  the  lower  levels,  where  it  accumulates.  The  elevated 
lands  are  thus  never  exposed  to  the  full  intensity  of  frosts,  for  their  position 
affords  a  ready  way  for  the  escape  of  the  cooled  air,  which  flows  down  the  slopes 
as  fast  as  formed,  and  the  reduction  of  temperature  is  in  this  way  greatly  retarded. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  valleys  and  lowlands  not  only  retain  all  the  cold  air 
caused  by  their  own  radiation,  but  serve  also  as  reservoirs  for  the  cold  air 
descending  from  the  adjoining  heights.  The  conditions  for  frost  formation  are 
thus  greatly  increased,  and  in  a  degree  are  proportional  to  the  narrowness  of  the 
valley  and  the  height  of  the  adjacent  hills. 

Rainfall. — The  supply  of  moisture  for  the  rainfall  of  the  Southern  States 
comes  mainly  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  densest  annual  precipitation  of  60 


230  ALABAMA. 

inches  and  upward  being  over  the  region  of  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi  River 
and  along  the  coasts  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama  and  Western  Florida 
An  area  of  heavy  annual  rainfall,  50  inches  and  upward,  spreads  thence,  with 
gradually  diminishing  amount,  northeastward,  including  Louisiana,  Southwestern 
Arkansas,  Western  Tennessee,  the  whole  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  North- 
western Georgia,  and  parts  of  Middle,  Western  and  Southern  Florida.  Along  the 
eastern  coasts  of  Florida,  Georgia,  and  South  and  North  Carolina  the  influence  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  seen  in  the  heavy  precipitate  of  from  55  to  60  inches  which 
falls  there. 

The  distribution  of  the  rainfall  in  Alabama  for  the  year,  and  for  the  winter 
and  summer  seasons,  is  about  as  follows : 

An  annual  precipitate  of  56  inches  and  upward  falls  within  a  belt  narrowest 
in  the  middle  and  widening  out  at  both  ends,  and  crossing  the  State  diagonally 
from  the  southwestern  to  the  northeastern  corner.  In  the  lower  part  of  this  belt 
an  area  including  Mobile  and  Baldwin  and  parts  of  Washington,  Clarke,  Monroe, 
Wilcox,  Dallas,  Lowndes,  Butler,  Conecuh  and  Escambia  Counties  receives  an 
annual  rainfall  of  63  inches  and  upward,  reaching  a  maximum  of  64  inches  at 
Mount  Vernon.  In  the  extreme  northwestern  corner  of  the  State  is  another  small 
area  whose  annual  rainfall  is  above  56  inches.  Between  these  two  areas  the  rain- 
fall is  less,  falling  below  50  inches  in  the  central  part.  Eastward  of  the  main  belt 
the  amount  of  annual  rainfall  decreases,  being  between  44  and  56  inches  over  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  State,  except  in  two  small  areas  in  Lee  and  Chambers 
and  in  Henry  Counties,  where  it  ranges  between  40  and  44  inches. 

During  the  winter  months  (December,  January  and  February)  we  find  the 
area  of  maximum  rainfall  running  along  the  western  border  of  the  State  within 
30  miles  of  the  Mississippi  line,  except  where  a  branch  is  thrown  off,  including 
parts  of  Dallas,  Wilcox,  Lowndes,  Montgomery,  Butler,  Crenshaw,  Pike  and 
Bullock  Counties,  and  another  deflection  toward  the  east  in  the  Tennessee  Valley, 
including  parts  of  Lawrence,  Limestone  and  Madison  Counties.  Over  the  rest  of 
the  State  the  winter  rainfall  is  between  12  and  16  inches,  except  in  a  small  area  in 
the  western  part  of  Sumter  County  and  a  strip  along  the  eastern  border  of  the 
State  below  Chambers  County,  including  parts  of  Chambers,  Lee,  Macon,  Bullock, 
Barbour,  Dale,  Geneva,  and  all  of  Henry  and  Russell  Counties,  where  it  falls 
below  12  inches. 

During  the  summer  months  (June,  July  and  August)  the  greatest  amount  of 
rain  falls  south  of  a  line  running  from  the  southwestern  part  of  Choctaw  County 
to  the  upper  line  of  Dallas,  and  thence  southeastward  to  the  southeastern  corner 
of  the  State,  in  Henry  County.  Within  the  area  thus  outlined  the  rainfall  is  14 
inches  and  upward,  increasing  to  18  inches  and  more  in  Mobile,  Baldwin,  Wash- 
ington, Clarke,  Monroe,  Butler,  Conecuh,  Escambia  and  Covington  Counties. 

North  of  the  Tennessee  River,  in  Lauderdale,  Limestone,  Madison  and 
Jackson  Counties,  we  find  another  area  of  large  summer  rainfall,  14  inches  and 
upward,  and  between  the  two,  over  perhaps  two-thirds  of  the  State,  the  summer 
rainfall  falls  below  14  inches. 

In  the  meteorological  region  of  which  Alabama  forms  a  part  there  are 
commonly  observed  two  maxima  of  precipitation,  the  principal  one  about  the  end 
of  July,  the  secondary  one  early  in  December ;  also  a  principal  minimum  early  in 
October,  and  a  secondary  one  toward  the  end  of  April.  The  range  in  Alabama, 
however,  is  moderate,  and  the  distribution  tolerably  uniform  throughout  the  year, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  statement : 

The  average  rainfall  of  the  State  is  55.04  inches,  and  of  this  13.86  inches  fall 
during  the  spring  months,  14  07  during  the  summer,  10.74  during  the  autumn,  and 
16.37  during  the  winter. 


ALABAMA.  231 

The  records  kept  at  Montgomery  show  that  no  periods  of  wet  weather 
extend  over  live  days,  and  that  when  the  periods  are  long  heavy  rainfalls  are 
exceptional.  During  the  months  of  March,  April  and  May  thunder-storms  are 
not  unusual,  and  the  quantity  of  rain  which  then  falls  is  sometimes  great.  These 
storms  come  mostly  from  westerly  directions,  from  southwest  around  to  north- 
west, but  most  often  from  the  southwest.  The  strong  winds  with  which  they  are 
usually  accompanied,  sometimes  reach  the  force  of  hurricanes  or  tornadoes,  which 
sweep  over  the  country  in  a  narrow  track,  usually  of  less  than  a  mile  in  width. 
The  tornadoes  come  almost  without  exception  from  the  southwest,  the  wind 
having  a  gyratory  motion,  as  is  shown  by  the  positions  of  the  prostrated  trees. 

Snow  falls  occasionally  in  the  months  of  January  and  February.  In  the 
lower  counties  of  the  State  it  is  extremely  rare,  but  northward  there  is  usually  at 
least  one  considerable  snowfall  during  the  winter. 

For  convenience  of  description  the  State  may  be  divided  into  three  sections — 
Northern,  Middle  and  Southern,  differing  in  their  main  characteristics. 

The  Middle  Division,  having  an  area  of  about  10,000  square  miles,  embraces 
the  following  counties  and  parts  of  counties :  All  of  Cleburne,  Calhoun,  Saint 
Clair,  Shelby,  Talladega,  Clay,  Randolph,  Chambers  and  Coosa,  narrow  belts 
through  Jackson,  Marshall,  De  Kalb  and  Blount,  southern  Cherokee,  most  of 
Etowah,  southeastern  Jefferson,  a  small  strip  along  the  southeastern  edge  of 
Tuscaloosa,  northern  Bibb,  eastern  half  of  Chilton,  southern  Elmore,  Tallapoosa 
and  Lee. 

The  Northern  Division  adjoins  the  Middle  Division  on  the  northwest.  Its 
area  is  about  9,700  square  miles,  and  embraces  the  following  counties  and  parts  of 
counties:  All  of  Lawrence,  Winston,  Walker,  Cullman,  Morgan,  Limestone  and 
Madison,  and  parts  of  De  Kalb,  Cherokee,  Etowah,  Jackson,  Marshall,  Blount, 
Jefferson,  Tuscaloosa,  Fayette,  Marion,  Franklin,  Colbert  and  Lauclerdale. 

The  Southern  Division  includes  all  that  part  of  the  State  south  and  west  of 
the  limits  of  the  Middle  and  Northern  Divisions,  and  has  an  area  of  about  32,000 
square  miles.  It  embraces  the  counties  of  Pickens,  Greene,  Hale,  Surnter,  Choc- 
taw,  Marengo,  Dallas,  Perry,  Autaga,  Lowndes,  Montgomery,  Macon,  Bullock, 
Russell,  Barbour,  Pike,  Crenshaw,  Butler,  Wilcox,  Monroe,  Clarke,  Washington, 
Mobile,  Baldwin,  Escambia,  Conecuh,  Covington,  Geneva,  Coffee,  Dale  and  Henry, 
as  well  as  the  whole  or  parts  of  Lauderdale,  Colbert,  Franklin,  Marion,  Lamar, 
Fayette,  Tuscaloosa,  Bibb,  Chilton,  Elmore,  Tallapoosa  and  Lee. 

GEOLOGICAL  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL  FEATURES. 

MIDDLE  DIVISION. — 1.  The  Metamorphic  Region,  a  part  of  the  great  Apala- 
chian  chain,  including  some  of  the  most  elevated  land  in  the  State  in  the 
counties  of  Cleburne,  Randolph,  Chambers,  Lee,  Macon,  Tallapoosa,  Clay,  Coosa, 
Elmore  and  Chilton,  and  comprising  an  area  of  4,425  square  miles.  The  rocks  of 
this  region  are  the  altered  and  crystalized  sediments  either  of  Silurian  or  preceding 
ages,  and  exhibit  the  greatest  diversity,  both  in  their  chemical  composition,  in 
their  physical  characters,  and  in  the  nature  of  the  topography  and  the  soils  to 
which  they  give  rise.  There  are  all  gradations  between  the  hard,  almost  inde- 
structible quartzites  to  the  easily-eroded  marble;  from  the  warm,  fertile,  and 
undulating  granitic  and  gneissic  land  to  the  much  broken,  often  sterile  tracts 
formed  by  mica  slates  and  other  highly  siliceous  rocks.  With  the  varying  compo- 
sition of  the  rocks  come  varying  degrees  of  resistance  to  decay  and  eroism,  and 
hence  the  great  variety  in  the  scenery  of  this  region,  where  high  and  almost 
mountainous  ridges  alternate  with  rolling  and  sometimes  rugged  lowlands  and 
valleys.  In  some  parts  the  strata  have  undergone  complete  disintegration  in  place 


232  ALABAMA. 

and  have  been  converted  into  great  masses  of  stratified  clays,  interlaminated  with 
seams  of  quartz,  which,  gradually  broken  down,  cover  the  ground  with  their 
angular  fragments. 

2.  TJie  Coosa  Valley  Region  and  its  Outliers. — The  wide  valley,  with  prevail- 
ing calcareous  rocks,  which  lies  between  the  metamorphic  area  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  southeastern  edges  of  the  Coosa  and  Cahaba  coal-fields  and  Lookout 
mountain  on  the  other  has  received  the  name  above  given  from  the  Coosa  River, 
which  traverses  its  whole  length.  Geologically  it  is  the  continuation  of  the  valley 
of  eastern  Tennessee ;  and,  indeed,  the  valley  of  which  this  is  a  part,  and  which 
has  been  described  by  Professor  Safford  as  a  complex  trough  fluted  with  scores  of 
smaller  valleys  and  ridges,  extends  at  least  from  the  Susquehanna  River  to  middle 
Alabama. 

The  main  valley  of  the  Coosa,  with  the  limits  above  given,  is  from  15  to  20  or 
30  miles  wide,  and  is  closely  furrowed  with  parallel  valleys  and  ridges,  all  trending 
northeast  and  southwest.  This  valley  is  embraced  in  the  counties  of  Cherokee, 
Cleburne,  Calhoun,  Etowah,  Saint  Clair,  Talladega,  Shelby,  Coosa  and  Chilton, 
and  has  an  area,  including  its  ridge  lands,  of  2,580  square  miles.  Several  outtying 
valleys,  with  very  similar  geological  structure  and  soil  varieties,  may  be  most 
conveniently  described  in  connection  with  it. 

These  outliers  are:  1.  The  Cahaba  Valley,  lying  between  the  Coosa  and 
Cahaba  coal-fields,  in  the  counties  of  Saint  Clair,  Jefferson,  Shelby  and  Bibb,  its 
area  being  385  square  miles.  2.  Roup's  and  Jones'  Valley,  between  the  Cahaba 
and  Warrior  coal-fields,  in  Jefferson,  Tuscaloosa  and  Bibb  Counties;  area,  285 
square  miles.  3.  Willis'  Valley,  between  Lookout  and  Sand  Mountains,  in 
De  Kalb,  Etowah  and  Saint  Clair  Counties;  area,  460  square  miles.  4.  Murphree's 
Valley,  in  Etowah  and  Blount  Counties;  area,  110  square  miles.  5.  The  Blount 
springs,  or  Brown's  Valley,  which  is  a  prolongation  into  Alabama  of  the  Sequat- 
chie  Valley  of  Tennessee,  and  runs  through  Jackson,  Marshall  and  Blount 
Counties,  having  an  area  of  about  460  square  miles. 

The  strata  which  appear  at  the  surface  and  contribute  to  the  formation  of  the 
soils  in  all  these  valleys  are  the  representatives  of  all  the  geological  formations 
occurring  in  Alabama,  from  the  primordial  or  lowest  division  of  the  Lower 
Silurian  up  to  the  base  of  the  Coal  Measures.  In  the  following  statement  is 
given,  in  descending  order,  the  names  and  geological  positions  of  these  strata, 
so  far  as  their  equivalence  has  been  made  out : 

Carboniferous 7.  Coal  Measures  of  the  Warrior,  Cahaba  and  Coosa  fields. 

c  K  r-     K     -f  (6.  Upper.  Calcareous,  mountain  limestone. 

Sub-Carbomferous j  g>  L££er'SihceouSf  sfiiceouS  group. 

Devonian 4.  Black  Shale. 

Upper  Silurian 3.  Clinton  or  Red  Mountain  group. 

f  2.  Trenton  and  Chazy,  shales  and  limestone. 

'e.  Dolomite  or  magnesian  limestone. 
d.  Shale  (calcareous  shales. 
c.  Upper  sandstone  (calcareous  sandstone.) 
b.  Potsdam  sandstone  proper, 
a.  Semi-metamorphic  shales  and  conglomerates. 


Lower  Silurian \  i.  Calciferous  and  Potsdam.  - 


NORTHERN  DIVISION. — 1.  The  Coal  Measures  Region,  including  (a)  The  Coosa 
field,  which  embraces  about  30  square  miles  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Calhoun, 
about  150  square  miles  in  Saint  Clair,  and  about  235  square  miles  in  Shelby 
County,  making  an  aggregate  of  415  square  miles;  the  Cahaba  field,  which 
includes  about  50  square  miles  in  Saint  Clair,  100  in  Jefferson,  160  in  Shelby,  and 
125  in  Bibb  County,  aggregating  435  square  miles.  In  both  these  fields  the  strata, 
consisting  of  sandstones,  conglomerates,  shales,  and  coal  beds,  are  tilted  at  consid- 
erable angles,  and  possessing  varying  degrees  of  resistance  of  disintegration  and 
eroism,  have  been  very  unequally  degraded.  The  main  ridges  and  valleys  have 
the  general  direction  of  northeast  and  southwest,  corresponding  to  the  outcrops 


ALABAMA.  233 

of  the  tilted  strata ;  but  this  uniformity  is  often  greatly  obscured,  and  in  places 
is  obliterated  by  the  irregularities  produced  by  the  streams  which  traverse  the 
fields  across  the  outcrops.  In  the  presence  of  these  inequalities,  produced  by  the 
folding  or  the  tilting  of  the  strata,  these  fields  differ  from  the  great  Warrior  field, 
where  the  topographical  features  have  no  such  direct  connection  with  the  geologi- 
cal structure.  It  seems  to  be  well  established  that  the  three  coal-fields  of  Alabama 
were  once  continuous,  and  that  they  have  been  separated  by  folds  (since  denuded) 
and  by  faults,  (b.)  The  Warrior  Field,  the  name  given  to  that  part  of  the  Coal 
Measures  of  Alabama  which  is  drained  by  both  forks  of  the  Warrior  River  and 
their  tributaries.  This  field  may  be  divided  into  two  parts :  the  plateau  or  table- 
land, and  the  Warrior  basin  proper. 

The  Table-land. — It  is  characteristic  of  the  table-lands  or  plateaus  that  the 
limestone  beds,  which  underlie  the  capping  of  Coal  Measures  rocks,  are  above  the 
general  drainage  level  of  the  country.  This  arrangement  of  the  two  classes  of 
strata  determines  in  great  measure  the  character  of  the  scenery,  for  the  removal 
by  erosion  of  the  more  perishable  limestones  causes  the  undermining  of  the  harder 
sandstones  above,  which  from  time  to  time  break  off  with  vertical  faces,  forming 
cliffs.  In  height  the  plateaus  diminish  continuously  toward  the  southwest,  passing 
gradually  into  the  Warrior  basin.  In  the  State  of  Tennessee  their  elevation 
above  the  surrounding  country  varies  from  850  to  1,000  feet.  In  Jackson  and 
Madison  Counties  some  of  the  spurs  attain  an  equal  height,  but  further  southwest, 
in  Morgan  and  Marshall,  the  elevation  will  not  average  more  than  550,  and  in 
Cullman  and  Blount  Counties  not  more  than  360  feet,  and  near  the  Mississippi 
line  they  come  down  to  the  drainage  level.  The  main  body  of  the  table-land  is 
known  as  Sand  Mountain,  lying  between  the  Sequatchie  fold,  or  Brown's  and 
Tennessee  Valleys,  on  the  northwest,  and  Wills'  and  Murphree's  Valleys  on  the 
southeast,  and  include  parts  of  De  Kalb,  Jackson,  Marshall  and  Blount  Counties. 
The  highest  parts  of  this  table-land  are  to  be  found  along  its  edges  overlooking 
the  valleys  above  mentioned,  and  there  is  a  general  slope  both  ways  toward  the 
center  of  the  plateau,  which  thus  becomes  a  shallow,  elevated  trough. 

Beyond  Wills'  Valley  is  Lookout  Mountain,  an  outlier  of  Sand  Mountain, 
and  beyond  Murphree's  Valley  (southeast)  Blount  Mountain,  a  spur  of  the  main 
table-land.  All  these  parts  have  similar  structure,  and  their  elevated  rims,  adjoin- 
ing the  valleys,  are  usually  only  slightly  indented  by  the  watercourses,  except 
where  some  large  stream  leaves  the  plateau,  as  in  the  cases  of  Little  River,  on 
Lookout,  and  Short  Creek,  on  Sand  Mountain.  Northwest  of  the  Tennessee 
River,  however,  the  tributaries  of  that  stream  have  cut  the  elevated  lands  belong- 
ing to  this  division  into  a  number  of  more  or  less  isolated  peaks,  some  of  which, 
especially  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State,  have  still  the  capping  of  Coal 
Measures,  which  have  been  entirely  removed  from  many  of  those  lying  farthest 
toward  the  west.  Overlooking  the  Tennessee  Valley,  in  Lawrence  and  Franklin 
Counties,  the  elevated  rim,  which  is  locally  called  Sand  Mountain,  is  the  border  of 
the  Warrior  basin,  and  will  be  considered  along  with  it. 

Approximately,  the  area  of  the  elevated  lands  or  plateaus  as  above  limited 
would  be  about  1,690  square  miles  on  Sand  Mountain  and  its  spur  in  Jackson, 
De  Kalb,  Marshall,  Etowah,  Morgan,  Saint  Clair  and  Blount  Counties,  about  290 
square  miles  on  Lookout  Mountain,  in  De  Kalb,  Cherokee  and  Etowah,  about  580 
square  miles  in  the  detached  spurs  of  the  Cumberland  northwest  of  the  Ten- 
nessee, in  Jackson,  Madison  and  Marshall,  and  to  these  might  be  added  about  half 
the  area  of  Cullman  County,  whose  measures  partake  of  the  characters  of  both 
the  table-lands  and  of  the  basin,  about  295  square  miles ;  aggregating  in  all  2,855 
square  miles.  A  not  inconsiderable  part  of  this  area  north  of  Tennessee  is 
mountain  slope,  and  is  not  strictly  table-land. 


234  ALABAMA. 

The  Warrior  Basin. — This,  like  tlie  table-land,  is  in  general  a  trough, 
shallow  and  sloping  from  northeast  to  southwest,  with  slightly  elevated  rims  next 
to  the  Tennessee  Valley  on  the  north  and  Jones'  Valley  on  the  south.  As 
Brown's  Valley  divides  the  plateau,  so  its  continuation  southwestward  as  a  ridge 
divides  the  basin  into  two  unequal  parts.  Southwest  of  the  confluence  of  the  two 
Warriors  these  two  parts  seem  to  come  together  in  one  common  basin  by  the 
sinking  away  of  the  ridge  which  separates  them  higher  up. 

The  Warrior  basin  includes  all  of  Walker  and  Winston  and  parts  of  Cullman, 
Morgan,  Lawrence,  Franklin,  Marion,  Lamar,  Fayette,  Tuscaloosa  and  Jefferson 
Counties,  and  will  aggregate  about  4,955  square  miles.  The  whole  area  of  the  War- 
rior field  is  thus  estimated  at  about  7,810  square  miles.  The  surface  of  the  elevated 
border  lands  here  included  is  comparatively  level,  though  sufficiently  undulating, 
and  in  places  the  streams  have  cut  deep  gorges  into  the  hard  sandstones  and 
conglomerates.  In  the  basin  there  is  much  more  inequality  of  surface,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  streams  the  country  is  often  extremely  rough,  although  the  water-sheds 
are  seldom  more  than  250  or  800  feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  streams. 
Along  the  edges  of  both  table-land  and  basin  the  higher  rims  are  parts  of  folds  of 
the  strata,  and  are  of  sufficient  height  to  determine  the  direction  of  the  water- 
courses, and  hence  the  nature  of  the  topography.  In  the  basin  there  are  numerous 
undulations  of  the  strata,  but  they  are  rarely  of  sufficient  importance  to  affect  the 
topography. 

2.  TJie  Tennessee  Valley  Begion. — Under  this  head  are  included  not  only  the 
immediate  valley  of  the  Tennessee  River,  but  also  the  whole  region  in  Alabama 
drained  by  its  tributaries,  except  the  anticlinal  valley,  down  which  the  river  flows 
in  Jackson  County,  and  the  table-lands  of  De  Kalb,  the  Cumberland  spurs  in 
Jackson,  Madison  and  Marshall,  already  described,  and  the  drift-belt  in  Franklin, 
Colbert  and  Lauderdale  Counties.  With  these  limits,  therefore,  this  region  will 
embrace  an  area  on  both  sides  of  the  Tennessee  extending  from  the  State  line  on 
the  north  to  the  Coal  Measures  of  the  Warrior  field  on  the  south.  The  average 
width  of  this  drainage  area  from  north  to  south  is  about  45  miles,  and  includes 
parts  of  Jackson,  Marshall,  Morgan,  Lawrence,  Franklin,  Colbert  and  Lauderdale, 
and  all  of  Limestone  and  part  of  Madison  Counties,  aggregating  4,530  square  miles. 

The  general  features  of  this  region  are  those  of  a  plain  12  to  15  miles  wide, 
the  Tennessee  Valley  proper,  through  which  the  river  flows  on  in  its  tortuous 
path,  the  valley  being  bounded  both  on  the  north  and  on  the  south  by  hilly,  and 
in  some  places  almost  mountainous  country,  and  the  hills  and  the  valley  belonging 
to  the  same  geological  age,  the  configuration  of  the  whole  area  being  the  result  of 
erosion  during  long  geographical  periods  by  waters  whose  present  representatives 
are  the  Tennessee  and  its  tributaries. 

The  average  elevation  of  the  summits,  which  represent  approximately  the 
general  level  of  the  original  land  surface,  is  in  the  eastern  part  of  this  region 
about  2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  there  is  a  gradual  slope  westward,  so  that  the 
summits  near  the  Mississippi  line  are  not  more  than  900  or  1 ,000  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  general  surface  of  the  lowlands  exhibits  a  similar  slope,  the  elevation 
at  Huntsville  being  612  feet,  at  Courtland  560  feet,  and  at  Dickson  488  feet.  The 
hilly  country  in  the  northern  part  of  this  area  is  known  as  the  Barrens,  and  is  a 
part  of  the  great  highland  rim  of  Tennessee. 

South  of  the  Barrens  lies  the  valley  proper  of  the  Tennessee.  The  surface 
is  almost  level,  the  uniformity  broken  here  and  there  by  slight  elevations,  gener- 
ally covered  with  trees  made  up  of  fragments  of  chert.  Throughout  the  whole 
area  sink-holes  and  caves  are  common  and  almost  characteristic. 

The  southern  border  of  the  valley  is  made  by  the  escarpment  of  the  Warrior 
coal-field,  Sand  Mountain,  as  it  is  usually  called,  rising  above  the  valley  to  a  height 


ALABAMA.  235 

which  will  average,  perhaps,  600  or  700  feet.  Along  the  northern  face  of  this 
escarpment,  about  half  way,  is  a  terrace  or  bench,  which  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Morgan  County  is  very  narrow,  but  widens  going  westward,  and  a  considerable 
depression  is  formed  between  it  and  Sand  Mountain.  In  Lawrence  and  Franklin 
Counties  this  depression  is  deepened  into  a  valley  with  calcareous  soils  (Moultou 
and  Russell's  Valleys,)  and  the  bench,  now  completely  separated  from  Sand 
Mountain,  forms  a  very  conspicuous  feature  of  the  landscape,  known  as  the  Little 
Mountain  range.  These  valleys  have  the  same  general  characters  as  the  Ten- 
nessee Valley,  and  are  partly  based  on  the  same  rocks.  The  Little  Mountain 
range  terminates  toward  the  north  with  rather  bold  escarpments,  but  slopes  more 
gently  southward. 

The  three  divisions  of  the  Tennessee  drainage  area  in  northern  Alabama  are 
the  Barrens,  the  valley  lands,  and  the  Little  Mountain  range,  and  they  divide  the 
surface  about  as  follows:  Barrens,  910  square  miles;  valley  lands,  2,430  square 
miles ;  and  Little  Mountain  range,  540  square  miles. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  mountain  spurs  of  the  Cumberland  range 
in  Jackson  and  Madison,  the  anticlinal  fold  of  the  Sequatchie  in  Jackson,  and  the 
drift  in  Lauderdale,  Colbert  and  Franklin,  the  surface  rocks  to  which  the  soils  of 
the  Tennessee  Valley  owe  their  origin  belong  to  a  single  formation,  the  sub- 
carboniferous,  the  subdivisions  of  which,  as  adopted  by  the  State  Geological 
Survey,  are  as  follows:  Upper:  calcareous — mountain  limestone,  or  Chester; 
lower :  Siliceous — Saint  Louis  limestone  and  Keokuk. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  strata  of  the  Devonian  and  the  Upper  Silurian 
formations  are  exposed  along  certain  creeks  in  the  northern  part  of  this  region, 
but  their  superficial  extent  is  small,  and  their  part  in  the  formation  of  the  soils 
insignificant. 

SOUTHERN  DIVISION. — The  cretaceous  and  tertiary  rocks  which  underlie  this 
whole  division  are  approximately  horizontal  in  stratification,  but  have  a  slight  dip 
toward  the  south  and  southwest.  With  the  exception  of  part  of  the  prairies,  the 
whole  area  is  covered  with  beds  of  drifted  material  which  have  been  deposited 
upon  an  eroded  surface  of  the  older  rocks.  The  drift-beds  are,  as  a  rule,  very 
irregularly  stratified. 

It  may  thus  be  inferred  that  the  minor  details  of  surface  configuration  and 
the  soils  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  independent  of  the  underlying  older  rocks,  and 
are  in  great  measure  determined  by  these  drifted  materials.  In  these  respects  this 
division  differs  from  the  two  preceding  ones.  But  while  it  depends  to  so  great  an 
extent  for  its  soils  and  topography  upon  a  single  formation,  there  is  not  in  these 
the  great  monotony  that  might  be  looked  for  on  this  account.  The  drift  itself  is 
composed  of  materials  which  offer  varying  degrees  of  resistance  to  denudation, 
and  considerable  inequalities  of  surface  result  from  this  circumstance.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  the  older  rocks  had  been  greatly  eroded  before  they  were  covered  by 
the  drift,  so  that  the  general  contour  of  the  country,  as  well  as  many  of  the  most 
prominent  topographical  features  in  this  division,  are  quite  independent  of  the 
superficial  drift-coating  which  determines  so  many  of  the  minor  details. 

The  low  trough  of  the  Prairie  Region,  the  rugged  hills  of  the  buhr-stone  and 
the  gently  undulating  surface  of  the  Southern  Pine  Belt  were  features  of  the 
landscape  before  the  deposition  of  the  drift;  and  similarly  with  the  soils  the  drift 
itself  yields  a  number  of  varieties,  which  are  still  further  increased  by  the  modifi- 
cations brought  about  by  their  intermixture  with  the  disintegrated  portions  of  the 
underlying  country  rocks.  These  rocks  are  referred  to  two  principal  formations, 
the  cretaceous  and  the  tertiary. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  surface  of  the  Southern  Division  has  a  general  slope 
from  the  margin  of  the  two  divisions  just  described,  outward — i.  e.,  west  and 


236  ALABAMA. 

south  toward  the  Mississippi  basin  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  general  slope 
is  interrupted  by  the  trough  of  the  Central  Prairie  Region,  which  is  depressed 
many  foet  below  the  general  level  both  north  and  south  of  it,  and  also  on  a  limited 
scale  by  the  trough  of  the  flatwoods.  South  of  the  Prairie  Belt  there  is  a  line  of 
rocky  hills  made  by  the  hard  sandstones  and  clay  stones  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
tertiary  formation,  beyond  which,  toward  the  south,  the  countiy  falls  away  very 
gradually  and  uniformly  to  the  coast. 

AGRICULTURAL  FEATURES. 

So  much  has  been  said  about  Alabama  as  an  iron  and  coal-producing  State, 
that  its  agricultural  interests  have,  in  a  measure,  been  lost  sight  of.  The  State 
possesses  many  attractions  for  the  farmer  and  stock-raiser.  The  soil  is,  of  course, 
like  that  of  all  other  sections,  diversified.  There  are  mountain  ridges  of  sandy, 
flinty  land  useless  for  cultivation,  but  the  land  in  the  main  will  compare  favorably 
with  that  of  any  other  State,  and  in  some  sections  the  soil  is  remarkably  produc- 
tive. The  lands  are  cheap,  but  are  increasing  in  value.  The  rapid  development 
of  the  industrial  interests  of  the  State,  and  the  increase  in  the  manufacturing 
population,  furnish  a  growing  market  for  agricultural  products  The  furnishing 
of  farm  supplies  to  the  new  manufacturing  towns,  such  as  Anniston,  Birmingham 
and  others,  offers  an  inviting  field  to  the  agriculturist.  Cotton  is  a  staple  crop. 
The  State  in  1880  was  fourth  in  the  list  of  Cotton  States,  producing  699, (554  bales. 
Com,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  etc.,  are  raised,  and  are  receiving  more  attention  than 
formerly.  A  surprising  increase  has  been  made  in  the  last  few  years  in  the  quan- 
tity of  oats  raised.  According  to  the  statistics  of  the  United  States  Agricultural 
Department,  there  were  raised  in  Alabama  in  1875  840,000  bushels  of  oats,  while 
in  1884  the  yield  reached  5,015,000  bushels.  The  yield  of  corn  in  1875  was 
24,500,000  bushels,  and  in  1884  30,197,000— an  increase  of  nearly  25  per  cent. 
There  are  areas  of  splendid  grass-producing  lands,  and  in  common  with  other 
Southern  States,  Alabama  is  beginning  to  give  attention  to  this  important  interest. 
The  following  from  "  A  Physical  Survey  of  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi," 
by  Messrs.  Campbell  &  Ruffner,  will  be  of  interest : 

"  The  usual  standard  authorities  deny  the  practicability  of  establishing  a 
permanent  dense  sod  in  the  Southern  States,  except  in  rare  spots  where  the 
ground  is  moist  and  shaded.  Mr.  C.  L.  Flint  goes  so  far  as  to  doubt  the  practica- 
bility of  forming  a  close  turf  south  of  the  latitude  of  Baltimore,  forgetting 
Kentucky  and  the  Valley  of  Virginia,  where  there  are  areas  of  sod  equal  to  the 
best  in  England.  We  also  found  at  Greenville,  Winona,  Starkeville  and  other 
points  in  Mississippi  a  grass  sod  which,  for  density  and  freedom  from  foreign 
growth,  we  have  never  seen  surpassed.  At  all  these  places  Bermuda  grass  consti- 
tuted the  principal  sod.  The  point  to  be  regarded  in  the  South  is  the  selection  of 
grasses  adapted  to  that  section,  not  to  States  farther  north.  Mr.  Charles  Mohr,  of 
Mobile,  a  most  competent  observer,  publishes  the  statement  that  he  has  himself 
collected  in  South  and  Middle  Alabama  182  species,  belonging  to  53  genera,  of 
native  grasses.  He  includes  in  the  list  the  Bermuda  and  a  few  other  imported 
grasses  which  have  become  naturalized.  This  Bermuda  grass  was  an  immense 
acquisition.  It  grows  anywhere;  bears  any  amount  of  drought  and  close  pastur- 
ing; is  very  sweet  and  nutritious  when  young;  contains  14  per  cent,  of  albumi- 
noids, according  to  Dr.  Raveuel's  analysis;  and  on  rich  lands  is  reported  to  yield 
more  bay  than  does  timothy.  The  Bermuda  grass  will  take  fast  hold  in  the  most 
hopeless-looking  gullies  arid  in  barren  sands  where  no  other  grass  will  grow,  and 
once  lodged  it  holds  on  and  spreads,  even  under  hard  pasturing.  The  Lespedeza 
is  its  only  rival  for  possession  of  the  soil. 

"  The  Kentucky  blue-grass  will  cohabit  with  the  Bermuda,  and  grows  in  the 
winter  while  the  Bermuda  is  dormant.  Lespedeza,  orchard  grass,  Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  timothy  and  the  panic-grasses  do  well,  except  when  mowed  or  pastured 
closely  in  summer,  in  which  event  most  of  them  are  in  danger  of  perishing. 
The  Johnson  grass  is  a  prodigious  grower,  is  perennial,  and  for  all  purposes  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  profitable  grass.  The  indications  are  that  Georgia,  Alabama 
and  Mississippi  can  produce  more  good  hay  per  acre  than  any  Northern  States  of 


ALABAMA.  237 

the  same  area ;  perhaps  twice  as  much.  The  mild  winters  and  wet  springs,  and 
the  greater  size  of  some  of  the  Southern  grasses,  such  as  the  Johnson,  Guinea, 
Gamma,  Lucerne,  Munro,  etc.,  render  this  probable. 

"  The  Lucerne,  which  does  not  succeed  well  in  the  Northern  States  or  even 
in  England,  flourishes  in  these  States,  and,  when  sown  on  suitably  prepared  land, 
it  defies  drought.  It  thrives  under  the  Southern  sun  here  as  it  does  in  France 
and  Italy.  Each  acre  may  be  expected  to  yield  five  tons  of  hay  in  a  season.  The 
Gamma  is  another  grass  which  grows  with  great  luxuriance.  The  seed  stock 
grows  five  to  seven  feet  in  height,  and  the  leaves  furnish  an  enormous  quantity  of 
palatable  forage  as  nutritious  as  corn  fodder.  The  crab-grass  is  a  true  summer 
grass  which  grows  spontaneously  in  the  cultivated  fields  and  comes  in  when  most 
needed. 

"  Dr.  Phares  gives  an  account  of  a  grass  (Panicum  agrostoides]  locally  called 
Munro  grass  which  is  thought  capable  of  yielding  15  tons  of  hay  in  a  season. 
Mr.  Munro,  for  whom  it  was  named,  reports  a  product  of  23,870  pounds  hay  per 
acre  in  one  season  on  his  own  land.  It  is  not  so  vigorous  farther  north. 

"  Clover,  millet,  timothy  and  other  standard  grasses  may  all  be  grown  in  this 
region. 

"  The  native  grasses,  which  constitute  the  principal  winter  pasturage,  far 
more  than  compensate  for  the  suffering  of  the  other  grasses  in  summer.  They 
may  be  so  managed  as  to  afford  good  pasture  at  all  seasons,  and  to  render  neces- 
sary only  a  small  provision  of  dry  forage  for  winter  use,  thus  giving  to  these 
States  an  immense  advantage  over  those  farther  north.  Mr.  C.  M.  Howard  says, 
in  his  book  on  "  Grasses,"  that  he  has  sold  fat  Ayrshire  cattle  which  had  never 
had  a  mouthful  of  feed  except  what  they  gathered  for  themselves  in  the  fields. 

"The  hay  crop  has  proved  exceedingly  profitable  to  the  few  who  have 
engaged  in  it,  and  the  yield  has  never  been  surpassed." 

Stock  raising  is  an  industry  that  is  coming  into  prominence.  The  State  has 
some  advantages  that  give  to  this  interest  large  possibilities.  The  increase  in  the 
number  of  farm  animals  in  the  last  ten  years  is  shown  by  the  following  figures 
from  the  Agricultural  Department  of  the  United  States : 

1875.  1885.  INCREASE. 

Sheep ,... 185,900  343»925  158,025 

Hogs 755.900  1,351,752  595,852 

Milch  cows 168,200  282,465  114,265 

Oxen  and  other  cattle 327,300  432,090  104,790 

Horses 104,400  120,924  16,524 

Mules 101,400  131,038  29,638 

Total 1,643,100  2,662,194  1,019,094 

A  gratifying  feature  is  the  fact  that  while  the  number  of  animals  has  been 
increased,  the  breeds  have  also  been  improved.  The  State  has  now  many  fine 
stock  farms,  and  the  finest  breeds  of  sheep,  hogs  and  cattle  are  raised. 

The  raising  of  vegetables  and  fruits  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  and 
promising  of  the  agricultural  industries  of  the  State,  and  is  assuming  very  large 
proportions.  The  field  is  unlimited  and  the  profits  are  large.  All  ordinary 
varieties  of  fruits  are  grown  in  abundance,  and  the  quality  cannot  be  surpassed. 
Oranges  and  some  other  tropical  fruits  are  raised  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
State.  These,  however,  will  be  referred  to  more  specifically  later  on. 

SOIL  AND  PRODUCTIONS. 

MIDDLE  DIVISION. — 1.  The  Metamorphic  Region — At  the  surface  a  loam  with 
not  much  appearance  of  stratification  overlies  the  decayed  slates  to  the  depth  of 
several  feet  in  valleys,  but  much  less  along  the  slopes  and  on  the  summits.  This 
loam  forms  the  soils  and  subsoils,  which  are  thus  seen  to  be  in  most  cases  directly 
related  to  the  underlying  beds. 

The  two  principal  soil  varieties  commonly  recognized  by  the  farmers  are 
those  which  make  the  gray  and  the  red  lands  respectively.  Of  each  of  these, 
however,  there  are  numerous  sub-varieties,  exhibiting  all  grades  of  color  and  of 
fertility.  The  gray  lands  may  be  derived  from  feldspathic  rocks,  such  as  granite 
and  gneiss,  in  which  case  they  are  often  quite  fertile,  or  from  siliceous  mica  slates. 


238  ALABAMA. 

or  other  quartzose  rocks,  when  they  may  be  almost  barren.  Similarly,  the  red 
lands,  when  derived  from  feldspathic  rocks,  such  as  hornblendic  gneiss,  etc.,  rank 
high  in  productiveness,  while  those  resulting  from  the  decay  of  certain  mica  or 
clay  slates,  bearing  garnets  or  other  ferruginous  minerals,  frequently  lie  at  the 
other  extreme. 

Of  the  true  gray  granitic  (feldspathic)  soils  there  is  only  a  limited  area  in  this 
State,  but  a  belt  of  this  kind  of  land  passes  through  Rockford  and  Bradford,  in 
Coosa  County.  It  is  seen  again  near  Blake's  Ferry,  in  Randolph,  and  near  Louina, 
in  the  same  county ;  then  near  Milltown,  in  Chambers  County.  Indeed,  the 
granite  itself,  so  far  as  it  has  yet  been  observed,  passes  everywhere,  by  insensible 
gradations,  into  a  schistose  or  stratified  rock,  or  into  gneiss,  and  thus  our  granitic 
soils  might  more  properly  be  classed  as  gneissic  throughout. 

Of  the  two  principal  soil  varieties  above  named,  that  of  the  red  lands  is 
derived  from  the  decomposed  hornblendic  gneisses  and  slates,  which  in  many 
places,  where  exposed  in  washes  or  gullies,  are  seen  to  be  merely  stratified  clays, 
containing  fragments  more  or  less  angular  of  the  quartz  veins  or  seams,  which  are 
nearly  always  interbedded  with  the  other  rocks  of  this  region.  This  red  soil  (the 
color  of  which  comes  from  the  iron  of  the  hornblende)  is  considered  best  adapted 
to  the  production  of  corn  and  other  grains.  Its  natural  growth  consists  of  the 
various  species  of  oaks  (white,  post,  Spanish,  red,  and  a  few  black-jacks,)  hickory, 
poplar,  and  some  short-leaf  pine,  especially  where  the  red  and  gray  soils  overlap, 
making  mulatto-colored  soils.  The  top  stratum  of  this  soil,  from  2  to  3  inches  in 
depth,  is  often  a  dark  chocolate-brown  color,  but  below  it  becomes  a  brighter  red, 
and  at  varying  depths,  from  10  to  15  feet,  becomes  a  yellowish  hard  clay.  Where 
the  freshly  decomposed  rocks  are  seen  the  color  is  yellowish  rather  than  red,  the 
latter  color  being  darker  and  more  intense  apparently  the  further  removed  the 
soil  is  from  its  original  position  and  the  more  it  is  affected  by  the  decay  of  the 
vegetable  matter.  When  first  cleared,  these  lands  were  thought  to  be  the  best  in 
the  country,  and  many  fine  farms  are  still  found  upon  them.  The  majority  of  the 
farmers,  now,  however,  seem  to  prefer  the  gray  soil,  as  being  more  certain,  more 
easily  tilled,  and  even  more  fertile.  The  red*  lauds  were  the  first  to  be  cleared  up 
by  the  original  settlers,  and  most  of  the  older  farms  and  fine  old  country  residen- 
ces are  upon  this  kind  of  land. 

The  gray  soils  result  from  the  disintegration  of  gneisses  and  mica  slates  wrhich 
contain  comparatively  little  or  no  hornblende  or  other  iron-bearing  minerals. 
They  are  commonly  somewhat  sandy,  usually  light-colored,  gray  to  dark  gray, 
sometimes  nearly  black,  with  very  often,  however,  a  decidedly  reddish  color 
similar  to  that  of  the  hornblendic  soils  above  described.  These  gray  soils  are 
easily  tilled,  are  certain  of  crop  even  with  moderately  favorable  seasons,  and  are 
better  suited  than  the  red  to  the  culture  of  cotton.  Below  some  three  or  four 
inches  of  dark  gray  sandy  top  soil  there  is  usually  a  lighter  colored  but  somewhat 
yellowish  subsoil.  The  timber  is  much  the  same  as  that  upon  the  red  lands,  viz : 
oaks  and  hickory,  with  a  few  short-leaf  pines. 

Of  these  two  soils,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  insoluble  matter,  the  gray 
is  decidedly  better  in  respect  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  lime,  and  is  probably 
more  thrifty.  The  red  soil  is  rather  deficient  in  lime,  but  in  retentiveness  of 
moisture  it  is  superior  to  the  other.  Both  are  fairly  good  soils. 

Cotton,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  etc  ,  are  the  chief  crops  of  this  region.  There  are 
localities  where  fine  pasturage  is  afforded. 

2.  Region  of  the  Coosa  and  Outlying  Valleys. — Classified  according  to  color 
and  general  physical  characters,  the  soils  occuring  in  these  valleys  are  either  red 
or  brown  loams  derived  from  the  pure  calcareous  formations,  or  lighter  colored  to 
gray  siliceous  soils,  usually  filled  with  angular,  flinty  gravel,  and  resting  on  a 


ALABAMA  239 

yellowish  clayey  subsoil  derived  from  cherty  limestones  of  the  dolomite  and  of 
the  sub-carboniferous;  or  the  light  sandy  loams  which  result  from  the  disintegra- 
tion of  sandstones  such  as  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  Potsdam  proper,  the 
upper  sandstone  and  the  Coal  Measures. 

Some  of  the  best  farming  lands  in  the  State  are  in  these  valleys  in  Cherokee, 
Calhoun  and  Talladega  Counties  and  elsewhere.  The  yield  of  cotton  is  large; 
corn  and  wheat  produce  heavy  crops,  and  all  the  products  of  the  farm  can  be 
profitably  cultivated.  A  strip  through  Talladega  and  Calhoun  Counties  in  the 
Coosa  Valley  is  one  of  the  best  cotton-producing  sections  in  the  State — the  other 
two  areas  of  largest  production  being  the  Tennessee  Valley,  and  the  "  Cotton 
Belt "  in  the  Southern  Division.  The  latter  produces  over  half  the  cotton  raised 
in  the  State.  There  are  some  fine  grazing  lands  in  this  region,  and  increased 
attention  is  being  given  to  stock  raising. 

NORTHERN  DIVISION. — The  lands  of  this  division,  in  their  general  character- 
istics, resemble  those  of  the  Middle  Division.  In  the  Valley  of  the  Tennessee 
there  are  soils  exceedingly  fertile  and  capable  of  producing  a  great  variety  of 
crops.  The  yields  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  etc.,  are  large.  One  of  the  three  principal 
cotton-producing  areas  in  the  State  is  in  this  division — the  Tennessee  Valley. 
The  valley  lands  are  nearly  level  or  gently  undulating,  but  in  the  gaps  between 
the  mountain  spurs  the  surface  is  more  broken.  On  account  of  the  fertile  nature 
of  the  soil,  most  of  these  lands  are  cleared  and  under  cultivation. 

SOUTHERN  DIVISION. — This  includes  all  that  portion  of  the  State  south  and 
west  of  the  Middle  and  Northern  Divisions — about  three-fifths  of  the  whole  area. 
The  northern  part  of  this  division,  which  embraces  the  northwestern  counties  of 
the  State,  partakes  largely  of  the  character  of  the  Middle  and  Northern  Divisions. 
The  lands  are  well  adapted  to  cotton  and  corn,  and  produce  also  good  crops  of 
the  usual  farm  products.  Oats  and  potatoes  are  raised  in  considerable  quantities. 
There  are  some  high  table-lands  that  furnish  superior  farming  lands,  desirable 
on  account  both  of  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  and  of  their  favorable  position 
with  respect  to  drainage,  etc.  The  " Cotton  Belt"  of  the  State  is  included  in  this 
division,  and  embraces  parts  of  the  following  counties :  Pickens,  Green,  Sumter, 
Marengo,  Hale,  Perry,  Dallas,  Autaga,  Lowndes,  Montgomery,  Macon,  Bullock, 
Russell  and  Barbour.  The  width  of  this  belt  across  the  State  is  about  75  miles. 
It  includes  what  is  known  as  the  Prairie  Region,  a  belt  running  somewhat  diago- 
nally across  the  State,  having  a  width  of  some  30  miles  near  the  Mississippi  line, 
but  narrowing  dowrn  toward  the  east,  and  almost  disappearing  in  Russell  County, 
on  the  eastern  border  of  the  State.  While  under  this  name  are  included  all  those 
parts  of  Central  Alabama  where  the  prairies  occur,  only  a  part,  and  not  the 
largest  part,  of  the  area  is  of  the  genuine  prairie  character.  As  here  used,  the 
term  "  prairie  "  does  not  always  mean  a  timberless  region,  but  refers  rather  to  the 
character  of  the  soil,  which  is  black  or  dark  gray  in  color — a  stiff  soil  of  exceed- 
ing fertility  and  lasting  productiveness.  Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  cotton  produced 
in  the  State  is  raised  in  this  Cotton  Belt. 

Truck  farming  is  an  industry  of  great  and  growing  importance.  In  the 
extreme  southern  part  of  the  State,  more  especially  the  territory  contiguous  to 
Mobile,  this  business  is  rapidly  developing.  The  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  Mobile  is 
mostly  a  sandy  loam  with  a  clay  subsoil.  Naturally  the  lands  are  not  rich,  but 
with  the  use  of  fertilizers  they  produce  surprising  yields.  Cabbages,  tomatoes, 
potatoes,  peas  and  strawberries  are  the  principal  crops.  The  transportation 
facilities  are  such  as  to  furnish  rapid  shipment  to  Northern  and  Western  cities, 
which  will  afford  a  market  for  all  that  can  be  raised.  Coming  into  market  very 
early  in  the  season,  the  prices  realized  yield  enormous  profits.  Considerable  atten- 
tion is  being  given  to  the  growing  of  peaches — a  fruit  said  to  be  as  profitable  as 


240  ALABAMA. 

the  orange.  The  southern  and  central  portions  of  the  State  are  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  peach.  The  fruit  raised  here  has  a  delicious  flavor,  and  coming  to  maturity 
so  much  earlier  than  the  peaches  grown  in  Maryland  and  Delaware,  they  bring 
much  higher  prices.  The  Le  Conte  pear  does  well  in  Alabama.  Fortunes  have 
been  made  in  Southern  Georgia  raising  this  fruit,  and  it  may  be  as  profitably 
cultivated  in  the  lower  counties  of  Alabama.  Oranges  are  grown  largely  in 
Mobile  and  Baldwin  Counties.  With  care  they  may  be  cultivated  successfully 
and  profitably,  but  they  are  not  as  safe  as  fruits  less  susceptible  to  frost,  though 
there  are  some  fine  groves  yielding  handsome  incomes.  Figs  are  extensively 
grown.  They  require  little  cultivation  and  produce  large  yields. 

MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

The  principal  minerals  are  iron  ore,  coal,  gold,  copper,  manganese,  mica, 
asbestos,  corundum,  graphite,  limestone,  granite,  marble.  None  of  these  receive 
very  marked  attention  except  coal  and  iron  ore.  These  have  only  been  mined  to 
any  extent  within  the  last  few  years,  but  within  that  time  the  business  has  grown 
to  enormous  proportions. 


Not  only  is  the  quantity  of  easily  and  cheaply-mined  coal  in  Alabama  such  as 
to  render  the  supply  practically  inexhaustible,  but  the  quality  of  a  large  portion 
of  it  is  unsurpassed.  In  Williams'  "  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,"  an 
official  publication  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  it  is  said  of  some  Alabama 
coal  that  it  is  "  superior  to  any  coal  in  the  United  States  as  a  grate  coal,  and  fully 
equal  to  English  cannel  coal."  While  the  wonderful  increase  in  the  amount  of 
coal  mined  in  Alabama  is  in  part  due  to  the  increasing  general  demand  for  it,  the 
main  cause  has  been  the  erection  of  a  large  number  of  pig-iron  furnaces  in  which 
coal  is  used.  A  very  large  part  of  the  coal  now  mined  in  Alabama  is  made  into 
coke  for  use  in  these  furnaces,  and  the  increase  in  the  number  of  furnaces  shortly 
to  be  made  by  the  erection  of  half  a  dozen  or  so  new  ones  will  necessitate  a  large 
increase  in  coal  production.  In  1870  Alabama  mined  only  11,000  tons  of  coal, 
and  in  1880  the  output  reached  only  340,000  tons.  It  is  since  the  latter  year  that 
the  mining  interests  of  Alabama  have  shown  such  rapid  progress  —  the  amount  of 
coal  mined  in  1883  reaching  1,000,000  tons,  which  in  1884  was  doubled,  the  yield 
for  that  year  being  2,000,000  tons.  The  production  of  coal  in  Alabama,  according 
to  Saward's  "  The  Coal  Trade,"  a  standard  authority,  has  been  as  follows  : 

TONS.  TONS. 

1874  ...........................  40,889  l88o  ...........................        340,000 

1875  ...........................        75,8o6  1881  ..........................      400,000 

1876  ...........................    102,640          1882  ...........................   800,000 

1877  ...........................   172,182        1883  ..........................  1,000,000 

1878  ...........................    194,268  1884  ...........................  2,000,000 

1879  ...........................    290,000 

Mr.  R.  P.  Porter,  a  member  of  the  late  United  States  Taritf  Commission,  after 
a  personal  examination  of  the  coal  interests  of  Alabama,  predicts  that  in  ten  years 
that  State  will  be  mining  coal  at  the  rate  of  10,000,000  tons  a  year,  and  in  view  of 
what  has  already  been  done,  this  does  not  appear  by  any  means  improbable.  The 
increase  in  iron  making  in  Alabama  in  the  next  few  years  will  necessitate  a 
corresponding  increase  in  coal  production.  Moreover,  aside  from  the  furnace 
consumption,  there  is  a  steadily  increasing  demand  for  Alabama  coal  for  general 
use,  large  quantities  of  it  going  to  New  Orleans,  Galveston  and  elsewhere.  The 
efforts  to  make  Mobile  a  great  coal  port  for  shipping  Alabama  coal  to  foreign 
markets  as  well  as  to  coastwise  ports  will  no  doubt  be  successful  in  the  near 
future,  and  thus  another  opening  will  be  made  for  the  extension  of  the  demand 
for  this  coal. 

The  following  is  from  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  The  Coal  Fields  of  Alabama,"  by 
Gen  J.  W.  Burke,  of  Mobile: 


ALABAMA.  241 

"The  productive  area  of  the  coal  fields  of  Alabama  is  estimated  at  5,350 
square  miles.  Of  this  the  Coosa  field  has  150,  the  Gahaba  200,  and  the  Warrior 
5,000  square  miles.  These  divisions  take  their  names  from  the  respective  rivers  — 
Warrior,  Cahaba  and  Coosa,  which  flow  through  them.  From  these  streams 
branch  out  in  all  directions  innumerable  creeks,  subdividing  the  Coal  Measures, 
and  affording,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  Warrior,  many  miles  of  deep  water 
nine  months  in  the  year,  thus  enabling  the  coal  to  be  mined  far  up  in  the  interior 
and  floated  to  the  main  stream.  Human  skill  could  not  have  devised  a  more 
perfect  system  of  internal  canals  or  auxiliary  watercourses  than  nature  has  pro- 
vided on  the  Warrior.  Branching  off  in  all  directions,  those  creeks  cut  their  way 
through  the  Measures,  and  in  many  cases  flow  over  solid  beds  of  coal.  During 
the  summer  months  this  river  is  not  navigable  above  Tuscaloosa.  In  fact,  it  is 
almost  at  the  very  verge  of  the  Coal  Measures  in  Tuscaloosa  that  the  obstructions 
to  navigation  commence,  caused  by  the  structure  of  the  Coal  Measures  themselves. 
'At  this  point  the  river  changes  its  entire  character,  forming  during  low  water  a 
series  of  lakes  and  falls  over  rocky  ledges  which  completely  impede  navigation.' 
In  very  high  stages  of  the  Warrior,  and  before  the  construction  of  railroads, 
flatboats  were  successfully  carried  to  Mobile,  but  the  dangerous  passage  over  -the 
shoals  and  the  losses  incurred  caused  the  ultimate  abandonment  of  that  means  of 
transportation,  and  at  the  present  time  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  Warrior 
Country  is  carried  from  30  to  45  miles  to  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  Railroad  at 
Birmingham,  and  the  business  of  conveying  coal  by  river  entirely  suspended. 

"The  great  apparent  fact  connected  with  these  Alabama  coal  fields  is  that, 
taking  into  consideration  their  geographical  position,  their  physical  characteristics, 
the  superior  quality  of  their  product,  and  the  cheapness  with  which  they  may  be 
mined  and  transported,  they  constitute  the  only  source  of  supply  in  the  entire 
world  which  can  successfully  compete  with  British  coal  in  the  gulf,  West  Indies, 
South  America,  and,  on  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal,  on  the  entire 
Pacific  coast."  IRON 


Under  this  head  I  cannot  do  better  than  quote  the  following  on  the  "  Iron 
Ore  and  Limestone  Regions  "  from  "A  Physical  Survey  in  Georgia,  Alabama  and 
Mississippi,"  by  Messrs.  John  L.  Campbell,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Geology 
in  the  Washington  and  Lee  University,  Lexington,  Va.,  and  W.  H.  Ruffner,  an 
eminent  geologist  of  Lexington,  Va.: 

"1.  THE  ARCELEAN  REGION,  extending  from  Atlanta,  Ga.,  to  the  margin  of 
Choccolocco  Valley,  in  Alabama,  is  that  in  which  the  specular  and  magnetic  ores 
are  most  commonly  found. 

"Pyrite  is  found  in  large  quantities  among  the  metamorphic  rocks. 

"2.  CHOCCOLOCCO  VALLEY  claims  attention  as  a  distinct  ore  region.  It  is 
traversed  by  Choccolocco  Creek,  and  is  bounded  on  the  southeast  by  the  meta- 
morphic ridge  to  which  Prof.  Tuomey,  in  his  second  report,  gave  the  name 
'Choccolocco  Mountain'  —  a  prolongation  of  the  Blue  Ridge  of  Virginia,  and  on 
the  northwest  by  the  Ladiga  range,  which  separates  it  from  the  little  valley  in 
which  Anniston  is  situated.  The  Georgia  Pacific  Railway  enters  Choccolocco 
Valley  at  the  western  terminus  of  the  Davisville  Tunnel,  86  miles  wrest  of  Atlanta. 
The  valley  is  here  about  three  or  four  miles  wide,  and  is  underlaid  by  limestones, 
slates  and  sandstones  of  Lower  Silurian  age.  The  railway  traverses  this  valley  from 
the  tunnel  somewhat  obliquely,  but  approximately  parallel  with  the  creek  for  12 
miles,  and  emerges  from  it  near  Oxford,  where  it  passes  into  the  Anniston  Valley. 

"  The  geological  structure  of  Choccolocco  Valley  is  somewhat  peculiar,  but  is 
most  favorable  for  bringing  its  ores  within  reach  of  the  miner.  The  ores  of  this 
valley  are  exceedingly  rich  and  abundant,  but  have  hitherto  lain  untouched  in 
their  original  beds  for  want  of  the  transportation  and  capital  necessaiy  for  their 
utilization.  The  comparative  ease  with  which  they  can  be  mined  ;  their  proximity 
to  good  furnace  sites  along  Choccolocco  Creek,  which  furnishes  ample  supplies 
of  water  at  all  seasons  ;  the  abundance  of  limestones  near  at  hand  ;  the  presence 
of  extensive  forests  that  can  be  utilized  for  making  charcoal,  and  the  facilities  for 
transporting  coal,  which  are  now  assured,  all  contribute  to  make  this  a  most 
attractive  region  for  those  who  have  capital  and  enterprise  to  invest  in  the  manu- 
facture of  iron. 

"  Limestone.  —  The  limestones  of  Choccolocco  Valley  are  exposed  to  view  at 
many  points  along  the  streams.  The  blue  variety  of  good  quality  has  been 
quarried  for  lime  a  short  distance  northwest  of  White  Plains.  Then  again,  near 
the  point  at  which  the  railway  crosses  Choccolocco  Creek,  we  examined  a  bed  of 


242  ALABAMA. 

grayish-blue  stone  of  fine  appearance.  The  same  rock  is  found  at  many  other  points 
along  the  valley.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  it  exists  here  in  abundance — a 
large  proportion  of  it  sufficiently  pure  to  be  employed  as  flux  in  blast  furnaces. 

"  3.  ANNISTON  VALLEY,  a  branch  of  the  great  Silurian  Valley  of  the  Coosa, 
introduces  us  to  another  extensive  ore  region.  Anniston,  where  the  "Woodstock 
Company's  furnaces  are  in  active  operation  in  the  manufacture  of  charcoal  iron, 
is  at  the  junction  of  the  Georgia  Pacific  Railway  with  the  Selma,  Rome  and 
Dalton  Railroad. 

"  The  region  near  Anniston  is  among  the  best  ore  fields  in  Alabama.  The 
ores  that  supply  the  furnaces  are  mined  on  a  large  scale  on  both  sides  of  the 
valley.  In  some  places  they  occur  in  boulders  and  fragments  of  every  size,  from 
those  weighing  several  tons  to  others  no  larger  than  a  pea,  and  are  mingled  with 
clay,  sand  and  water-worn  pebbles  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  that  they  have 
been  subjected  to  the  action  of  quarternary  drift.  They  appear,  however,  to  have 
been  moved  but  a  short  distance  from  their  original  bedding,  as  is  inferred  from 
their  geological  origin  and  the  fact  that  they  are  but  little  water- worn,  while  the 
well-rounded  boulders  and  pebbles  of  hard  sandstone  have  evidently  been  brought 
from  more  distant  points.  At  other  places  the  ore  beds  are  'in  situ?  as  illustrated 
by  Allen's  Mine,  on  land  adjoining  the  Woodstock  property,  where  the  ore  is 
imbedded  in  shale,  apparently  of  the  Quebec  epoch. 

"The  Pine  Grove  ore  bank,  two  miles  west  of  Anniston,  is  at  present  worked 
on  quite  a  large  scale  for  consumption  in  the  Woodstock  Company's  furnaces. 
The  mining  here  is  comparatively  easy  and  inexpensive.  The  deposit  of  ore 
along  the  flank  of  the  ridge  has  been  traced  for  several  miles,  thus  indicating  a 
very  large  quantity. 

"This  belt  of  iron-bearing  strata  has  some  interesting  developments  at  points 
northeast  of  Anniston  and  near  the  line  of  the  Selma,  Rome  and  Daltoii  Railroad. 
For  example,  on  lands  near  Weaver's  Station  we  found  some  openings  of  limonite 
in  the  Quebec  shales,  and  near  the  crest  of  the  same  ridge  mining  has  been  done 
to  some  extent,  but  evidently  in  an  older  geological  formation  than  that  near  the 
base  of  the  ridge — most  probably  in  calciferous  strata;  possibly  in  upper  primor- 
dial. All  these  promise  good  results  from  future  mining. 

"Associated  with  these  lowest  ores  is  a  bed  of  manganese  ore,  the  extent  of 
which  has  not  been  determined,  but  it  is  in  the  same  range  as  the  manganiferous 
ores  successfully  tested  at  Woodstock  Furnace  in  making  Spiegeleisen. 

"Southwest  of  Oxford — in  fact,  within  the  limits  of  the  town — the  Anniston 
and  Choccolopco  ore  belts  coalesce  and  extend  into  Talladega  County,  where  they 
furnish  ample  supplies  of  material  for  the  Alabama  Furnace,  which  is  now  making 
charcoal  iron  of  good  quality. 

"  The  following  analyses  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  quality  of  the  ores  of  this 
region.  They  are  from  banks  a  few  miles  southeast  of  Alabama  Furnace,  and  will 
serve  as  general  types  of  the  limonite  ores  of  this  extensive  belt : 

ANALYSES  OF  LIMONITE  ORES. 

PERCENTAGE   COMPOSITION.  NO.   I.  NO.  2. 

Combined  water 1 1 . 86  1 1 . 52 

Silicious  matter 7-58  11.71 

Ferric  oxide 77-54  68 . 93 

Alumina 2.07  3-59 

Manganese  oxide 3.77 

Lime 0.07  o.  10 

Magnesia 0.63  0.05 

Phosphoric  acid 0.29  0.13 

Sulphur 

Undetermined  and  loss... 0.59  0.20 

Metallic  iron 58.28  48.25 

Phosphorus 0.13  0.06 

ANALYSES  OP  LIMESTONES. 

"  The  four  geological  formations  to  be  relied  upon  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
best  limestone  available  for  lime  and  for  use  in  furnaces  are  the  Quebec,  Chazy, 
Trenton   and   sub-carboniferous.      The  following   table   represents   analyses  of" 
samples  from  each  of  these  formations :     [From  State  Reports.] 

SUB-CAR- 
PERCENTAGE   COMPOSITION.  QUEBEC.  CHAZY.  TRENTON.          SONIFEROUS. 

Carbonate  of  lime 55-35  86.72  90.60  93-4Q 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 34-58  6.31  6.74  0.32 

Silicious  matter 7.75  5.32  2.13  5.32 

Alumina  and  ferric  oxide 1.48  1.56  0.33  0.79 

Water  and  loss 0.84  0.26  o.n  o.io 


ALABAMA.  243 

"  No.  1  is  a  well-characterized  dole-antic  limestone,  but  has  been  successfully 
Used  for  furnace  flux. 

"  In  going  westward  from  Anniston  towards  the  Coosa  River  we  find  much 
of  the  surface  of  the  country  occupied  by  gravelly  ridges,  the  general  trend  of 
which  is  northeast  and  southwest,  coinciding  with  the  strike  of  the  stratified 
rocks.  These  hills  rest  upon  beds  of  limestone,  as  indicated  by  the  numerous 
round  sinKs  (pot-holes)  found  on  their  surfaces,  and  by  the  many  exposures  of 
limestones  along  the  valleys  eroded  by  the  contiguous  streams.  Along  these 
valleys  and  on  the  adjacent  slopes,  which  have  been  stripped  of  their  cherty 
coverings,  appear  the  rich  red  soils  produced  by  the  disintegration  of  the  under- 
lying ferruginous  shales  and  limestones.  In  these  red  soils  are  seen  many  indica- 
tions of  ore  deposits  similar  to  those  in  the  neighborhood  of  Oxford  and  Anniston. 

"  On  lands  in  Calhoun  County  many  favorable  surface  indications  of  limonite 
ores  are  found.  Then,  farther  west,  in  the  northern  part  of  Talladega  County, 
not  more  than  one  or  two  miles  from  the  line  of  the  Georgia  Pacific  Railway, 
abundant  bloom  of  ore  appears. 

"Farther  south,  but  still  nearer  the  line  of  the  railway,  at  numerous  points 
between  Oxford,  Calhoun  County,  and  Eden,  St.  Clair  County,  evidences  of  exten- 
sive deposits  of  iron  ore  of  Quebec  age  appear,  awaiting  transportation,  capital 
and  enterprise  for  their  development. 

"  Limestone. — The  limestone  for  flux  at  the  "Woodstock  furnaces  is  hauled  four 
or  five  miles  on  wagons  from  a  little  valley  (an  offshoot  of  the  Coosa  Valley) 
which  runs  from  the  neighborhood  of  Weaver's  Station  up  a  small  branch  of 
Cane  CreeK,  between  two  ridges  of  the  Ladiga  range.  The  quarry  is  in  a  mass, 
apparently,  of  Quebec  and  Chazy  limestone  caught  as  a  synclinal  fold  between 
the  two  ridges.  The  beds  are  considerably  metamorphosed,  but  the  position  of 
those  from  which  the  rock  is  quarried  seems  to  put  them  in  the  Chazy  formation, 
thoiiirh  the  fossils  were  too  obscure  to  be  determined. 

The  expensive  hauling  of  this  limestone  for  so  great  a  distance  and  across  a 
ridge  of  considerable  elevation  will  be  rendered  unnecessary  by  the  completion  of 
the  Georgia  Pacific  Railway,  which  traverses  both  the  Silurian  limestones  of  the 
Coosa  Valley  and  the  sub-carboniferous  limestones  of  the  Coosa  and  Cahaba  coal 
fields.  From  these  sources  abundant  supplies  of  fluxing  material  can  be  obtained 
of  excellent  quality  and  at  very  moderate  cost.  One  of  the  best  limestone  areas 
between  Anniston  and  the  Coosa  River  is  the  Valley  of  Blue  Eye  Creek  and  in 
some  of  its  branches.  This  valley  also  affords  some  excellent  sites  for  furnaces, 
with  good  supplies  of  water. 

"^West  of  the  river,  two  miles  from  Coleman's  Ferry,  abundant  bloom  of 
limonite  ore  appears  on  a  cherty  ridge  belonging  to  Mr.  Coleman — ore  apparently 
good,  but  no  beds  opened.  This  ridge  is  geologically  above  the  general  horizon 
of  the  ores  of  this  region.  A  little  farther  west  is  another  deposit  not  far  from 
the  line  of  fault  where  the  Lower  Silurian  limestones  are  brought  up  to  the  level 
of  the  sub-carboniferous  strata,  on  the  eastern,  margin  of  the  Coosa  coal  field. 

"4.  COOSA.  AND  CAHABA  VALLEYS. — The  sub-carboniferous  period  was  iron- 
producing  during  a  portion  at  least  of  its  continuance.  Overlying  the  limestones 
of  this  period  there  is,  in  both  the  Coosa  and  Cahaba  fields,  a  considerable  stratum 
of  chert  and  cherty  sandstone,  in  which  beds  of  limonite  ore  have  been  accumu- 
lated. As  an  example  of  this  we  refer  to  Daughdrille's  Range,  a  short  distance 
north  of  Broken  Arrow  Creek,  in  St.  Clair  County,  the  northwestern  face  of 
which  is  an  outcrop  of  sub-carboniferous  limestone  full  of  characteristic  fossils 
and  estimated  at  about  150  feet  in  thickness.  The  limestone  is  covered  by  a  bed 
of  shale,  and  the  whole  crowned  with  a  thick  stratum  of  crinoidal  chert  and 
cherty  sandstones,  all  dipping,  at  different  points  along  the  ridge,  from  35°  to  45° 
southeast.  The  southeastern  slope  of  the  ridge  is  covered  writh  fragments  of 
chert  and  cherty  sandstones,  mingled  with  floating  limonite  ore,  thousands  of 
tons  of  which  could  be  gathered  up  from  the  surface  within  a  short  distance. 
Daughdrille's  Ridge  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  a  line  of  broken  ridges  extending 
for  a  long  distance  towards  the  Southwest,  and  consisting  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  our  observations  of  beds  of  sub-carboniferous  limestone,  shale  and 
chert,  all  dipping  towards  the  southeast  at  angles  varying  from  30°  to  50°. 

"  Near  Eden  this  limestone  ridge  is  cut  into  several  short  ridges,  one  of  which, 
a  little  way  southwest  of  the  railway  line,  is  strewn  with  abundant  fragments  of 
iron  ore  and  crinoidal  chert,  like  those  of  Daughdrille's  Ridge. 

"Passing  farther  westward  into  the  Valley  of  the  Little  or  East  Cahaba 
River  we  find  an  up-lift  of  Lower  Silurian  limestones,  shales  and  cherts,  forming 
a  valley  (from  two  to  four  miles  wide)  which  separates  the  Coosa  and  Cahaba 


244  ALABAMA. 

coal  fields.  It  is  limited  along  its  northwest  margin  by  a  fault  or  slip  which  has 
brought  the  Silurian  limestones,  etc.,  up  to  the  level  of  the  highest  coal-bearing 
strata  of  the  Cahaba  coal  field,  thus  causing  formations  of  widely  separated  geo- 
logical ages  to  abut  against  each  other,  or,  in  some  places,  making  the  newer  coal 
rocks  apparently  dip  beneath  the  older  limestones. 

"  About  six  miles  south  of  the  point  at  which  the  Georgia  Pacific  Railway 
crosses  the  Little  Cahaba  we  examined  an  extensive  bed  of  limonite  ore  on  the 
southeastern  slope  of  what  is  locally  known  as  Oak  Ridge — a  long  line  of  hills 
(once  a  continuous  ridge)  composed  of  sub-carboniferous  limestone  resting  upon 
the  beds  of  shale  and  sandstone  of  the  Clinton  epoch,  and  overlaid  by  the  same 
crinoidal  chert  so  often  mentioned  as  the  repository  of  limonite  ores.  Here  much 
of  the  cherty  bed  is  really  a  cherty  sandstone.  The  ore  in  it  is  very  massive,  and 
was  opened  and  mined  at  several  points  during  the  war  sufficiently  to  demonstrate 
its  great  abundance. 

"Near  Moody' s  Cross-Roads  the  Quebec  limestones  and  shales  come  to  the 
surface  and  give  evidence  of  carrying  considerable  quantities  of  iron  ore. 

"Limestones. — The  iron  ores  that  border  the  coal  fields  not  only  have  an 
abundant  supply  of  fuel  near  at  hand,  but  have  also,  within  a  stone's  cast  of 
them,  limestones  in  great  abundance,  and  of  quality  well  suited  for  furnace  flux. 
The  Chazy,  Trenton  and  upper  sub-carboniferous  limestones  are  the  purest  in  this 
region,  and  are  therefore  the  best  for  use  in  the  furnace.  The  Chazy  and  Trenton 
lie  along  the  public  highway  and  on  several  of  the  cross-roads  within  convenient 
distance  of  the  railway  for  several  miles  as  it  traverses  the  valley.  The  line  of 
sub-carboniferous  ridges  along  the  eastern  side  will  furnish  an  indefinite  quantity 
of  stone  similar  to  that  which  is  now  quarried  near  Trussville  and  used  in  some 
of  the  Birmingham  furnaces. 

"5.  THE  BIRMINGHAM  VALLEY. — The  Silurian  valley  in  which  Birmingham 
is  located,  and  the  Red  Mountain  ridges  which  border  it  in  part  on  both  sides, 
have  been  already  referred  to  as  constituting  one  of  the  great  ore  fields  of  Ala- 
bama, and  as  embracing  two  of  the  geological  formations  noted  for  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  ores  they  yield.  (1.)  The  lower  shales  and  limestones  of  the 
valley  are  of  the  same  epoch  as  those  from  which  the  ores  for  the  Woodstock  and 
Alabama  Furnaces  are  obtained,  and  carry  with  them  at  many  points  the  same 
grade  of  ores.  (2.)  The  other  ore-producing  formation  belongs  to  the  Clinton 
epoch,  and  characterizes  the  celebrated  Red  Mountain.  It  is  noted  as  the  reposi- 
tory of  extensive  and  well-characterized  beds  of  lenticular  and  fossil  ores  of 
superior  grade,  both  as  to  richness  and  purity.  These  ores  form  a  noted  feature 
of  the  Clinton  group  all  the  way  from  Pennsylvania,  through  Virginia  and  East 
Tennessee,  to  Central  Alabama. 

"  The  Red  Mountain  is  a  striking  feature  in  the  topography  as  well  as  in  the 
geology  of  this  region.  As  a  conspicuous  ridge  rising  several  hundred  feet  above 
the  adjacent  country,  it  passes  wTithin  about  a  mile  of  Birmingham,  and  forms  the 
southeast  boundary  of  the  valley  in  which  the  city  is  situated. 

"The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  ores  of  both  Quebec  and  Clinton  ages  along 
the  Birmingham  Valley  have  been  fully  demonstrated  by  their  extensive  and  sat- 
isfactory use  in  a  number  of  furnaces.  Near  Greenpoud  Station,  on  the  Alabama 
Great  Southern  Railroad,  about  2.5  miles  southwest  of  Birmingham,  limouite  ores 
have  been  mined  on  a  large  scale  for  use  in  the  Oxmoor  Furnace,  where  they 
are  employed  in  admixture  with  the  fossil  ores  from  Red  Mountain.  The  brown 
ores  for  the  Alice  Furnace  are  obtained  from  the  same  region. 

"  Ores  of  the  same  class  are  mined  for  the  Sloss  Furnaces  in  the  valley  about 
eight  miles  southeast  of  Birmingham. 

"  The  Red  Mountain  ore  has  been  opened  on  the  top  of  the  ridge  opposite 
Birmingham  and  about  one  mile  southeast  of  the  city,  but  from  want  of  know- 
ledge on  the  part  of  the  miners  the  good  ore  was  thrown  into  a  heap  with  that  of 
inferior  quality,  making  a  confused  mass  too  poor  to  be  profitably  worked.  The 
prolongation  of  the  same  bed  farther  south  may  be  seen  exposed  in  the  railroad 
cut  at  Grace's  Gap,  on  the  South  and  North  Railroad,  five  miles  from  Birmingham. 

"The  red  ores  have  been  extensively  mined  about  two  miles  northwest  of 
Oxmoor  Furnace.  The  mines  are  on  the  crest  and  southeastern  slope  of  Red 
Mountain,  in  a  remarkably  well-defined  bed  7£  feet  thick  between  strata  of  hard 
ferruginous  sandstones,  which,  with  the  ore  bed,  make  an  aggregate  thickness  of 
30  feet.  The  ore  is  sufficiently  free  from  clay  to  be  used  without  washing.  It  is 
carried  down  to  the  furnace  by  rail  and  there  mixed  with  one-third  of  its  own 
weight  of  brown  ore  for  use  in  the  furnace.  This  combination  yields  one  ton  of 


ALABAMA.  245 

pig  iron  to  two  tons  of  the  ore,  and  requires  for  its  reduction  one  ton  of  limestone 
with  one  and  one-half  tons  of  coke. 

"For  the  Sloss  Furnace  the  red  ore  is  obtained  from  a  mine  a  few  miles 
farther  toward  the  southwest.  From  the  outcrop  near  the  crest  of  the  ridge  the 
bed  is  worked  downward  on  its  southeastern  dip,  and  has  a  thickness  of  14  feet  of 
good  ore.  It  is  also  approached  by  a  tunnel  on  the  northwestern  flank  of  the 
ridge,  250  feet  below  the  outcrop.  The  ore  brought  out  by  the  tunnel  is  remark- 
able for  its  large  percentage  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Both  varieties  (No.  1  from  the 
outcrop  and  No.  2  from  the  tunnel)  are  employed  at  the  same  time,  mixed  with 
the  Quebec  limonite  in  the  proportion  of  one  ton  each  of  Nos  1  and  2  and  a  half 
ton  of  the  limonite.  This  combination  yields  one  ton  of  superior  pig  iron. 

"The  following  analyses  of  the  two  varieties  of  ore  from  the  Sloss  Mine,  for 
which  we  are  indebted  to  Col.  Sloss,  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  composition  of  the 
Red  Mountain  ores  generally,  and  may  be  regarded  as  representing  two  types  of 
ore  found  at  different  points  along  the  Clinton  formation — the  one  abounding  in 
carbonate  of  lime ;  the  other  containing  very  little  or  none : 

PERCENTAGE    COMPOSITION.  NO.  I.  NO.  2. 

Ferric  oxide 74-98  58.30 

(Corresponding  to  metallic  iron 52.48  40.81) 

Carbonate  of  lime o.oo  22.42 

Silica  (chiefly  as  sand) 14-56  9.04 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Os) 1.05  0.57 

Equivalent  in  phosphorus 0.45  0.24 

"  The  red  ore  used  at  the  Alice  Furnace  is  mined  in  the  same  ridge  as  those 
above  mentioned,  and  about  nine  miles  southwest  of  Birmingham,  near  the  Ala- 
bama Great  Southern  Railroad.  It  is  worked  in  the  furnace  mixed  with  half  its 
weight  of  limonite  ore,  the  mixture  yielding  52.81  per  cent,  of  pig  iron. 

"  The  analysis  of  the  red  ore  of  the  Alice  ^urnace  Mine,  kindly  furnished  by 
Capt.  Hillman,  superintendent,  is  highly  favorable : 

Silica 12 . 18 

Alumina 2 .68 

Lime * 0.28 

Magnesia 0.39 

Phosphoric  acid 0.29 

Water 2.96  99-7° 

Metallic  iron 56.64 

"  The  Red  Mountain,  still  flanking  the  valley  on  both  sides  for  a  long  distance 
in  the  same  direction,  carries  with  it  outcroppings  of  its  characteristic  red  fossil 
ores  that  point  to  extensive  beds  beneath.  The  increasing  demand  for  these  ores 
will  soon  give  rise  to  new  mining  enterprises  that  will  bring  them  into  market  as 
a  source  of  wealth  to  the  communities  in  which  they  are  located,  and  of  patronage 
to  the  railroads. 

"  Black-band  ore  and  clay  iron-stone  have  been  found  at  several  points  in  the 
coal  regions,  and  some  samples  from  the  Warrior  field  have  been  tested  in  the 
furnaces  and  found  to  work  well  in  admixture  with  the  more  silicious  ores.  These 
are  the  leading  ores  in  England,  and  have  been  very  successfully  worked  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  in  West  Virginia,  so  that  their  real  value  has  been  fully  demonstrated. 
There  is  good  reason  therefore  for  making  more  thorough  search  for  them  in  all 
of  the  Alabama  coal  fields. 

"  The  bed  of  black-band  about  65  feet  below  the  New  Castle  coal  seam  affords 
one  of  the  best  demonstrations  we  have  of  the  extent  of  this  ore.  It  is  one  foot 
four  inches  thick,  and  the  ore  has  been  tested  in  the  furnace  sufficiently  to  estab- 
lish its  value. 

"  Drift  ore  is  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  a  deposit  of  impure  limonite  found 
in  considerable  quantities  in  the  stratified  drift  heretofore  mentioned  as  spread 
over  the  carboniferous  rocks  in  the  western  part  of  Walker  and  in  large  portions 
of  Fayette  and  Lamar  Counties.  The  ore  is  found  in  greatest  abundance  cropping 
out  at  high  points  on  the  faces  of  the  hills  as  we  travel  out  west  of  Fayetteville. 
But  its  real  value  remains  to  be  determined  by  future  explorations  as  to  its  quan- 
tity, and  by  chemical  or  furnace 'tests  as  to  its  quality. 

"  Analyses  of  three  samples  of  this  limonite  ore,  reported  by  Prof.  McCalley, 
of  the  State  Laboratory,  give  the  following  averages  of  the  most  important 
constituents : 

PER   CENT. 

Metallic  iron 55-88 

Silicious  matter 4.41 

Sulphur 0.12 

Phosphorus 0,22 


246  ALABAMA. 

"  These  results  compare  very  favorably  with  those  of  analyses  of  the  limonite 
ores  from  other  parts  of  the  State." 

Throughout  the  regions  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  extract,  there  are 
thousands  of  millions  of  tons  of  ore.  In  one  mountain  alone  it  has  been 
estimated  by  competent  engineers  that  there  are  500,000,000,000  tons.  One  of 
the  most  important  considerations  is  the  cheapness  with  which  it  can  be  mined. 

TIMBER. 

The  timber  resources  of  Alabama  are  enormous.  Millions  of  acres  are 
covered  with  virgin  forests  of  long  and  short-leaved  pine,  cypress,  the  several 
varieties  of  oak,  chestnut,  hickory,  walnut  and  other  woods.  The  most  widely 
distributed  is  the  long-leaved  pine,  (Pinus  australis.}  In  the  lower  counties  of  the 
State  are  vast  forests  of  magnificent  pines,  their  straight  trunks  rising  to  enormous 
heights,  with  an  entire  absence  of  underbrush.  The  pine  supply  of  the  State  was 
estimated  by  the  Census  Department  in  1880  to  be  21,192,000,000  feet,  of  which 
there  were  18,885,000,000  feet  long-leaved  pine,  divided  as  follows :  East  of  the 
Perdido  River,  4,055,000,000 ;  west  of  Perdido  River,  2,000,000,000 ;  in  the  region 
of  mixed  growth,  10,000,000,000;  in  the  Central  Cotton  Belt,  1,750,000,000;  in  the 
Coosa  River  Basin,  900,000,000 ;  in  the  Walker  County  District,  180,000,000.  In 
this  estimate  no  account  is  made  of  small  timber  standing  on  some  1,282,000  acres 
which  have  been  cut  over,  or  on  000,000  acres  injured  by  the  manufacture  of  tur- 
pentine. There  are  fewer  pine  trees  per  acre  in  the  region  of  mixed  growth  than 
in  the  Pine  Belt  proper  which  it  adjoins  on  the  north,  but  the  individual  trees 
being  larger,  the  average  amount  of  standing  pine  per  acre  is  greater,  although 
generally  of  poorer  quality.  The  amount  of  short-leaved  pine  in  the  State  is  put 
at  2,307,000,000  feet,  of  which  1,875,000,000  feet  were  in  the  Central  Pine  Belt,  and 
432,000,000  in  the  Coosa  River  Basin.  In  the  northern  portion  of  the  State  there 
are  large  oak  forests,  and  on  the  timber  lands  generally  throughout  the  State  there 
are  extensive  areas  of  hickory,  cherry,  walnut,  oak,  etc.  In  the  swamps  along  the 
coast  there  are  large  quantities  of  the  finest  cypress.  The  following  is  from  an 
article  on  the  "  Timber  Resources  of  the  South,"  by  Mr.  Chas.  H.  Wells,  published 
in  the  Baltimore  Manufacturers'  Record  of  October  11, 1884: 

"Leaving  Tennessee,  we  pass  through  upper  Georgia,  where  some  of  the 
finest  pine  in  the  world  is  growing.  The  Atlanta  manufacturers  have  gotten  hold 
of  nearly  all  the  valuable  land,  and  as  it  is  my  intention  to  treat  only  of  those 
sections  open  to  investment,  we  will  pass  at  once  into  Alabama.  Possibly  no 
condition  of  affairs  in  any  country  ever  presented  so  impregnable  a  front  against 
the  revolutionizing  influences  and  changing  customs  of  a  progressive  age  as  did 
that  of  Alabama  before  the  war.  The  land,  as  a  rule,  was  held  not  in  acres,  but 
in  square  miles,  by  single  individuals,  through  inheritance,  deed  or  purchase.  A 
plantation  of  the  ante-bellum  days  used  frequently  to  extend  over  an  area  covering 
many  square  miles  of  territory.  These  great  plantations  have  been  cut  up  into 
farms,  and,  as  a  result,  much  valuable  timber  land  is  for  sale.  Capital  has  poured 
into  this  section  as  the  waters  of  a  mighty  river  break  through  its  banks,  and  has 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  mills,  foundries,  factories  and  manufacturing 
enterprises  of  every  character;  has  torn  away  the  barriers  of  earth  that  have  so 
long  hidden  the  mineral  treasures,  and  exposed  rare  qualities  of  coal  and  iron  ore 
in  incalculable  quantities.  The  same  power  has  crossed  her  fields  with  iron  tracks 
of  the  railways;  hewed  her  mighty  forests  for  shipment,  not  only  throughout  our 
own  country,  but  to  Europe  as  well;  has  buildecl  her  cities,  revived  her  commerce, 
re-established  her  credit,  developed  her  resources,  and  brought  her  before  the 
notice  of  the  world  as  one  of  the  most  favored  sections  of  country  upon  the 
globe.  To  capital,  then,  Alabama  holds  her  outstretched  arms,  and  many  there  be 
just  now  who  are  availing  themselves  of  this  opportunity.  There  is  a  portion  of 
Alabama  known  as  lthe  long-leaf  pine  region.'  It  is  thickly  timbered  with  this 
valuable  yellow  pine  lumber,  which  contributes  to  the  supply  of  nearly  every 
European  city,  and  provides  masts  and  spars — so  tall,  strong  and  straight  is  this 
timber — for  the  sailing  vessels  of  almost  every  nation  on  the  globe.  A  railroad 
has  just  been  finished  through  this  section,  and  it  goes  without  saying  that  the 


ALABAMA.  247 

Tesources  of  the  country  have  scarcely  been  touched.  These  resources  exist  at 
present  almost  wholly  in  pine  forests,  which  cover  thousands  of  square  miles  of 
territory,  and  seem  absolutely  inexhaustible  in  their  profuse  growth  and  magnifi- 
cent development.  Before  even  the  survey  of  the  line  had  been  completed, 
numerous  sites  for  saw  mills  had  been  selected,  and  within  a  few  months  after, 
machinery  had  been  hauled  in  wagons  from  Enterprise  and  Meridian,  (its  trans- 
portation occupying  days  and  often  weeks,)  was  erected  and  set  to  work;  until  at 
the  present  date,  upon  the  completion  of  the  railway,  there  are  millions  of  feet  of 
accumulated  sawed  timber  awaiting  transportation  to  Northern  and  Eastern 
cities  and  to  New  Orleans  for  shipment  abroad.  The  surface  of  the  country  is 
rolling  and  undulating,  with  almost  park -like  regularity,  and  one  frequently  sees 
stretches  of  country  which,  with  its  long  luxuriant  growth  of  Bermuda  grass,  its 
groves  of  graceful  young  pine  and  cedar,  and  its  gentle  slopes,  bubbling  springs 
and  charming  deprsssions  and  miniature  valleys,  might  rival  in  beauty  many  of 
the  city  and  suburban  parks  of  "Northern  and  Eastern  sections.  Although  the 
soil,  with  careful  treatment,  will  prove  profitably  productive,  the  principal  indus- 
try must  remain  that  of  timber  shipping  for  many  years  to  come.  These  lumber 
lands  may  be  purchased  at  from  $3  to  $5  per  acre,  and  will  yield  from  8,000  to 
10,000  feet  of  sawed  timber  to  the  acre,  worth  from  $40  to  $60,  for  which  there  is 
a  ready  market  in  the  rapidly-growing  cities  of  the  Southwest.  The  only  invest- 
ment necessary  is  that  in  the  lands  themselves  and  in  the  machinery  for  sawing." 

MANUFACTURING. 

Alabama,  like  her  sister  States  of  the  South,  is  making  wonderful  progress  in 
manufactures.  With  her  immense  forests  of  the  best  timber,  her  thousands  of 
square  miles  of  coal,  her  inexhaustible  deposits  of  iron  ore,  there  is  room  for 
unlimited  development  in  this  direction,  and  she  possesses  unsurpassed,  if  not 
unequalled,  facilities  for  economical  manufacturing.  With  the  raw  material  and 
fuel  easily  and  cheaply  accessible — her  beds  of  iron  and  coal,  all  varieties  of 
timber,  her  cotton  fields — with  all  these  in  close  proximity,  the  cost  of  manufac- 
turing is  reduced  to  the  minimum ;  added  to  which  she  has  ready  access  to  the 
markets  of  the  country  by  means  of  her  splendid  railroad  facilities,  and  through 
the  Tennessee  River,  which  affords  cheap  transportation  to  the  West  by  way  of 
the  Mississippi  and  its  branches.  Looked  at  from  any  standpoint,  Alabama  is  an 
inviting  field  for  the  establishment  of  manufacturing  enterprises.  The  leading 
industries  are  coal  mining,  the  manufacture  of  iron,  cotton  manufacturing,  and 
the  lumber  business.  In  1884  there  were  82,057  spindles  and  1,614  looms  in  the 
cotton  mills  in  Alabama,  against  55,072  spindles  and  1,060  looms  in  1880.  The 
development  of  these  opens  the  May  for  other  industries,  and  is  leading  to  a  rapid 
and  healthy  growth  in  diversified  manufactures.  As  bearing  on  manufactures  in 
Alabama,  I  give  the  following,  which  is  from  the  pen  of  Col.  A.  K.  McClure,  in  a 
recent  number  of  his  paper,  the  Philadelphia  Times.  It  possesses  additional 
interest  and  weight  from  the  fact  that  it  is  by  a  Korthern  writer,  the  editor  of  one 
of  the  foremost  papers  in  Pennsylvania,  and  a  man  accustomed  to  say  nothing 
rashly,  but  whose  statements  are  based  on  investigation,  and  who  in  this  instance 
states  what  to  him  and  his  readers  are  unpleasant  facts: 

"I  have  studied  the  resources  and  opportunities  of  the  State  with  special 
interest,  because  they  are  certain  to  revolutionize  some  of  our  chief  sources  of 
wealth  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  more  they  are  studied  the  more  clear  it  must 
become  to  every  intelligent  mind  that  England  is  not  to-day  more  the  rival  of  the 
Keystone  State  in  the  future  production  of  iron  and  coal  than  is  Alabama.  There 
is  not  a  source  of  mineral  wealth  in  Pennsylvania,  excepting  only  our  oil  product, 
that  is  not  found  in  Alabama  in  equal  or  greater  abundance,  with  the  matchless 
advantages  of  climate,  of  easier  and  cheaper  production,  and  of  vastly  cheaper 
transportation.  Nature's  great  gifts  to  Pennsylvania  have  been  not  only  liberally 
supplemented  in  Alabama,  but  to  them  have  been  added  every  possible  natural 
advantage  for  their  cheap  development  and  delivery  to  the  markets  of  the  world. 
If  half  the  capital  and  business  direction  that  have  been  given  to  make  Pennsyl- 
vania peerless  in  the  production  of  mineral  wealth  had  been  given  to  Alabama, 
ner  productive  wealth  would  be  as  great  as  that  of  the  Iron  State,  and  her  popu- 


248  ALABAMA. 

lation  would  be  nearer  five  millions  than  the  million  and  a  quarter  now  scattered 
over  the  boundless  but  almost  untouched  riches  of  this  sunny  commonwealth. 
Think  of  a  State  with  over  5,000  square  miles  of  productive  coal  fields,  whose 
coal  is  now  sold  at  a  fair  profit  in  New  Orleans  at  less  than  $4  per  ton.  It  is 
mainly  of  the  best  quality,  alike  for  commercial,  manufacturing  and  domestic 
purposes;  it  is  in  large  veins;  it  is  more  easily  mined  than  our  most  favorably 
located  bituminous  coal  fields  in  the  North;  and  in  large  portions  of  the  coal 
fields  there  is  good  iron  in  abundance,  much  of  it  requiring  no  actual  mining  at 
all,  and  with  the  iron  and  coal  is  found  the  limestone.  Birmingham  is  a  feeble 
forecast  of  what  Alabama  may  do.  There  a  city  of  a  dozen  thousands  presents  a 
hive  of  industry  where  a  single  house  stood  at  a  railway  crossing  little  more  than 
a  decade  back.  It  is  the  one  point  of  Alabama  where  iron  and  coal  abound  that 
has  happened  to  be  reached  by  transportation,  and  it  has  sprung  up  as  if  by  magic 
to  point  out  not  only  the  possibilities,  but  the  inevitable  and  wonderful  destiny  or 
the  State.  It  is  admitted  that  iron  can  now  be  produced  in  this  State  $6  per  ton 
cheaper  than  in  the  reasonably  favored  iron  centres  of  Pennsylvania,  and  that  is 
a  certain  index  of  the  industrial  revolution  that  is  rapidly  approaching.  What 
has  been  done  in  Birmingham  uot  only  can  be  done  as  well  in  many  other  parts 
of  the  State,  but  it  can  be  even  more  profitably  done  in  Birmingham  and  else- 
where in  Alabama  as  soon  as  the  great  natural  highways  of  the  State  shall  be 
made  available;  and  no  citizen  of  the  North  of  fair  intelligence  can  review  the 
slumbering  wealth  of  Alabama  and  the  waterways  which  offer  the  cheapest  trans- 
portation without  accepting  the  conclusion  that  the  next  generation  will  see  this 
State  an  iron  and  coal  centre  equal  to  if  not  surpassing  Pennsylvania,  and  Mobile 
the  great  coal  depot  of  the  coast.  *  *  *  It  is  idle  for  Pennsylvania  and  other 
great  iron  and  coal  producing  States  to  close  their  eyes  to  the  fact  we  have 
reached  the  beginning  of  a  great  revolution  in  those  products.  No  legislation,  no 
sound  public  policy,  no  sentiment,  can  halt  such  a  revolution  when  the  immutable 
laws  of  trade  command  it;  and  the  sudden  tread  of  the  hordes  from  the  northern 
forests  upon  ancient  Rome  did  not  more  suddenly  threaten  the  majesty  of  the 
mistress  of  the  world  than  does  the  tread  of  the  iron  and  coal  diggers  of  Alabama 
threaten  the  majesty  of  Northern  iron  and  coal  fields.  I  do  not  credit  the  common 
saying  that  iron  can  be  produced  here  for  $9  per  ton.  There  are  many  here  who 
will  tell  you  so;  but  after  careful  inquiry  in  the  most  intelligent  and  reliable 
circles,  I  fix  an  entirely  safe  limit  of  average  cost  at  $11.50.  There  is  iron  pro- 
duced here  at  less  than  that  cost;  but  $11.50  is  as  just  an  estimate  for  Birmingham 
as  $17  is  for  Pennsylvania;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  Pennsylvania  has 
reached  the  minimum  cost  in  the  production  and  marketing  of  her  iron,  while 
Alabama  can  and  will  greatly  cheapen  the  delivery  of  her  iron  in  the  great  centres 
of  trade.  And  what  is  true  of  iron  must  be  equally  true  of  coal.  They  are  twin 
sisters  whose  development  must  keep  pace  with  each  other.  Nova  Scotia  will 
soon  learn  to  fear  Alabama  more  than  the  small  tariff  now  imposed  upon  her 
imported  coal,  and  instead  of  extorting  double  prices  for  bituminous  coal,  as  she 
did  in  the  early  days  of  the  late  war,  before  protection  had  developed  our  Northern 
mines,  she  will  find  Alabama  crowding  both  herself  and  Pennsylvania  in  the  New 
England  factories,  and  with  the  waterways  of  the  State  perfected,  even  England 
will  have  to  look  to  her  laurels  in  the  Central  and  South  American  States.  These 
lessons  come  upon  us  plain  as  the  noonday  sun,  and  it  is  midsummer  madness  not 
to  read  them  understandingly.  We  cannot  war  with  destiny;  we  cannot  efface 
the  beneficent  gilts  of  Him  who  leads  the  waters  to  the  sea  and  sends  them  back 
in  the  clews  and  rains  of  heaven.  Alabama  has  been  gifted  far  beyond  even  our 
boasted  empire  of  Pennsylvania,  and  only  the  Southern  sluggard  has  hitherto 
given  the  race  to  the  North.  Now  there  is  a  New  South,  with  new  teachings, 
new  opportunities,  new  energies  and  manifestly  a  new  destiny,  and  the  time  is  at 
hand  when  a  large  portion  of  the  great  iron  and  coal  products  of  the  country 
which  enter  competing  centres  will  be  supplied  cheaper  from  Alabama  than  from 
any  State  in  the  North.  How  Pennsylvania  will  solve  the  problem  I  do  not 
assume  to  decide;  but  the  logical  result  would  be  the  transfer  of  the  portion  of 
the  iron  industry  that  can  best  prosper  here  from  the  North  to  the  South,  just  as 
the  spinning  and  weaving  of  the  home  consumption  of  cotton  must  soon  come 
to  the  cotton  fields,  and  the  better  water-power  and  climate  which  they  furnish. 
*  *  *  With  the  marvelous  progress  made  here  when  stagnation  prevailed  in  all 
the  coal  and  iron  centres  of  the  North,  what  must  be  the  strides  of  this  industrial 
centre  when  prosperity  comes  to  revive  the  same  industries  in  Pennsylvania? 
This  country  will  draw  the  young  men  of  energy  from  the  coal  and  iron  moun- 
tains of  Pennsylvania  just  as  the  fertile  prairies  of  the  West  have  drawn  the 


ALABAMA.  249 

young  men  of  energy  from  our  Pennsylvania  farms,  and  there  is  room  for 
thousands  of  them  with  better  prospects  of  success  than  in  any  new  State  or 
Territory  of  the  Union.  These  are  strong  expressions,  but  I  write  them  only 
after  the  most  exhaustive  inquiiy  and  careful  examination,  and  I  know  that  they 
are  fully  warranted.  This  is  the  coal  and  iron  empire  of  the  South,  and,  I  believe, 
the  future  coal  and  iron  empire  of  the  United  States,  and  it  has  a  climate  and  soil 
adapted  to  the  bountiful  growth  of  everything  grown  in  Pennsylvania,  witli  one- 
sixth  of  the  entire  cotton  crop  of  the  South  added.  It  is  the  equal  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  forest,  field  and  mine,  with  climate,  natural  highways  and  cheapness  of 
product  turning  the  scales  in  profit  by  them*.  They  will  not  make  Pennsylvania 
poor,  for  her  people  and  resources  are  equal  to  any  and  all  the  mutations  of 
industry  and  trade ;  but  they  will  make  Alabama  rich,  and  that  wTill  multiply  the 
wealth  and  grandeur  of  the  whole  Union." 

IRON. 

Prior  to  1870  the  iron  interests  of  Alabama  had  received  comparatively  little 
attention.  A  few  furnaces  had  been  erected  since  the  war,  but  the  business  in  the 
aggregate  was  of  very  moderate  proportions — the  total  production  of  iron  in  that 
State  in  1870  being  only  7,060  tons.  By  1880  there  had  been  a  considerable  growth 
of  the  iron  interests,  and  the  census  reports  of  that  year  show  12  furnaces,  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $3,106,196 — the  production  being  62,333  tons.  It  was  notr 
however,  until  after  the  census  reports  were  compiled  that  Alabama  began  to 
attract  great  attention  as  the  probable  centre  of  an  immense  iron-making  industry. 
During  the  last  four  years  there  has  been  a  wonderful  development  of  the  State's 
iron  resources,  and  Alabama  iron  is  now  successfully  competing  in  Northern 
markets  with  Pennsylvania  iron.  In  1885  the  production  of  pig  iron  in  Alabama 
was  227,438  tons — an  increase  in  annual  production  in  five  years  of  over  165,000 
tons.  This  State  is  very  generally  believed  to  be  able  to  make  pig  iron  at  a  lower 
cost  than  any  other  State  in  the  Union,  and  whether  this  popular  belief  is  entirely 
correct  or  not,  it  is  quite  certain  that  no  other  State  can  offer  greater  advantages 
for  this  industry.  Hon.  Abram  S.  Hewitt,  of  New  York,  whose  long  experience 
in  the  iron  trade  makes  him  fully  competent  to  express  an  authoritative  opinion 
upon  such  a  subject,  has  said  of  Alabama: 

"It  is  the  only  place  upon  the  North  American  Continent  where  it  is  possible 
to  make  iron  in  competition  with  the  cheap  iron  of  England,  as  measured  not  by 
wages  paid,  but  by  the  number  of  days'  labor  which  enter  into  its  production. 
The  cheapest  place  on  the  globe  until  now  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  is  the 
Cleveland  District,  in  Yorkshire,  England.  The  distance  of  the  coal  and  iron 
from  the  furnaces  there  averages  about  20  miles.  Now  in  Alabama  the  coal  and 
the  ore  are  in  many  places  within  half  a  mile  of  each  other.  This  region,  so 
exhaustless  in  supplies,  so  admirably  furnished  with  coal,  so  conveniently  commu- 
nicating with  the  gulf,  will  be  of  infinitely  more  consequence  to  us  for  its  iron 
than  it  has  ever  been  for  its  cotton.  I  think  this  will  be  a  region  of  coke-made 
iron  on  a  scale  grander  than  has  ever  been  witnessed  on  the  habitable  globe." 

Stronger  language  could  hardly  have  been  used  by  the  most  enthusiastic 
friend  of  Alabama.  There  seems  no  room  now  for  doubt  that  Mr.  Hewitt's 
prediction  as  to  the  extent  of  iron  making  in  Alabama  is  certain  of  fulfilment 
and  in  all  probability  this  will  come  to  pass  much  sooner  than  Mr.  Hewitt  ex- 
pected. The  developments  in  iron  making  in  that  State  during  the  last  year  or 
two  have  been  the  most  stupendous  probably  ever  seen  before  in  the  world,  in  the 
same  length  of  time.  Gigantic  enterprises  have  been  undertaken,  involving  the 
expenditure  of  millions  of  dollars  in  the  building  of  furnaces,  steel  works,  rolling 
mills,  and  iron  industries  generally,  and  this  marvellous  progress  continues  with 
no  indications  of  any  falling  off.  It  is  almost  useless  to  attempt  an  enumeration 
of  the  many  companies  that  are  now  at  work  either  building  or  preparing  to 
build  large  furnaces,  for  scarcely  a  day  passes  without  adding  to  the  list.  It  may, 
however,  be  said  that  between  20  and  30  furnaces,  none  of  them  less  than  100  tons 
daily  capacity,  are  either  under  construction  or  projected  with  good  assurances  of 
early  building.  Among  the  places  showing  the  greatest  activity  in  furnace-building 


250  ALABAMA. 

are  Birmingham,  Anniston,  Ensley,  Bessemer  and  Sheffield,  though  a  number  of 
other  places  are  preparing  to  engage  in  the  same  good  work.  Steel  works,  it  is 
understood,  will  be  erected  at  Bessemer,  Ensley  and  possibly  Anniston.  It  is  a 
noteworthy  fact  that  the  developments  in  the  iron  interests  of  Alabama  of  Jate 
years  have  been  mainly  the  work  of  Southern  men,  notwithstanding  the  prevalent 
belief,  in  some  sections,  to  the  contrary.  It  is  indeed  surprising  to  note  the  won- 
derful energy  with  which  Southern  men  have  engaged  in  this  work,  and  the 
amount  of  Southern  money  invested  in  it. 

It  is  especially  gratifying  to  note  that  even  more  rapidly  than  new  furnaces 
are  being  erected,  new  diversified  iron  manufactures  are  coming  into  existence. 
The  wide  diversity  of  these  new  industries  is  surprising,  and  not  only  will  Ala- 
bama— and  what  is  true  of  Alabama  is  also  true  of  Tennessee  and  several  other 
Southern  States — soon  be  supplying  the  home  market  with  machinery,  agricul- 
tural implements,  hardware,  &c.,  but  will  also  invade  the  West,  and  doubtless 
enter  the  foreign  markets  with  more  chance  of  successful  competition  than  the 
North,  owing  to  the  much  lower  cost  at  which  these  goods  can  be  produced. 
Rolling  mills,  machine  shops,  foundries,  iron  pipe  works,  nail  factories,  and  many 
other  kindred  enterprises  are  being  established  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

LUMBER. 

The  manufacture  of  lumber  is  naturally  an  industry  of  importance  and  mag- 
nitude in  Alabama.  There  is  the  best  of  ii early  all  kinds  of  timber ;  there  is  a 
.large  home  demand,  which  is  rapidly  growing,  and  the  railroads  through  the 
timber  belts,  as  well  as  the  numberless  navigable  stream*,  afford  access  to  outside 
markets.  The  development  of  the  industrial  and  commercial  interests  of  the 
State,  and  the  consequent  activity  in  building,  furnish  a  demand  for  an  enormous 
quantity  of  building  lumber.  The  supply  of  yellow  pine  in  Alabama  (which  is 
coming  more  and  more  into  demand  everywhere  for  building,  while  the  uses  to 
which  it  is  applied  are  extending)  may  be  said  to  be  inexhaustible;  certainly  for 
years  to  come  there  can  be  no  perceptible  signs  of  depletion.  The  rapid  increase 
in  the  number  of  furniture  factories  and  other  wood-working  establishments  will 
require  extensive  supplies  of  pine  and  hardwood  lumber.  There  is  probably  no 
branch  of  business  in  the  State  paying  better  than  saw  and  planing  mills,  shingle 
mills,  etc.  Through  Mobile,  which  is  developing  rapidly  as  a  lumber  port,  an 
immense  business  is  being  built  up  with  Northern  and  foreign  ports. 

GENERAL   MANUFACTURES. 

Following  the  development  of  the  coal,  iron  and  timber  resources  of  the 
'State,  comes  naturally  the  establishment  of  minor  industries.  Furniture  factories, 
spoke  and  handle  factories,  wagon  and  carriage  factories,  establishments  for  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  stoves,  hardware,  machinery,  etc.,  find 
here  a  most  inviting  field.  There  are  all  the  elements  of  economy  in  manufacture 
— cheapness  of  fuel,  the  very  lowest  cost  of  raw  material,  with  other  advantages. 
Machine  and  repair  shops  do  well  in  the  manufacturing  towns.  The  canning  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  is  a  profitable  industry.  Ice  factories  pay  handsomely. 

EDUCATION. 

The  State  has  a  good  system  of  public  schools,  and  numerous  private  schools 
«,nd  colleges,  both  for  males  and  females. 

SOME  MATTERS  OF  LAW. 

"Property  Exempt  from  Execution  for  Debt. — $1,000  in  personal  property  and 
$2,000  in  real  property  is  exempt  from  execution  for  debt.  On  the  death  of  the 
owner  and  occupant,  a  surviving  widow  or  child,  or  children,  or  both,  the  home- 
stead, not  exceeding  the  above  value,  is  exempt  during  the  life  of  the  widow  or 


ALABAMA.  251 

the  minority  of  a  surviving  child ;  wages  and  salaries  of  laborers  and  employees 
for  personal  services  to  the  value  of  $25.  The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  8  per  cent. 

"  The  property  of  married  women  is  secured  to  them  by  constitutional  pro- 
vision, the  husband  being  her  trustee,  and  entitled  to  the  rents  and  profits  for  the 
support  of  the  family. 

"  Fences  and  Stock. — Under  the  general  law  of  the  State,  stock  of  all  kinds 
are  allowed  to  run  at  large,  imposing  upon  land  owners  the  necessity  of  fencing. 
But  from  time  to  time  the  Legislature  lias  passed  laws  applicable  to  limited  dis- 
tricts, requiring  owners  of  stock  to  take  care  of  them,  and  rendering  them  liable 
for  damage  to  the  crops  of  their  neighbors. 

"  Taxation. — All  property  is  equally  subject  to  taxation.  By  constitutional 
provision,  the  rate  can  never  exceed  75  cents  in  the  $100.  The  counties  can 
impose  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  in  addition.  The  present  State  rate  is  65  cents 
on  the  $100." 

In  the  article  on  Mississippi  the  attractions  of  the  gulf  coast  for  the  invalid 
and  the  tourist,  and  as  a  place  of  resort,  will  be  referred  to  at  some  length.  What 
is  there  said  will  apply  to  a  part  of  the  southern  coast  of  Alabama.  Mobile  and 
contiguous  territory  are  becoming  noted  as  a  place  of  resort  for  health  and 
pleasure  seekers. 


ANNISTON,  IN    NORTH    ALABAMA. 

AS  a  specimen  of  the  rapid  development  of  Southern  towns  that  have  only 
come  into  existence  within  the  last  few  years,  the  publishers  present  the 
following  description  of  Anniston:  The  town  is  on  the  main  line  of  the 
East  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  Georgia  Railroad,  and  at  the  crossing  of  the  main 
line  of  the  Georgia  Pacific  Railroad,  between  Atlanta  and  Birmingham.  It  is 
but  a  few  hours'  ride  from  Atlanta,  Columbus,  Macon  and  Rome,  Ga.,  or  from 
Montgomery,  Mobile  and  Selma,  Ala.,  or  from  Knoxville,  Chattanooga  and  Nash- 
ville, Teiin.,  and  only  two  hours  from  Birmingham.  It  is  situated  in  the  teart  of 
the  mineral  and  finest  agricultural  region  of  Alabama,  Tennessee  and  G  Borgia. 
It  is  reached  by  three  grand  trunk  lines — the  East  Tennessee,  Virgin  ia  and 
Georgia,  the  Richmond  and  Danville,  and  the  Queen  and  Crescent  roads.  New 
Orleans,  but  14  hours  distant,  is  reached  from  Anniston  in  a  night's  ric  e  in  a 
sleeping  car.  Anniston  is  only  1 7  hours  from  Cincinnati,  and  can  be  rea<  hed  in 
26  hours  from  Washington,  being  on  the  short  line  of  travel  from  the  East.  North 
and  Northwest  to  Florida  and  New  Orleans.  The  town  is  built  on  a  slope  of 
Blue  Mountain,  a  chain  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  on  the  most  beautiful  site  that  could 
be  selected  for  a  town  south  of  the  Potomac,  or  north  of  it  for  that  matter.  It  is 
one  of  the  highest  points  accessible  to  railroads  in  the  State,  and  for  climate, 
health  and  beauty  of  scenery,  it  stands  unrivalled. 

ITS    HISTORY. 

Some  18  years  ago,  Mr.  Samuel  Noble,  for  the  first  time  visiting  the  ruins  of 
the  old  furnace  built  and  destroyed  during  the  war,  was  astounded  to  see  the  enor- 
mous deposits  of  iron  ore,  its  richness  and  excellent  quality.  Beins:  impressed  by 
the  great  beauty  of  the  situation,  and  its  natural  advantages  as  a  manufacturing 
and  distributing  point,  he  purchased  the  largest  and  main  deposits  of  iron  ore, 
and  continued  adding  to  the  property  by  other  purchases  until  1872,  when  the 
present  company  was  formed.  The  Woodstock  Iron  Company  afterwards  added, 
by  judicious  purchases  from  time  to  time,  over  40,000  acres,  making  it  one  of  the 
finest  properties  in  America,  and  worked  the  wonders  now  to  be  seen  where 
was  a  wilderness  13  years  ago.  Within  a  few  feet  of  the  spot  where  was  found 
the  first  suggestion  of  the  wealth  that  lay  within  those  hills,  hundreds  of  men 
are  daily  digging  from  the  soil  the  finest  iron  ore  to  be  found  in  this  country. 
The  process  is  so  simple  that  it  does  not  suggest  the  usual  associations  of  a  mine. 
The  ore  is  everywhere  in  the  soil.  There  is  no  tunneling  or  delving  into  depths. 
Nature  left  her  riches  on  the  surface,  and  they  are  taken  out  as  simply  and  as- 
safely  as  the  farmer  digs  his  potatoes.  For  10  years  this  one  hillside  has  been 
drawn  on,  and  as  yet  it  seems  merely  scratched  as  one  looks  upward  to  the  great 
slope  and  the  thousands  of  acres  above  which  are  almost  solid  iron.  A  century 
of  such  labor  would  not  begin  to  impoverish  this  mighty  depository.  But  it  is 
hardly  richer  than  its  sister  hills,  which  form  a  bulwark  about  the  city. 

In  1872  the  Woodstock  Iron  Company  was  formed  by  General  Danl.  Tyler, 
Alfred  L.  Tyler,  E.  L.  Tyler,  James  Noble,  Sr.,  John  W.,  Samuel  and  William 
Noble,  and  the  first  furnace  of  the  company  was  completed  and  started  in  April,, 
1873,  at  Anniston. 

The  second  furnace  was  completed  and  started  in  August,  1879. 

In  1881  a  cotton  factory,  the  largest  and  finest  in  the  State,  was  completed*. 
In  1882  the  car-wheel  works  of  Noble  Bros,  were  moved  from  Rome,  Ga.,  to 
Anniston.  Other  industries  were  established  on  an  extensive  scale. 

Meanwhile  a  model  city  had  been  laid  out,  a  perfect  system  of  drainage 
designed,  the  streets  macadamized,  water-works,  stores,  churches  and  schools 
built,  railroad  connections  secured,  and  the  nucleus  of  a  great  town  planted  in 
the  most  salubrious  and  beautiful  spot  of  North  Alaban^. 


ALABAMA. 


253 


254  ALABAMA. 

Prior  to  1883  no  land  was  sold  to  anybody.  The  entire  business  of  the  place 
was  done  by  the  founders  and  owners,  who  were  also  the  proprietors  of  the  fur- 
naces, factories,  foundries,  machine  shops,  saw  mills,  stores,  etc.  The  city  was 
kept  closed  to  the  public  up  to  this  date  not  through  any  feeling  of  exclusiveness 
on  the  part  of  the  proprietors  or  any  desire  on  their  part  to  control  the  trade  of 
the  city  and  the  surrounding  country.  They  desired  simply  to  lay  the  basis  of  the 
city  in  a  proper  way ;  to  so  arrange  its  drainage  that  when  it  became  a  great  city 
there  could  be  no  trouble  in  keeping  it  clean  and  healthy ;  to  so  lay  off  its  streets 
that  the  city  would  be  systematic  and  well  proportioned,  and  to  so  macadamize 
them  that  they  would  afford  safe  and  pleasant  drives ;  to  provide  the  city  with 
parks  located  at  proper  places,  and  with  water-works  that  would  protect  and 
beautify  the  city  and  give  the  citizens  convenience  and  comfort;  to  build  schools, 
churches,  hotels,  and  establish  such  industries  as  would  give  lucrative  and  fitting 
employment  to  its  people.  They  felt  that  this  work,  involving  heavy  expense  and 
the  prosecution  of  one  single  plan,  could  not  be  done  with  a  population  of  various 
grades  of  wealth  and  of  diverse  ideas.  They  therefore,  for  this  reason,  shut  the 
general  public  out  of  the  city. 

When,  however,  this  work  had  all  been  done,  the  proprietors,  in  1883,  threw 
open  the  city  to  the  public.  The  city  had  then  better  streets,  sidewalks,  parks, 
shade  trees,  water- works,  schools,  churches,  hotels,  etc.,  than  any  city  of  20,000 
inhabitants.  These  were  built  by  the  company  and  did  not  entail  one  dollar  of 
debt  on  the  city.  All  the  local  improvements  and  the  three  railroads  brought  to 
Anniston  did  not  leave  one  cent  of  debt  on  the  city  or  its  future  population.  The 
population,  which  at  this  time  was  about  4,000,  began  to  increase  rapidly  as  the 
fame  of  Anniston' s  attractions  and  advantages  spread  abroad. 

The  company  very  materially  aided  the  different  religious  denominations  by 
donating  them  building  lots  for  churches.  The  Episcopalians,  Presbyterians, 
Baptists,  Methodists  and  Koman  Catholics  have  built  or  are  building  very  hand- 
some churches  and  parsonages.  Grace  Episcopal  Church,  built  by  the  Tyler  and 
Noble  families,  is  the  handsomest  structure  in  the  State.  It  is  built  of  cut  sand- 
stone from  the  quarries  at  Anniston.  The  interior  is  finished  throughout  in  red 
cedar,  highly  finished.  The  windows  are  of  stained  glass.  The  tower  contains  a 
chime  of  six  bells.  The  colored  population  have  also  their  separate  churches  and 
schools. 

By  act  of  legislature,  Anniston  is  made  a  separate  school  district.  The 
schools  are  controlled  by  the  Mayor  and  Council  and  school  superintendent. 
Great  interest  has  been  taken  in  establishing  them.  Anniston,  for  its  population, 
has  the  largest  and  most  flourishing  public  schools  in  the  State.  In  addition, 
there  are  two  pay  schools  for  boys  and  girls. 

Plans  have  been  prepared  and  work  commenced  on  two  colleges  for  boys  and 
girls.  They  will  be  open  to  all  denominations,  but  will  be  under  the  charge  of 
the  bishop  and  rector  of  the  Episcopal  Church. 

Nowhere  on  this  continent  has  so  much  been  so  well,  so  effectually  done  in 
any  town  that  has  been  opened  to  the  public,  in  establishing  manufactures,  organ- 
izing and  sustaining  schools,  building  railroads  and  hotels,  providing  water- works, 
electric  lights,  grading,  macadamizing  and  rolling  the  streets,  planting  shade  trees, 
paving  drains — all  combining  to  make  Anniston  the  most  beautiful,  cleanest, 
healthiest,  best  drained  town  in  the  United  States. 

The  liberal  policy  of  the  Anniston  Land  and  Improvement  Company,  who 
own  the  bulk  of  the  real  estate  in  the  corporate  limits,  has  established  many  other 
industries.  Every  encouragement  is  offered  to  new  industries,  with  rates  of 
freight  to  and  from  all  points  as  low  as  the  most  favored  city.  The  richest  and 
most  populous  agricultural  counties  of  the  State  tributary  to  it,  and  placed  in  the 


ALABAMA. 


255- 


Q 


256  ALABAMA. 

very  heart  of  the  rich  iron  and  coal  region  of  the  State;  supplied  with  an  abun- 
dance of  the  purest  freestone  water,  and  with  a  climate  unrivalled ;  with  the  best 
of  labor,  healthy  and  contented,  and  the  sale  of  liquor  banished  from  the  county, 
it  is  now  the  manufacturing  and  commercial  center  of  North  Alabama,  and  will 
be  the  great  manufacturing  center  of  the  State,  if  not  of  the  South. 

THE  ANNISTON  IRON  DISTRICT. 

Very  little  has  heretofore  been  written  on  this,  the  most  important  iron  dis- 
trict in  Alabama,  nor  has  even  a  hint  been  given  of  its  wonderful  wealth  in 
material,  its  already  large  development,  or  its  peculiarly  fortunate  position  in. 
regard  to  transportation  lines. 

The  Anniston  district  embraces  the  furnaces  and  iron  region  on  each  side  of 
the  E:ist  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  Georgia  Railroad,  from  Cave  Spring,  Ga.,  to 
Montevallo,  Ala.,  as  well  as  the  remarkable  iron  deposits  along  the  line  of  the 
Anniston  and  Atlantic  Railroad  for  50  miles  south  of  Anniston.  The  latter  road 
will  connect  with  the  Central  Railroad  sj'stem  of  Savannah,  Ga.,  and  with  the 
new  roads  of  the  Shelby  Iron  Works,  which  will  afford  connection  with  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville  system  near  Calera.  The  Anniston  and  Northern  road, 
now  under  contract,  making  connection  with  the  Cincinnati  Southern  system 
near  Gadsden,  thus  fixes  Anniston  as  the  center  of  the  very  richest  iron  region  in 
the  South.  This  district  now  embraces  Etna  Furnace,  20  tons  capacity ;  Cherokee, 
50  tons;  Tecumseh,  50  tons ;  Stonewall, 25  tons ;  Rock  Run,  35  tons;  Woodstock, 
two  furnaces,  50  tons  each ;  Clifton  Furnace  No.  1, 25  tons ;  Clifton  New  Furnace, 
60  tons;  Shelby  Iron  Works,  two  furnaces,  50  tons  each;  Brierfield,  25  tons  per 
day — 12  furnaces  in  all. 

These  furnaces  have  heretofore  been  run  on  charcoal  supplied  from  the 
immense  forests  of  yellow  pine  contiguous  to  them.  Many  of  them  will  continue 
to  use  charcoal  for  fuel  exclusively  for  years  to  come.  Some  own  such  large 
bodies  of  timber  land  that  they  can  use  the  same  fuel  indefinitely. 

The  construction  of  the  East  and  West  Railroad  having  opened  up  the  Coosa 
coal-field,  the  developing  of  the  Broken  Arrow  mines  and  building  of  coke  ovens 
by  that  company  and  others,  and  the  opening  of  the  Cahawba  mines,  45  miles 
west  of  Anniston,  on  the  Georgia  Pacific  Railroad,  places  the  Anniston  district  in 
a  far  more  advantageous  position  for  making  cheap. iron  than  its  younger  neigh- 
bor, the  Birmingham  district.  Anniston  is  now  within  25  miles  of  the  Coosa 
coal-field,  which  affords  the  best  coking  coal  in  the  South,  and  within  45  miles  of 
the  Cahawba,  putting  it  on  an  equality  with  Birmingham  as  far  as  cheap  fuel 
goes ;  but  otherwise  the  advantage  is  all  on  the  side  of  the  Anniston  district — in 
the- abundance  and  excellence  of  its  ores,  being  lower  in  silica  and  phosphorus 
and  richer  in  iron,  requiring  less  limestone  and  less  coke  to  make  a  ton  of  iron, 
and  producing  iron  of  superior  quality  for  all  purposes. 

The  effect  of  an  assured  supply  of  coke  is  already  seen  in  the  late  enlarge- 
ment of  the  Cherokee  Furnace,  increasing  its  capacity  to  100  tons  per  day,  and 
the  substitution  of  coke  for  charcoal.  The  Tecumseh  Iron  Works  propose  making 
a  change  similar  to  that  made  by  the  Cherokee,  and  the  Woodstock  Iron  Company 
are  making  preparations  for  the  building  of  two  first-class  coke  furnaces  of  daily 
capacity  of  100  tons  each.  The  construction  of  these  will  be  a  continuation  of 
the  development  of  this  section  that  will,  without  doubt,  make  Anniston  the  great 
iron  center  of  the  South. 

The  advantages  of  the  Anniston  district  over  all  others  is  made  apparent  to 
the  practical  iron  manufacturer  not  only  by  the  abundance  and  excellence  of  the 
ores  and  the  ease  of  procuring  certain  supplies  of  cheap  fuel,  but  also  by  the 
entire  absence  of  difficulty  in  mining  the  ores.  So  far,  in  every  case,  the  ore  is 


ALABAMA. 


257 


258  ALABAMA. 

mined  in  open  cut.  Mining  consists  simply  in  undermining  and  blasting  down 
hills  of  ore,  no  underground  mining  or  timbering  being  done. 

The  most  noted  deposits  of  ore  are  the  mines  owned  by  the  Clifton,  Wood- 
stock and  Shelby  Companies.  They  have  been  worked  for  years  and  hardly  show 
the  signs  of  being  touched,  so  immense  are  the  quantities  of  ore  in  sight;  while 
along  the  whole  line  of  the  East  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  Georgia  Railroad,  from 
Cave  Spring,  Ga.,  to  Moutevallo,  Ala.,  for  many  miles  on  each  side,  extensive 
deposits  of  rich  ore's  exist,  and  deposits  of  equal  magnitude  are  found  for  several 
miles  east  and  west  of  Anniston,  on  the  Georgia  Pacific  road.  The  most  remark- 
able deposits  occur  on  the  line  of  the  new  Anniston  and  Atlantic  road,  and  still 
more  ore  will  be  made  accessible  by  the  completion  of  the  Anniston  and  Northern, 
which  will  also 'bring  the  Coosa  Furnace  at  Gadsclen,  with  the  red  fossiliferous 
ores,  into  the  Anniston  district. 

Prof.  Tourney,  in  his  geological  report  of  Alabama,  speaks  of  the  locality 
where  Anniston  is  now  built  as  possessing  exceptional  advantages  for  iron  manu- 
facture. A  furnace  was  built  here  during  the  war  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  for 
the  Confederate  Government,  and  was  destroyed  by  the  Federal  forces  in  1865 
and  never  rebuilt. 

ADYANTAGES  FOB  MANUFACTURES  AND  TRADE. 

Anniston  possesses  natural  advantages  as  a  manufacturing  and  business  point 
surpassing  that  of  any  other  place  in  the  South.  The  neighboring  mountains 
possess  exhaustless  supplies  of  coal  easily  and  cheaply  mined.  Iron  can  be  made 
at  a  lower  cost  than  at  any  other  point  in  the  South,  making  no  exception.  For 
miles  around  there  is  a  magnificent  sweep  of  heavily  timbered  lands.  From  the 
surrounding  forests  the  finest  Georgia  pine  and  hard-wood  lumber  are  furnished. 
Anniston  is  a  competitive  railroad  point,  and  commands  favorable  freight  rates  to 
all  markets.  Thus,  for  manufacturing,  the  raw  material  is  cheap,  easily  accessible 
and  of  the  best  kind,  and  there  is  every  facility  for  cheaply  transporting  the 
product  to  market.  The  remarkable  and  unvarying  success  of  such  manufac- 
turing enterprises  as  have  been  established  in  Anniston  is  convincing  evidence  of 
its  superior  advantages. 

For  any  kind  of  general  business,  Anniston  is  an  inviting  field.  Tributary  to 
the  city,  north  and  south  on  the  East  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  Georgia  Railroad, 
east  and  west  on  the  Georgia  Pacific  Railroad,  and  for  50  miles  south  on  the 
Anniston  and  Atlantic  Railroad,  is  the  richest  and  most  populous  agricultural 
country  in  the  South,  which,  with  the  competitive  freight  rates  that  are,  by  loca- 
tion, the  right  of  the  city,  gives  to  Anniston  as  a  distributii'g  point  for  wholesale 
and  jobbing  houses  a  most  favorable  location.  Several  wholesale  grocery  and  com- 
mission houses  are  doing  a  large  and  profitable  business,  and  daily  increasing  the 
volume  of  trade  and  extending  their  territory.  A  most  nattering  opening  is  here 
presented  for  wholesale  dry  goods,  notion,  boot  and  shoe,  hardware  and  agricul- 
tural implement  houses.  The  trade  is  ready  at  hand  and  needs  only  to  be  sought 
to  repay  the  merchant  in  handsome  returns  for  his  venture.  There  are  two  banks 
in  the  city— one  national,  the  First  National  Bank  of  Anniston,  capital  $100,000, 
all  paid  in ;  Duncan  T.  Parker,  president ;  Saml.  Noble,  vice-president,  and  O.  E. 
Smith,  cashier;  the  other,  the  banking  house  of  R.  J.  Riddle  &  Co.  They  are 
both  doing  a  very  satisfactory  business,  and  are  liberal,  public-spirited  institutions, 
always  ready  to  exert  themselves  in  furthering  any  enterprise  for  the  development 
of  the  grand  resources  of  this  section.  . 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  present  extent  of  Anniston's  commercial  and 
manufacturing  interests,  the  following  description  of  the  leading  establishments 
now  in  existence  there  is  presented : 


ALABAMA. 


THE   WOODSTOCK   IRON  COMPANY. 

The  officers  of  this  concern  are  A.  L.  Tyler,  president ;  Sidney  F.  Tyler,  vice- 
president  ;  Samuel  Noble,  secretary  and  treasurer ;  Charles  Noble,  superintendent 
of  furnaces  and  mines. 

The  first  furnace  was  projected  by  the  present  president  and  secretary  in  1872. 
The  furnaces  and  yards  occupy  about  50  acres.  The  location  is  Ul  that  could  be 
desired,  adjoining  the  main  line  of  railroad,  with  several  side  tracks  leading  direct 
to  furnaces. 


Furnace  No.  1  was  blown  in  12 
years  ago;  No.  2  in  1879,  since 
which  time  they  have  never  been 
stopped,  except  for  occasional 
necessary  repairs.  With  these  fur- 
naces the  cast-iron  V-tube  hot-blast 
pipes  are  used.  The  heat  required 
for  making  charcoal  car-wheel  iron  is  not  as  great  as  that  needed  for  making 
foundry  iron ;  therefore,  the  enormously  expensive  Whitwell  ovens  are  not  used. 
The  total  height  of  Furnace  No.  1  is  50  feet.  The  hearth  is  5  feet  6  inches  in 
diameter  and  the  bosh  11  feet.  The  tuyeres  are  4|  inches,  six  in  number,  and  48 
inches  in  height.  No.  2  is  50  feet  high,  6  feet  hearth,  12  feet  bosh,  and  has  six 
4|-inch  tuyeres  50  inches  high.  Both  furnaces  are  open  fronts.  Hydraulic  hoists 
are  used.  No.  1  is  only  a  7-foot  lift,  owing  to  its  being  built  on  the  side  of  a  hill. 
The  hoist  at  No.  2  is  almost  the  entire  height  of  the  furnace.  There  are  two 


260  ALABAMA. 

Blake  crushers  in  use.  The  coal  and  ore  sheds  and  roasting  and  screening  depart- 
ments are  well  fitted  up  in  every  respect  and  are  very  extensive. 

The  engines  are  alike  at  both  furnaces,  have  a  48-inch  stroke,  36-inch  steam 
cylinder  and  73-inch  blowing  cylinder.  The  engine  that  drives  the  electric-light 
motor  is  supplied  with  steam  direct  from  the  furnace  boilers,  which  is  raised  from 
waste  gases  in  the  furnace. 

The  mines  have  been  worked  (a  portion  of  them  within  the  city  limits)  since 
1872.  Millions  of  tons  have  been  taken  out,  but  millions  more  are  left,  and  the 
deeper  the  mines  go  down  the  finer  is  the  quality  of  the  ore,  while  the  width  of 
the  deposits  increases.  The  ore  is  the  brown  hematite,  yielding  50  per  cent.  iron. 

At  the  mines  are  three  ore  Avashers,  which  wash  from  40  to  50  tons  each  per 
day.  The  washers  are  run  by  15-horse-power  engines,  and  12  carts  are  used  for 
bringing  the  ore  to  the  washers,  from  which  it  is  loaded  on  the  cars.  A  tramway 
is  shortly  to  be  laid  from  the  mine  to  the  dumps. 

In  addition  to  the  two  furnaces  in  the  city,  the  company  own  two  on  the  line 
of  the  Anniston  and  Atlantic  Railroad,  a  line  constructed  by  them,  and  penetra- 
ting for  50  miles  the  rich  mineral  and  agricultural  country  which  lies  to  the 
southwest.  One  of  these  furnaces  is  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain.  The  ore  is  mined 
up  on  the  slope,  and  is  literally  slided  into  the  fire.  A  more  perfect  arrangement 
and  juxtaposition  of  resources  is  not  possible. 

The  history  of  iron  manufacture  at  Anniston  has  been  one  of  phenomenal 
success.  Since  its  furnaces  were  built  the  iron  industry  has  suffered  the  severest 
depressions  it  has  ever  known,  and  the  fires  have  been  extinguished  in  the  most 
favored  regions.  Anniston  has  never  known  what  it  was  to  see  a  cold  furnace, 
and  the  fame  of  its  fine  iron  has  extended  throughout  the  whole  country.  The 
great  enterprises  of  the  Woodsl  ock  Iron  Company,  representing  an  investment  of 
many  millions,  are  flourishing  in  spite  of  the  financial  depression  which,  during 
the  past  few  years,  has  proven  fatal  to  so  many  similar  establishments.  The  man- 
agement of  this  company  recognized  at  the  beginning  the  importance  of  having 
an  organized  force  of  contented  labor,  and  to  this  end  they  have  always  thought 
first  of  the  comfort  of  their  employees,  and  then  of  their  own  gain.  Knowing 
that,  in  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron,  labor  is  the  great  factor,  and  that  it  being 
healthy,  contented,  comfortably  housed,  and  a  proper  regard  paid  to  its  moral 
wants,  the  greatest  possible  results  would  be  achieved,  there  has  been  no  effort 
spared  to  make  the  lives  of  the  working  people  bright  and  happy.  As  they 
anticipated,  their  pains  have  been  richly  rewarded,  and  it  can  be  safely  asserted 
that  thd  same  results  in  actual  wealth  created  would,  at  any  other  point  in  the 
South,  have  required  25  per  cent,  more  labor. 

THE  ANNISTON  CAR  WHEEL  WORKS. 

In  1882  the  works  of  Noble  Bros,  were  moved  from  Rome,  Ga.,  to  Anniston, 
for  the  manufacture  of  car  wheels  and  axles,  steam  engines  and  heavy  castings. 
The  works  comprise  a  two- story  brick  machine  shop  50x150  feet,  a  foundry  84x 
335  feet,  and  the  forge,  80x215  feet,  and  are  built  with  every  modern  improvement, 
with  hydraulic  cranes  for  handling  everything.  The  car  wheel  foundry  has  two 
cupolas  with  a  melting  capacity  of  40,000  pounds  per  hoi%.and  capable  of  turning 
out  300  car  wheels  per  day.  The  machine  shops  are  provided  with  improved 
machinery  and  tools  for  boring  wheels,  turning  axles  and  constructing  engines 
and  heavy  machinery,  the  whole  operated  by  a  120-horse-power  Corliss  beam 
engine.  The  rolling  mill  and  steam  forgfe  for  making  car  and  locomotive  axles 
contains  three  steam  hammers,  together  with  a  200-horse-power  engine  for  driving 
the  rolls  for  working  up  scrap  iron  into  muck  bar  ready  for  the  steam  hammer. 
The  puddling  furnaces  have  been  provided  for  working  up  charcoal  pig  iron  with 


ALABAMA. 


263  ALABAMA. 

the  wrought  iron  scrap  into  axles.  The  entire  plant  of  this  firm  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  complete  of  its  kind  in  the  Southern  States.  The  wheels  are 
manufactured  of  the  charcoal  iron  produced  at  the  Anniston  and  Clifton  furnaces. 
It  is  unsurpassed  for  car-wheel  purposes;  is  strong  and  of  good  chilling  prop- 
erties. The  wheels  are  all  guaranteed  for  50,000  miles,  and  many  of  them  run 
150,000  miles.  They  are  in  use  by  most  of  the  principal  railroads  in  the  South. 

The  tracks  of  the  Georgia  Pacific,  East  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  Georgia  and 
Anniston  and  Atlantic  Railroads  all  run  into  the  car-wheel  works.  The  office  is 
elegantly  fitted ;  it  contains  a  large  fire-proof  vault,  and  is  more  suggestive  of  that 
of  a  bank  in  a  large  city  than  a  factory. 

Messrs.  John  and  William  Noble  are  the  managing  partners  of  the  concern. 
Their  car  wheels  have  obtained  a  reputation  second  to  none  in  the  South,  and 
they  are  both  practical  machinists  and  gentlemen  of  great  business  capability. 

THE  COTTON  MILL 

id  a  handsome  three-story  brick  building,  the  grounds  in  front  of  which  are  most 
attractive,  being  laid  out  with  flower  beds  and  rare  and  choice  plants.  It  is  owned 
by  the  Anniston  Manufacturing  Company,  an  incorporated  company,  of  which  A. 
L.  Tyler  is  president,  J.  B.  Goodwin,  treasurer,  and  R.  Hampson,  superintendent. 
Adjoining  are  four  iron  fire-proof  warehouses,  which  have  a  capacity  for  storing 
6,000  bales  of  cotton. 

The  machine  shop  is  furnished  with  two  lathes,  a  planer  and  upright  drill  run 
by  steam  power.  There  is  also  a  carpenter  and  blacksmith  shop.  This  places  the 
company  in  a  position  to  do  all  their  own  repairs  in  the  mill.  The  picker  room 
has  two  breakers  and  three  finishing  and  lapping  machines,  manufactured  by 
Whitehead  &  Atherton,  of  Lowell,  Mass.  The  card  room  contains  48  Biddeford 
cards  and  48  Franklin  Foundry  cards,  which  run  12  in  a  section.  The  spinning 
room  has  a  total  number  of  11,238  spindles  (the  highest  number  in  the  State)  and 
six  Lewiston  warpers.  The  slasher  room  contains  two  Lowell  hot  air  dressers. 
The  weave  shop,  on  the  first  floor,  has  320  Lewiston  looms.  The  cloth  room,  for 
finishing,  folding,  baling  and  stamping,  is  supplied  with  Lowell  machinery  for  the 
different  purposes.  The  motive  power  is  a  Buckeye  engine  of  300  horse-power, 
supplied  by  five  boilers  manufactured  by  Noble  Bros.  The  building  is  supplied 
throughout  with  automatic  sprinklers,  fire-plugs  with  hose  attached  on  each  floor 
and  hydrants  surrounding  the  mill,  which  is  close  to  the  water-works.  For  the 
comfort  of  the  hands,  dressing  rooms  are  provided  on  each  floor.  The  number  of 
hands  employed  is  270. 

The  Anniston  Mills  are  the  largest  in  Alabama.  They  manufacture  sheetings 
and  shirtings,  with  a  capacity  of  115,000  yards  per  week,  averaging  53|  yards  to 
the  loom  per  day  of  10  hours.  This  product  is  shipped  to  New  Orleans,  Texas, 
New  York,  and  the  larger  towns  and  cities  of  the  South.  The  water  for  the  mill 
is  supplied  by  the  Anniston  water-works  and  two  fine  springs  which  feed  a  large 
reservoir  in  tho  yard. 

The  village  at  the  rear  of  the  works  is  owned  by  the  company,  and  contains- 
50  well-built  and  substantial  houses,  in  which  the  factory  hands  reside, 

ANNISTON  FOUNDRY. 

This  foundry,  formerly  of  Cartersville,  Ga.,  has  been  removed  to  Anuiston 
and  established  on  a  larger  scale.  It  was  run  at  Cartersville  in  connection  with 
the  Georgia  Car  Company.  The  buildings  are  substantial  and  commodious. 
Murray  &  Stevenson  are  the  proprietors,  who  manufacture  all  the  castings  for  the 
Anniston  Car  Company  with  the  exception  of  wheels,  and  do  all  the  work  for 
the  Woodstock  Iron  Company's  furnaces  here  and  at  Clifton,  besides  builders.' 
castings  and  a  general  repair  business. 


ALABAMA. 


263 


THE  ICE   PACTOKY 

is  owned  by  an  incorporated  company,  of  which  W.  J.  Rushton  is  president,  W. 
J.  Cameron  secretaiy  and  treasurer,  and  F.  W.  Dixon  manager.  The  factory  is 
run  by  a  Boyle  ice  machine  and  has  an  output  of  three  tons  per  day.  It  is  work- 
ing to  its  full  capacity  at  the  present  time,  and  will  soon  have  to  enlarge  to  meet 
the  increasing  demand. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  establishments  that  have  given  to  Anniston  its  char- 
acter as  a  manufacturing  city,  for  it  is  distinctively  that ;  but  they  are  only  a  hint 
of  what  the  future  will  show.  The  cheapness  of  iron  and  coal,  the  near  prox- 
imity of  almost  exhaustless  supplies  of  the  finest  timber  of  all  kinds,  the  trans- 
portation facilities  for  the  distribution  of  products — these  and  other  advantages 
are  leading  to  the  establishment  of  manufactures  of  various  kinds.  Factories  for 
the  manufacture  of  furniture,  of  agricultural  implements,  of  carriages,  wagons, 
etc.,  of  hardware  specialties,  of  railroad  supplies,  of  stoves,  and  all  the  varied 
articles  into  which  wood  and  iron  enter,  will  be  called  into  existence.  Some  are 


ANNISTON  INN— GRAND  STAIRCASE. 

there  now  doing  a  flourishing  business.  Among  other  enterprises,  there  are  two 
planing  mills  in  constant  operation.  Fine  residences  and  storehouses  are  in  pro- 
cess of  construction,  and  its  mercantile  business  is  rapidly  extending.  There  are 
scores  of  handsome  retail  stores  with  excellent  stocks.  Two  wholesale  houses  do 
considerable  jobbing,  and  send  their  drummers  to  contest  with  Atlanta,  Birming- 
ham and  Montgomery  for  the  trade  of  the  neighboring  towns. 

THE  WATER-WORKS. 

Ill  1882  the  construction  of  water-works  was  commenced  by  the  sinking  of  a 
well  10  feet  in  diameter  and  80  feet  deep,  the  whole  lined  with  a  heavy  cast  iron 
curbing  put  in  in  segments,  all  bolted  securely  together.  A  splendid  150-horse- 
power  beam  engine  was  built  and  placed  in  position  to  pump  die  water  from  the 
well  and  force  it  to  the  reservoir,  at  an  elevation  of  230  feet,  on  one  of  the  hills 
east  of  the  city,  one  and  a-half  miles  distant.  Heavy  iron  pipes  were  laid  through 


264  ALABAMA. 

the  streets;  ever  40  fire  hydrants  were  put  up  at  different  points  where  property 
was  most  exposed,  and  Anniston  provided  with  a  supply  of  pure,  clear,  mountain- 
spring  water  distributed  over  the  town  at  a  pressure  of  100  pounds  to  the  inch. 
The  reservoir  is  always  full,  and  the  pressure  constant  and  great  enough  to  dis- 
pense with  the  use  of  fire  engines,  hose  carriages  only  being  employed,  giving 
Anniston  water  facilities  and  fire  protection  unsurpassed  by  any  city  in  the 
United  States. 

ELECTRIC   LIGHTS. 

In  1884  a  contract  was  made  with  the  Brush  Electric  Light  Company  for  a 
plant  to  light  the  town  and  furnaces  by  electricity.  This  was  done  by  putting  up 
arc  lamps  of  2,000  candle-power  iii  different  parts  of  the  city. 

THE   FAMOUS  ANNISTON  INN. 

This  is  a  building  deserving  special  mention.  It  was  commenced  in  the  fall 
of  1884,  and  finished  and  opened  to  the  public  in  April,  1885.  It  has  been  pro- 
nounced the  conipletest  hotel  in  the  South,  and  no  man  wrho  has  not  seen  it  has  a 
right  to  dispute  that  claim.  It  is  a  graceful  specimen  of  Queen  Anne  architecture. 
Its  very  appearance  is  an  invitation  to  rest  and  ease.  The  wide  verandas  extend- 
ing entirely  around  the  first  three  floors  indicate  easy  chairs  and  delicious  breezes 
as  far  as  they  can  be  seen.  The  approach  to  the  inn  is  past  a  20-acre  lawn,  in  the 
center  of  which  a  lake  is  being  constructed,  and  up  the  graveled  walks  which 
wind  their  way  through  the  luxuriant  blue-grass  to  the  broad  stone  stairway  at 
the  main  entrance.  The  interior  of  the  inn  more  than  fulfills  the  expectation 
awakened  by  its  external  attractions.  It  is  simply  perfect  in  all  its  appointments. 
The  interior  finish  is  of  solid  wood  polished  like  satin,  and  relieved  by  unique 
tiles  and  rich  tapestry.  The  square  windows  with  their  stained  glass  and  artistic 
draperies  soften  the  scene  with  a  peculiarly  fine  effect.  The  parlors  are  magnifi- 
cently furnished,  and  offer  many  tempting  devices  for  the  ease  of  their  occupants. 
The  bed  rooms  are  large  and  perfectly  ventilated,  and  from  the  second  to  the  fifth 
floor  are  furnished  in  equal  style  and  taste.  But  the  most  beautiful  apartment  in 
this  elegant  establishment  is  the  dining  room.  Its  walls  are  of  oak,  with  exqui- 
sitely carved  ornaments  and  the  finest  attainable  polish.  The  glowing  arches 
which  span  it  in  three  places  and  the  exquisite  inlaid  work  which  shines  about 
the  windows  in  various  designs  are  among  the  many  things  to  admire  in  this 
royal  room.  Its  tables  are  furnished  with  the  clearest  crystal,  the  brightest  silver 
and  the  most  beautiful  china.  The  menu  is  in  keeping  with  the  elegance  of  the 
table  settings.  The  entire  house  is  lighted  both  with  incandescent  electric  lights 
and  with  gas.  It  is  kept  in  every  respect  up  to  the  metropolitan  standard,  and  is 
under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Harry  Hardell,  a  well-known  Philadelphia  hotel 
man,  who  is  assisted  by  Mr.  Pendleton,  of  Richmond,  Va.  From  the  verandas  of 
the  hotel  a  superb  view  is  had.  The  breezes  sweeping  constantly  through  the 
wide  arches  and  the  fluttering  curtains  make  the  inn  a  most  tempting  summer 
resort,  and  it  is  arranged  to  be  kept  warm  and  cozy  in  winter,  so  that  whenever 
the  traveler  finds  shelter  beneath  its  roof  he  can  be  comfortable  and  happy.  The 
following  detailed  description  of  it  is  taken  from  the  Atlanta  Constitution: 

"The  Anniston  Inn  has  to-day  been  thrown  open  to  the  public,  complete  in 
every  detail — nothing  wanting,  nothing  lacking,  nothing  left  undone — a  perfect 
marvel  of  finish,  painstaking  work,  of  convenience,  of  comfort,  luxury  and  taste; 
furnished  as  has  not  been  surpassed  in  this  or  any  other  country. 

"The  situation  itself  is  everything  that  could  be  desired,  commanding  the 
most  beautiful  views  in  every  direction,  of  the  finest  valley  and  mountain  scenery 
in  the  South.  The  grounds  have  been  laid  off  on  every  side  and  graded  and 
sodded,  shrubbery  planted,  walks  graveled  and  rolled,  drives  paved,  and  the  whole 


ALABAMA. 


265 


work  made  permanent  and  secure  by  the  most  thorough  system  of  paving  and 
draining.  The  architecture  of  the  inn  is  Queen  Anne.  The  first  story  is  cut 
stone,  the  second  of  pressed  brick,  and  the  third  and  fourth  and  fifth  of  heavy 
framed  work,  covered  with  California  redwood  shingles  and  Georgia  slate.  The 
wide  windows,  heavy  window  frames,  gables  and  large  bay  windows  give  a  grand 
and  picturesque  effect.  The  interior,  from  the  first  floor  to  the  top,  is  one  beauti- 
ful piece  of  cabinet  work  of  oak,  selected  Southern  pine,  California  redwood  and 
walnut.  The  ceilings,  floor,  beams,  wainscoting  and  window,  door  casings,  hall, 
offices,  ladies  and  gentlemen's  parlor,  the  sitting  and  dining  room,  have  been  fin- 
ished and  highly  polished,  bringing  out  the  natural  grain  of  the  wood  as  perfectly 
as  the  finest  finished  furniture.  The  heavy  girders  supporting  the  ceiling  of  the 
dining  room,  ladies'  parlor  and  rotunda  have  been  encased  in  oak  beautifully  pan- 
eled and  polished.  The  grand  staircase  is  a  masterpiece  of  workmanship  and  art ; 
built  of  massive  polished  oak  and  flanked  on  every  floor  with  beautiful  stained- 
glass  windows.  The  ladies'  chambers  are  large,  with  wide  windows,  all  opening 
so  each  window  gives  a  view  of  the  grand  scenery  beyond.  Every  room  from 


ANNISTON  INN — SMOKING  ALCOVH. 


basement  to  the  top  floor,  as  well  as  the  broad  porch  that  extends  for  nearly  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  around  the  building,  is  lighted  by  the  Brush  incandescent  light, 
the  whole  arranged  either  for  gas  or  electricity.  The  building  is  heated  through- 
put by  hot  water  conveyed  through  pipes  and  register  in  the  rooms  and  halls, 
while  the  baths  and  water  closets  are  supplied  on  every  floor  with  abundance  of 
clean  water  from  the  mountain  water-works,  and  the  entire  building  protected  in 
case  of  fire  by  hose  on  each  floor ;  water  always  on  at  a  high  pressure  from  the 
mountain  reservoir.  The  elevators  are  run  by  hydraulic  pressure  from  the  same 
source. 

"The  ladies'  parlor  is  carpeted  with  heavy  Wilton  carpet;  the  windows 
draped  with  heavy  Turcoman  old  gold  and  velvet  curtains  suspended  by  brass 
poles  and  brackets.  The  furniture  is  upholstered  with  blue  crimson  silk  plush; 
the  tables  are  ebony  beautifully  inlaid;  the  chandeliers  are  yellow  brass,  with 
•center-piece  of  beaten  copper  ornamented  with  silver.  The  fireplaces  in  parlor, 


266  ALABAMA. 

gentlemen's  sitting  room  and  dining  room  are  built  of  '  terra  cotta;'  are  very  wide 
and  old-fashioned,  extending  from  floor  to  ceiling,  and  are  ornamented  with  heavy 
brass  andirons  and  fenders.  The  upper  sash  of  the  windows  of  first  floor,  as  well 
as  the  doors  to  ladies'  parlor  and  main  hall,  are  stained  glass;  the  windows  and 
archways  all  draped  with  rich  Turcoman  curtains.  The  furniture  of  office  and 
gentlemen's  -parlor  is  cherry,  beautifully  carved — the  large  arm  and  smokers' 
chairs,  cherry,  cushioned  with  olive  green  leather;  the  writing  table,  a  desk  of 
cherry,  e'egantly  finished.  The  dining  room  is  a  gem— a  thirtg  of  beauty — well 
lighted  with  broad  square  and  bay  windows  on  every  side — the  upper  sash,  with 
small  stained  glass,  being  stationary;  the  lower  being  doors  of  large  glass  swing- 
ing on  hinges,  opening  outward — all  the  windows  being  hung  with  heavy  rich 
Turcoman  curtains,  the  floor  carpeted  with  heavy  Hartford  body  Brussels  carpets, 
as  are  the  halls,  office,  gentlemen's  parlor  and  smoking  room,  stairway,  and  every 
chamber  in  the  inn.  The  chambers  are  large  and  splendidly  ventilated — windows 
of  double  width,  protected  by  linen  window  shades  on  spring  rollers;  next  with 
folding  inside  blinds.  The  windows  of  every  chamber  are  draped  with  costly 
Madras  curtains.  Many  of  the  suites  of  rooms  have  bay  windows  and  broad  tile 
fireplaces,  writh  massive  paneled  mantels  of  polished  yellow  pine  and  beveled 
plate-glass  mirrors.  The  furniture  of  chambers  is  highly  polished  cherry  and  ash, 
each  bed  furnished  with  a  spring  and  hair  mattress;  the  pillows  and  bolsters  of 
feathers  of  best  quality.  The  blankets,  quilts  and  linens  are  of  the  finest  quality, 
and  in  keeping  with  the  surroundings. 

"  The  table  linen  is  of  the  choicest  quality ;  the  silver  plain,  but  massive;  the 
china  and  glass  are  in  keeping  with  the  whole.  Two  hundred  guests  can  be  com- 
fortably seated.  The  children's  and  servants'  dining  rooms  are  fitted  up  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  main  dining  room.  The  inn  has  two  large  refrigerators  on 
the  ground  floor  capable  of  holding  a  car  load  of  meat  and  fruit,  and  one  large 
refrigerator  for  general  storage,  and  a  smaller  one  on  kitchen  floor  for  daily  use. 
On  the  first  floor  of  the  building  known  as  the  annex  are  the  steam  laundry,  iron- 
ing room,  bakery  and  boiler  room,  with  two  40-horse-power  locomotive  boilers  to 
heat  the  building  and  run  the  electric  engines.  On  the  second  floor  is  the  kitchen, 
serving  room,  china  and  silver  room  and  pantry,  all  fitted  in  the  most  thorough 
manner.  The  two  floors  above  are  the  servants'  quarters,  being  a  small  inn  of 
itself,  the  rooms  being  nicely  furnished  and  carpeted,  with  bath  rooms  and  closets- 
on  each  floor." 

AS  A  PLACE   OP  KESIDENCE. 

Anniston  combines  unexampled  advantages  as  a  manufacturing  and  business 
center,  with  all  that  can  be  desired  to  make  up  the  attractions  of  a  delightful  and 
healthy  home.  The  site  of  this  town  possesses  every  feature  that  an  experienced 
engineer  would  desire  in  selecting  a  perfect  location  for  a  city.  It  is  the  highest 
point  on  a  railroad  in  Alabama.  The  beautiful  valley  in  which  it  is  situated  lie& 
at  the  foot  of  Blue  Mountain  range,  800  feet  above  tidewater,  and,  sloping  from 
the  east  and  west  to  the  center,  with  a  gentle  fall  toward  the  south,  there  is. 
afforded  the  most  perfect  natural  drainage.  This  natural  advantage  has  been  sup- 
plemented by  a  splendid  system  of  drainage  constructed  by  the  founders  of  the 
city.  The  Blue  Mountain  range  towers  1,000  feet  above  the  valley,  and  its  pic- 
turesque slopes  present  the  most  attractive  building  sites,  from  which  the  eye  is 
delighted  by  long  stretches  of  beautiful  scenery  and  extended  views  of  the  country 
beyond,  to  a  distance  of  30  miles  or  more. 

The  three  essentials  of  a  good  home  are :  1st.  Pure  air.  2d.  Good  water. 
3d.  A  salubrious  climate.  All  of  these  are  to  be  found  at  Anniston.  The  air 
sweeps  over  upland  valleys  and  table-lands  nearly  1,000  feet  above  the  sea  level; 
pure  and  sparkling  water  from  the  mountain  ranges  is  obtained,  while  the  climate 


ALABAMA. 


267 


is  delicious  the  year  through.  Its  pure  air  from  pine-clad  mountains,  its  pure 
water,  its  absolute  freedom  from  all  malarial  influences  and  from  mosquitoes,  its 
equable  climate — free  from  the  rigorous  winters  of  the  North  and  from  the 
oppressive  heat  of  less  elevated  localities  South — make  this,  in  point  of  health 
and  comfort,  equal  to  any  locality  on  this  continent.  In  addition  to  natural 
charms,  everything  that  could  contribute  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  city  has 
been  done.  It  was  completely  surveyed  and  laid  off  before  a  house  was  built ; 
then  the  streets  were  planted  with  shade  trees  and  tunneled  with  sewers.  The 
streets  are  broad  and  smooth,  with  wide,  well-paved  sidewalks.  No  expense  or 
pains  have  been  spared  in  grading  and  improving  the  streets,  which  are  covered 
with  crushed  slag,  and  rolled  down  to  a  perfection  of  hard,  smootb,  clean  surface, 
splendid  for  riding  and  driving.  A  finely-constructed  turnpike  road  across  the 


ANNISTON  INN— A  CHAMBER. 


mountain  east  of  Anniston  to  the  beautiful  Choccolocco  Valley  beyond  will  afford 
a  drive  over  what  is  probably  the  finest  highway  in  Alabama.  The  city  is  lighted 
by  electricity,  the  streets,  the  hotel,  opera  house,  furnaces,  etc.,  all  being  illuminated 
by  the  Brush  system.  There  is  a  fine  system  of  public  schools.  There  are  five 
churches,  besides  those  for  colored  persons.  There  are  now  in  course  of  erection 
two  churches,  "which,  for  architectural  beauty  and  elegance  of  interior  finish,  will 
compare  favorably  with  any  in  the  oldest  and  wealthiest  portions  of  our  country. 
There  are  beautiful  parks  and  shade  trees.  The  stores  are  fine,  solid,  commodious 
brick  structures,  some  with  handsome  iron  fronts  and  large  plate-glass  windows. 
One  is  struck  with  the  neat,  clean,  well-to-do  appearance  of  the  business  houses, 
and  the  entire  absence  of  the  small  shed  and  shanty  style  of  stores  common  in. 
towns  the  size  of  Anniston.  The  merchants  are  brisk,  live,  vigorous;  they  all 


ALABAMA. 


ALABAMA.  269> 

seem  to  be  bue<y  and  prosperous.  There  is  an  air  of  thrift  pervading  everything. 
The  residents,  from  one  end  of  the  town  to  the  other,  seem  imbued  with  a  sense 
of  cleanliness  and  neatness  and  order.  The  influence  of  the  founders  of  the  town, 
has  made  itself  felt  everywhere,  and  the  streets  and  buildings  are  kept  in  perfect 
condition.  Everybody  seems  proud  of  the  town  and  anxious  to  do  his  part 
towards  keeping  up  its  reputation.  In  and  around  the  city  are  some  magnificent 
private  residences,  the  homes  of  proprietors  of  manufacturing  establishments 
here.  Those  outside  of  the  city  have  extensive  grounds,  with  handsome  lawns 
ornamented  with  evergreens,  flowers,  etc.,  and  provided  with  all  the  comforts  and 
conveniences  and  luxurious  appointments  that  could  be  possessed  in  suburban 
homes  around  any  large  city.  Fine  lawns,  terraces,  orchards,  shrubbery,  orna- 
mental gardening,  conservatories,  &c.,  show  the  refined  tastes  of  the  people  of 
Anniston. 

There  are  suburban  towns  for  the  families  of  the  men  employed  in  the  shops ; 
another  for  the  factory  people,  and  another  where  the  homes  of  the  colored  people 
are  gathered.  All  are  laid  out  regularly  and  are  made  attractive. 

The  working  classes  are  well  paid  and  well  cared  for.  They  live  in  homes — 
not  in  hives.  Their  cottages  are  models  of  neatness  and  comfort.  They  are  built 
of  the  best  material,  painted  and  plastered,  and  furnished  with  water,  which  comes 
gushing  down  from  the  reservoir  that  supplies  the  entire  city.  Attached  to  each 
cottage  is  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  which  is  devoted  to  flowers  and  vegetables.  The 
pride  of  the  cottagers  in  beautifying  their  premises  is  remarkable,  some  of  them 
displaying  unusual  taste  and  skill.  One  who  has  never  seen  a  crowded  manufac- 
turing town  in  the  North  or  in  England  cannot  appreciate  the  comforts  of  the 
Anniston  mechanics.  Compare  these  pretty  cottages,  with  their  ventilation,  their 
vine-covered  porches  and  their  blooming  gardens,  with  one  of  those  enormous 
tenements  where  the  men,  women  and  children  are  packed  into  narrow  rooms, 
shut  out  from  the  light  and  the  breeze,  and  shut  in  with  discomfort  and  disease. 
The  difference  can  be  read  in  the  appearance  of  the  people  who  are  placed  in 
these  contrasted  conditions.  The  pale,  pathetic  faces,  with  their  Aveary,  timid 
look,  so  often  seen  in  great  manufactories,  are  unknown  in  this  place,  where  air 
and  exercise,  clean  houses,  pure  water  and  wholesome  food  are  afforded  to  all. 

Rents  are  very  light.  Four-room  cottages  are  only  $7  a  month,  and  six-room 
cottages  only  $10. 

The  city  is  surrounded  by  some  of  the  richest  counties  in  the  State.  The 
fertile  lands  and  the  needs  of  the  growing  population  of  the  town  offer  induce- 
ments to  the  farmer  and  truck  raiser.  The  surrounding  country  offers  rare 
attractions  to  the  sportsman,  the  mountains  and  forests  abounding  in  game. 

AS  A   RESORT. 

The  numerous  attractions  that  give  to  Anniston  its  charm,  as  a  home  also 
make  it  a  delightful  place  of  resort  for  those  seeking  health  or  pleasure.  The 
climate,  for  its  mild  equability,  is  unsurpassed.  The  heavily  timbered  mountains, 
the  extensive  pine  forests  beyond,  the  great  elevation  above  the  sea,  the  cool  days 
and  cool  nights  in  summer,  the  mild  and  even  temperature  of  winter,  the  entire 
absence  of  those  conditions  that  breed  mosquitoes  and  miasma,  epidemic  diseases 
being  unknown;  the  beautifully  sodded  fields  as  a  result  of  10  years'  persistent 
cultivation  of  the  grasses,  the  thousands  of  water-oak  shade  trees,  the  beautiful 
drives,  the  springs  of  cool,  refreshing  freestone  water  coming  from  the  base  of  the 
hills,  combine  to  perfect  in  Anniston  the  ideal  summer  and  winter  resort.  And  it 
is  for  this  purpose  that  the  Anniston  Inn,  described  above,  was  built  and  furnished 
in  such  magnificent  style.  Persons  going  to  Florida  in  the  fall  or  returning  North 
in  the  spring  will  find  this  inn  a  most  entrancing  place  for  a  short  sojourn.  The 


270 


ALABAMA. 


ALABAMA.  271 

jstop  here  will  break  the  fatigue  of  a  long  ride.  The  railroads  will  give  travelers 
every  facility  for  stopping  over  as  long  as  they  rnay  desire,  and  will  protect  them 
in  their  through-rate  tickets. 

Anniston  is  destined  to  a  great  future.  Its  healthy  and  beautiful  location, 
splendid  climate,  enormous  mineral  wealth  and  rich  tributary  agricultural  country 
give  it  such  material  advantages  that  it  will  continue  to  increase  in  population 
and  wealth  much  more  rapidly  than  in  the  past. 

You  have  here  a  town  complete  in  all  its  appointments,  without  a  dollar  of 
floating  or  bonded  debt,  and  protected  by  a  provision  embodied  in  the  town 
charter  that  no  tax  of  more  than  cne  halt  of  1  per  cent,  shall  be  assessed  for 
municipal  purposes. 

There  is  no  other  place  in  the  Southern  States  so  healthy,  so  beautifully 
situated ;  none  where  the  air  is  purer,  the  water  clearer,  and  where  there  are  so 
many  pleasant  inducements  to  the  full  enjoyment  of  these  luxuries  of  life,  as  in 
Anniston. 

IRONATON, 

in  Talladega  County,  Alabama,  20  miles  from  Anniston,  is  owned  and  was  built  by 
the  Clifton  Iron  Company,  and  it  is  beautifully  situated,  with  every  provision  for 
drainage,  and  laid  off  in  broad  streets  planted  in  shade  trees.  The  company  com- 
menced the  construction  of  Furnace  No  2  in  June,  1884,  and  completed  and 
started  it  in  May,  1885.  This  furnace  is  one  <  f  the  finest  in  the  South;  is  55  feet 
high  and  12-foot  bosh ;  is  provided  with  two  Whitwell  stoves  and  Grittinger  ore 
kilns  for  calcining  ore.  It  is  built  close  to  the  ore  banks.  The  furnace  produces 
300  tons  per  week  of  standard  charcoal  car  wheel  and  malleable  iron — the  iron 
being  noted  for  its  tenacity  and  excellent  chilling  properties,  and  being  lower  in 
phosphorus  than  any  other  ores  in  the  State.  The  furnaces  at  Jenifer  belonging 
to  this  company  arc  also  supplied  with  ore  from  the  mines  at  Ironaton,  the  pro- 
duct of  both  furnaces  reaching  450  tons  per  week. 

The  towTn  and  furnaces  are  supplied  by  water  brought  by  a  10-inch  main  from 
a  mountain  stream  two  and  a-half  miles  distant  to  a  storage  reservoir  of  2,000,000 
gallons  near  the  town,  from  whence  it  is  distributed  through  the  town  to  the  fur- 
naces and  to  the  ore  mines  for  washing  the  ores.  The  town  is  obtaining  consider- 
able trade  from  the  adjacent  country,  and  is  an  important  shipping  point  by  the 
Anniston  and  Atlantic  road  for  the  people  of  the  adjoining  country.  The  Wood- 
stock Iron  Company  keep  quite  a  force  of  men  mining  and  shipping  ore  to  their 
works  at  Anniston. 

The  officers  of  the  Clifton  Company  are :  Saml.  Noble,  president ;  Sidney  F. 
Tyler,  vice-president;  John  E.  Ware,  secretary  and  treasurer;  S.  N.  Noble,  super- 
intendent. Directors:  John  E.  Ware,  Alfred  L.  Tyler,  W.  S.  Gunnee,  New  York; 
Thos.  T.  Bouve,  Boston. 

Ironaton  is  destined  to  become  quite  an  iron  manufacturing  point,  the  ores 
:being  suitable  for  Bessemer  steel,  and  existing  in  large  quantity 


MISSISSIPPI. 


The  State  of  Mississippi  extends  from  the  35th  degree  of  north  latitude  to 
latitude  30°  13',  and  measures  in  its  greatest  latitudinal  extent  331.65  statute  miles. 
In  longitude  it  extends  under  the  31st  degree  of  north  latitude  from  the  Alabama 
line,  in  longitude  88°  23',  to  longitude  91°  41',  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
measures  in  its  greatest  longitudinal  extent  227.7  statute  miles.  The  area  of  the 
State  is  46,340  square  miles. 

There  are  probably  few  States  in  the  Union  concerning  the  aspect  of  whose 
surface  erroneous  impressions  are  more  generally  prevalent  than  is  the  case  with 
Mississippi.  The  reputed  character  of  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  its  terri- 
tory— the  Mississippi  Bottom — is  very  commonly  referred  to  the  greater  portion 
or  to  the  whole  of  the  State,  among  whose  features,  swamps,  marshes  and  mos- 
quitoes are  thought  to  hold  a  prominent  place.  It  may  not  be  superfluous, 
therefore,  to  premise,  that  outside  of  the  Mississippi  Bottom,  sand  hills,  with  pine, 
black-jack  and  post-oak,  are  a  very  conspicuous  feature  in  the  landscape — the 
surface  being  generally  hilly,  though  nowhere  mountainous.  Few  of  the  ridges 
probably  rise  as  high  as  400  feet  above  the  drainage  of  the  country — the  usual 
elevations  of  the  hills  above  the  minor  watercourses  being  from  30  to  120  feet — 
and  none  probably  are  above  800  feet  in  absolute  elevation. 

For  the  classification  of  soils,  I  shall  divide  the  State  into  six  grand  divisions, 
to  wit :  The  Mississippi  Bottom,  the  Bluff  Formation,  the  Yellow  Loam  Region, 
the  Prairie  Region,  the  Central  Prairie  Region,  the  Pine  Woods  Region. 

I  find  in  a  pamphlet  recently  issued  in  the  interest  of  the  Georgia  Pacific 
Railway,  and  written  by  Messrs.  Campbell  and  Ruffner,  two  eminent  scientists  of 
Virginia,  the  following: 

THE  ALLUVIAL  SOIL  OF  THE  YAZOO  DELTA. 

The  term  Mississippi  Bottom  properly  belongs  to  the  entire  plain  between  the 
bluffs  within  which  the  Mississippi  River  runs,  beginning  at  the  The  Chains, 
thirty  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  and  extending  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  Yazoo  Delta  is  the  part  of  this  plain  lying  between  Memphis  and  Vicksburg, 
and  is  properly  so  named  from  the  fact  that  the  Yazoo  River,  with  its  tributaries, 
drains  the  whole  of  it.  This  vast  delta  is  ellipsoidal  in  shape ;  its  length  is  180 
miles,  and  its  greatest  width  75  miles.  Its  area  is  over  7,000  square  miles,  by 
Prof.  Harper's  computation,  and  nearly  all  of  it  is  in  Mississippi.  It  is  crossed  by 
the  Georgia  Pacific  Railway  near  the  line  of  its  greatest  width.  Much  of  the 
delta  is  liable  to  inundation,  and  on  this  account  was  long  avoided  by  planters. 
But,  thirty  years  ago,  the  Mississippi  River — which  had  communicated  with  the 
delta  through  the  Yazoo  Pass  and  other  bayous — was  excluded  by  levees,  and,  ex- 
cept where  broken  lately,  these  are  now  continuous  from  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo 
River,  near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  delta,  to  its  northern  extremity  near 
Memphis.  Were  the  levees  made  secure,  or  the  jetty  system  of  deepening  the 
channel  resorted  to,  as  probably  will  be  the  case,  the  delta  generally  would  be  pro- 


MISSISSIPPI.  273 

tected  from  inundation;  and  local  levees  would  protect  and  dry  off  much  of  the 
interior  now  subject  to  everflow.  Congress  has  taken  the  matter  in  hand  with 
an  energy  which  promises  the  best  results. 

All  the  soil  reached  by  the  plough  is  of  two  classes — loam  and  clay.  The 
loam  lies  in  ridges,  five  or  six  feet  high,  along  the  banks  of  the  streams.  The  clay 
underlies  the  loam  throughout  the  delta,  and  is  reached  between  the  loam 
ridges  where  the  surface  has  received  less  deposit.  When  swamps  occur  they  are 
equi-distant  between  the  loam  ridges.  These  loam  belts  act  as  levees,  and  because 
of  their  dry  and  elevated  character  are  preferred  for  building  sites. 

The  dark  loams  are  easy  to  work,  quick,  nearly  always  in  good  mechanical 
condition,  and  when  summer  rains  are  seasonable,  produce  the  largest  crops. 

The  Blue  Grass  region  of  Kentucky  will  not  be  able  to  surpass  the  "  buck- 
shot," or  clay  lands,  in  the  production  of  grass  when  the  war  waged  upon  it  by 
the  planters  here  shall  have  ceased.  A  planter,  not  far  from  Greenville,  sowed 
grass  on  his  land,  and  a  neighbor  sued  out  an  injunction  against  him.  Fortun- 
ately, when  the  case  came  to  trial,  the  court  decided  that  grass  on  a  neighbor's 
farm  was  an  affliction  that  had  to  be  borne. 

Cattle  and  hogs  thrive  on  the  delta  almost  without  being  fed.  The  wild 
grasses  in  summer,  and  the  switch  cane  in  winter,  keep  the  cattle  in  good  order; 
whilst  roots,  acorns,  beech-nuts,  pecan  nuts,  etc.,  furnish  abundant  supplies  of 
food  for  hogs.  The  whole  delta  is  burdened  with  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and 
nothing  short  of  a  volume  can  describe  its  wealth  and  all  its  attractions. 

This  region  has  a  most  unmerited  reputation  for  ill  health.  Unquestionably, 
malaria  abounds  in  September,  but  it  is  manageable,  and  the  people  are  manifestly 
healthy.  Having  been  there  during  the  hottest  spell  of  last  summer,  I  would 
not  now  fear  to  return  to  it  at  any  time.  The  timbered  lands  can  be  bought  at 
from  $1  to  $5  an  acre,  and  the  improved  lands  at  from  $5  to  $30  an  acre.  If  there 
is  any  better  investment  in  the  world,  I  know  not  where  it  is. 

The  Mississippi  Bottom,  which  once  reached  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  River, 
has  justly  been  compared  to  the  delta  of  the  Nile ;  but  we  are  in  the  habit  of  re- 
garding as  an  evil  what  the  Egyptians  regard  as  their  greatest  blessing,  viz., 
inundations.  The  great  Mississippi  plain  can  be,  and  will  be,  protected  against 
floods ;  and  yet  floods  made  it  what  it  is,  and  would  build  it  higher  and  maintain 
its  fertility.  As  long  as  it  remains  insufficiently  protected,  however,  planters 
must  be  prepared  for  freshets.  Since  the  drainage  of  the  Yazoo  Delta  has  been 
improved,  the  cotton  planters  have  been  clearing  away  the  forests  and  substi- 
tuting crops  of  corn  and  cotton,  but  the  development  of  this  kingdom  of  agricul- 
tural wealth  has  scarcely  commenced.  The  delta  of  the  Nile  has  never  approached 
in  productiveness  that  of  the  Yazoo  River. 

Inasmuch  as  this  great  plain,  which  extends  from  Vicksburg  to  Memphis,  and 
from  Greenville,  on  the  Mississippi  River,  to  the  bluffs  on  the  edge  of  Carroll 
County,  thus  embracing  more  than  ten  large  counties,  is  destined  to  become  as 
famous  for  its  timber  as  for  its  soil  and  agricultural  productions,  i  desire  to  give 
some  clear  idea  of  the  enormous  natural  growth  upon  it. 

Probably  not  one-fourth  of  the  plain  is  cleared;  and  the  other  three-fourths, 
perhaps  four-fifths,  is  covered  with  probably  the  heaviest  forest  on  the  American 
Continent.  i  have  seen  forests  where  the  trees  were  more  crowded,  and  were 
feeble  and  attenuated  in  consequence ;  but  here  the  trees  usually  have  room  for 
the  full  development  of  their  trunks  at  least.  The  foliage  is  high  overhead,  whilst 
the  great  trunks  seem  sound  and  healthy,  and  stand  in  endless  and  impressive 
columns  around  the  traveler.  Occasionally  I  found  too  much  crowding,  and 
hence  smaller  trees,  constituting  areas  of  what  would  be  called  simply  good 
timber ;  but  the  mills  which  attack  these  forests  must  always  be  supplied  with  the 


274  MISSISSIPPI. 

double  saw  arrangement,  when  circular  saws  are  used,  many  of  the  logs  being 
much  too  large  to  be  cut  by  a  single  saw. 

Except  some  similar  country  in  Arkansas,  Louisiana  and  Tennessee,  there 
are  no  such  lands  on  this  continent,  if  In  the  world,  in  point  of  fertility  and  dura- 
bility, as  the  Yazoo  Kiver  bottoms.  The  crops  of  corn,  cotton  and  oats  that  have 
been  and  are  made  there  are  enormous.  If  this  land  were  cleared  and  well  culti- 
vated, it  could  be  made  to  produce  enough  cotton  for  the  world's  present  demand. 

This  country  is  now  rapidly  improving.  One  great  trunk  line  traverses  it, 
running  from  New  Orleans  to  Memphis.  Another  road  will  cross  it,  running  from 
Canton,  Mississippi,  to  Arkansas  City,  Arkansas.  It  has  been  running  to  Yazoo 
City  for  some  time.  Another  road  is  projected  to  cross  the  delta  from  Greenville, 
Mississippi,  and  is  built  some  distance  east 

THE  BLUFF  FORMATION. 

The  Bluff  Formation  forms  an  excellent  soil,  decidedly  one  of  the  most  fertile 
in  the  State.  But  a  careless  and  unnatural  agriculture  has  almost  completely 
worn  out  the  soil.  The  territory  of  this  formation  extends  to  about  twelve  miles 
east  from  the  Mississippi. 

The  Yellow  Loam  Region,  called  by  Prof.  Harper  the  Middle  Tertiary  or 
Miocene  Formation,  extends  from  the  boundary  line  of  Tennessee,  or  from  the 
35th  degree  of  north  latitude,  to  the  line  of  the  Eocene  Formation,  very  nearly 
along  a  line  determined  by  82°  30'  of  north  latitude,  and  extends,  westward,  to 
the  alluvium  of  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Rivers,  where  it  has  been  washed  away 
to  a  great  extent,  and  the  remaining  portion  overlaid  by  the  sediment  of  the 
rivers.  Eastward  it  extends  to  the  Cretaceous  Formation.  Within  those  bound- 
aries it  comprises  about  10,692  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  newer  Tertiary  Formation  is  generally  very  hilly.  Its 
upper  members  consist  most  generally  of  different  kinds  of  sand  or  clay,  which 
are  very  easily  washed  and  swept  away  by  the  water  of  the  atmospherical  pre- 
cipitations, and  high  hills  and  deep  vallies  or  gullies  of  erosion  and  denudation 
characterize  it  everywhere,  and  render  it,  in  some  parts,  unlit,  in  others  difficult 
for  cultivation.  The  surface  of  this  formation  is,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
nearly  equally  hilly  from  the  line  of  Tennessee  to  within  a  short  distance  from  its 
southern  boundary.  Near  this  boundary  it  appears  generally  a  little  more  level. 

Towards  the  west,  along  the  line  of  the  alluvium  of  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi 
Rivers,  it  is  bordered  by  an  uninterrupted  chain  of  considerable  hills,  which  have 
prevented  those  rivers  from  encroaching  farther  eastward,  and  which  cannot  be 
considered  as  originally  formed  by  the  rivers. 

It  would  be  needless  and  too  tedious  to  tell  of  this  hill  and  that  valley,  of  the 
soils  of  the  various  localities.  Some  are  very  fertile  and  easy  to  cultivate ;  some 
are  the  reverse.  Nor  would  it  be  worth  while  to  tell  of  all  the  streams  and 
springs ;  and  a  map  will  tell  the  main  rivers  and  their  courses.  The  country  is 
watered  by  rivers  and  numerous  creeks  and  streams. 

This  Yellow  Loam  Region  embraces  most  of  eastern  De  Soto  County,  all  of 
Marshall,  all  of  Benton,  much  of  western  Tippah,  all  of  Lafayette,  most  of  eastern 
Panola,  most  of  eastern  Tate,  a  narrow  strip  of  eastern  Tallahatchee,  all  of 
Yalabusha,  all  of  western  Calhoun,  all  of  Webster,  all  of  Montgomery,  east 
Grenada,  east  Carroll,  east  Holmes,  all  of  Attala,  all  of  Choctaw,  northeast  Yazoo, 
north  Madison,  all  Leake,  all  Winston,  all  Neshoba,  part  of  Kemper,  Lauderdale, 
Newton  (greater  part),  and  northeast  corner  of  Scott. 

The  southern  division  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  commonly  known  as 
the  "  Big  J,"  traverses  the  western  part  of  this  area.  Passengers,  seeing  how 
badly  washed  and  hugely  scarred  by  denudation  is  a  good  deal  of  the  country 


MISSISSIPPI.  275 

along  that  road,  are  very  apt  to  be  badly  impressed  with  the  country,  and  to  form 
hasty  conclusions  adverse  to  it.  If  they  will  stop  off  at  many  places  and  inspect, 
they  will  have  their  impressions  much  modified  or  totally  changed. 

THE  PRAIRIE  REGION. 

i  come  now  to  an  area  of  Mississippi  that  it  wo  aid  be  a  pleasure  to  write 
much  about.  It  is  its  own  eulogium  when  it  is  in  its  season  and  has  a  chance. 
It  was  "the  granary  of  the  Confederacy"  during  the  late  war.  It  is  one  of  the 
prettiest  agricultural  countries,  so  far  as  mere  configuration  and  soil  go,  to  be 
found  anywhere ;  and  no  prairie-reared  citizen  of  the  United  States  could  ever 
see  it  as  it  ought  to  be  seen  without  being  almost  entranced  with  it.  The  great 
drawbacks  to  it  are  general  lack  of  water,  except  in  cisterns  or  artesian  wells,  and 
mud  in  winter.  Fences  generally  are  wanting,  and  good  residences;  but  the  day 
will  certainly  come  when  this  country  will  be  beautified  beyond  conception. 

This  Prairie  Region  lies  in  a  string  of  irregular  areas  in  Kemper,  Noxubee, 
Lowndes,  Oktibbeha,  Clay,  Monroe  and  Chickasaw  Counties — their  combined 
area,  according  to  Prof.  Harper,  amounting  to  nearly  150,000  square  miles.  The 
prairie  lands  are  level  or  gently  undulating,  with  dark,  heavy,  calcareous  soils  that 
are  often  simply  clay  marls  or  rotten  limestone.  These  prairies  are  in  some  places 
exceedingly  rich,  but  are  not  always  productive,  owing  sometimes  to  hard  usage, 
but  often  to  their  mechanical  condition,  which  calls  for  a  loosening  treatment. 
'The  whole  Prairie  Country  is  based  on  a  white,  chalky  limestone,  which  shows  *n 
patches,  and  occasionally  on  the  streams  in  mural  cliffs.  Along  the  Tombigbee 
River,  in  sight  of  the  railroad,  it  reminds  one  of  the  Dover  Cliffs  on  the  English 
Channel.  The  patches  of  rotten  limestone  cropping  out  in  the  fields  annoy  the 
farmer;  but  it  has  been  proved  by  experiment  that,  with  a  dressing  of  rough 
vegetable  matter,  these  spots  will  grow  clover,  and  ultimately  sod  over.  A  more 
beautiful  and  desirable  country  than  is  this  Prairie  Region,  or  one  more  surely 
destined  to  celebrity,  is  not  to  be  seen  anywhere.  It  is  adapted  to  all  crops 

The  sub-divisions  of  the  Cretaceous  Formation,  except  the  Rotten  Limestone 
Group,  are  so  limited  in  area  and  so  comparatively  unimportant,  that  I  shall  give 
them  but  slight  attention.  The  Rotten  Limestone  Group  embraces  in  its  area  one 
of  the  best  countries  in  the  United  States.  The  surface  of  its  territory  is  gener- 
ally level  or  but  slightly  undulating.  When,  high  ridges  do  occur,  their  main  mass 
is  the  limestone  itself,  on  which  the  orange  sand  formation  is  wanting,  or  present 
only  to  an  inconsiderable  thickness  or  in  patches — the  surface  formation  being 
mostly  stiff  clays,  which  underlie  the  prairies.  Hence,  a  great  dearth  of  naturally 
available  water  during  the  dry  season  characterizes  the  region  in  an  economical 
point  of  view.  The  material  of  the  formation  itself  is  of  great  uniformity — a 
soft,  chalky  rock  of  a  white  or  pale  bluish  tint,  with  very  little  sand,  consisting  of 
variable  proportions  of  fat,  tenacious  clay  and  white  carbonate  of  lime  in  crystals 
extremely  minute,  and  with  some  shells  of  infusoria.  The  stratum  is  of  great 
thickness  and  uniformity  of  character  on  its  southwestern  border,  borings  of  700 
to  1,000  feet  being  no  uncommon  occurrence  in  South  Chickasaw,  East  Oktib- 
beha, Noxubee  and  Northeast  Kemper. 

The  Eutaw  Group  offers  no  strikingly  characteristic  features.  By  far  the 
larger  portion  of  its  surface  is  thickly  covered  with  the  strata  of  the  orange  sand, 
from  which  the  upper  sandy  members  of  this  group  are  often  distinguished  with 
great  difficulty.  Its  structure  is  bluish  black  or  reddish  laminated  clays,  often 
lignitic,  alternating  with  and  usually  overlaid  by,  non-effervescent  sands,  mostly 
(though  not  always)  poor  in  mica,  and  of  a  gray  or  yellow  tint. 

Its  territory  is  the  border  of  almost  the  whole  of  east  Mississippi,  where  it 
meets  Alabama,  from  near  the  north  line  of  Lowndes  County  to  very  near  the 


276  MISSISSIPPI 

north  line  of  the  State,  at  Tennessee ;  save  a  very  narrow  and  jagged  line  in  the 
extreme  eastern  part  of  Tishomingo  County,  and  a  very  small  area  in  east 
Itawamba,  where  both  counties  abut  on  Alabama. 

The  Ripley  Group  is  the  main  source  of  the  Tombigbee  River,  and  has  many 
beautiful  streams  with  fertile  valleys. 

THE  TOMBIGBEE  SAND  GROUP. 

This  group  represents  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  country  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  State,  running  from  the  north  line  of  Tennessee  to  a  little  below  Columbus. 
In  Lovvndes  County  it  occupies  an  area  equivalent  to  five  or  six  townships.  For 
nearly  fifty  miles  it  is  hardly  three  miles  wide.  For  the  upper  half  of  its  area  (say 
forty  miles)  it  is  about  two  townships  wide.  Its  main  course  is  nearly  due  south. 

The  region  occupied  by  the  Eutaw  and  Tombigbee  Sand  Group  is  hilly  and 
sandy,  and  the  soil  generally  inferior.  Springs  are  abundant  and  their  water 

mostly  freestone. 

THE  RIPLEY  GROUP. 

The  surface  of  the  territory  occupied  by  this,  the  uppermost  stage  of  the  Cre- 
taceous in  Mississippi,  is  generally  hilly  and  to  a  great  extent  thickly  covered 
wTith  the  strata  of  the  orange  sand,  which  have  filled  up  the  gaps  occasioned  by 
fracture  or  denudation  in  the  ridges  formed  by  the  upheaved  strata  of  the  group. 
Small  prairie  spots  are  met  with  in  many  localities,  but  usually  on  or  around 
isolated  hilltops  or  ridges  where  some  soft  calcareous  stratum  has  approached  the 
surface. 

In  entering  upon  the  territory  of  this  formation  from  the  west  side,  on  which, 
in  South  Tippah,  Pontotoc  and  North  Chickasaw,  it  is  bordered  by  the  flatwoods, 
there  is  a  very  striking  change  in  the  aspect  of  the  country,  which  suddenly 
becomes  hilly  and  broken,  the  hillsides  coming  down  steeply  into  the  valleys,  and 
exhibiting  outcrops  of  hard  limestone,  while  the  surface  is  covered  with  deep- 
tinted  orange  sand. 

Springs  become  abundant,  and  the  growth  of  vigorous  black  and  Spanish 
(red)  oak  and  hickoiy,  intermixed  with  lime-loving  trees  like  the  poplar,  walnut, 
butternut,  linn,  umbrella  tree  and  locust  on  the  hills,  and  of  the  sycamore,  honey 
locust,  wild  plum  and  red  bud  in  the  valleys,  indicate  the  change  of  soil.  In  some 
portions  of  Pontotoc  County  there  is  a  pretty  regular  rise  as  we  advance  eastward 
from  the  flatwoods,  the  limestone  strata,  which  at  first  were  at  the  foot,  gradually 
ascending  to  the  top  of  the  hills  of  the  Pontotoc  Ridge,  until  a  sudden  descent 
brings  us  down  to  the  level  territory  of  the  rotten  limestone,  at  the  east  foot  of 
the  ridge.  Such  is  the  case  on  the  road  from  Rocky  Ford  via  Tardy ville  to  Ellis- 
town,  and  on  the  Tocapok,  and  Camarago  Road  via  Redland.  The  outcropping 
ledges  of  rock  there  form  the  crest  of  the  ridge,  which  runs  parallel  to  the  strike 
of  the  stratum. 

This  group  begins  at  the  north  end  of  the  State,  and  terminates  near  Houston, 
in  Chickasaw  County.  It  embraces  much  of  the  eastern  half  of  Tippah  and  Pon- 
totoc Counties,  and  is  a  sort  of  wedge  inserted  in  the  upper  half  of  Chickasaw, 
about  midway,  east  and  west,  in  its  area.  A  very  little  portion  of  it  is  in  West 
Tishomingo.  In  this  group  is  found  the  backbone  of  North  Mississippi — the 
Pontotoc  Ridge;  and,  indeed,  it  makes  the  "divide"  of  the  waters  far  south, find- 
ing its  termination  in  the  Summerville  Ridge,  down  in  Kemper  County ;  and  the 
hills,  as  "  outliers,"  running  still  further  south. 

Prof.  Hilgard,  before  describing  the  Prairie  Region  proper,  writes  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  characterizing  the  western  portion  of  the  area  as  gently  undu- 
lating oak  uplands,  interspersed  with  spots  and  patches  of  black  and  of  bald  prairie, 
with  wide  fertile  bottoms.  East  is  a  more  hilly  region,  with  a  poor,  sandy  soil, 


MISSISSIPPI.  277 

whose  prevalent  timber  is  short-leaf  pine,  black-jack  and  post-oak,  together  with 
chestnut — the  bottoms  being  narrow  but  fertile.  This  is  the  character  of  the  Pine 
Hills  of  Northeast  Mississippi,  whose  supply  of  water  is  generally  dependent  on 
and  bears  the  characteristics  of  the  orange  sand  formation 

The  prairies  proper— level  or  very  gently  undulating  tracts  possessing  a  deep 
black,  heavy  soil,  on  which  timber  is  very  much  scattered  or  altogether  wanting— 
form  belts  or  series  of  disconnected  patches,  having,  on  the  whole,  a  north  and 
south  course,  and  are  interspersed  with  tracts  of  a  more  rolling  surface,  mostly 
with  a  shallow,  pale,  light  soil,  timbered  with  the  common  upland  oaks— Spanish, 
(red,)  post,  black-jack,  and  sometimes  red  and  black  (black)  and  scarlet  (Spanish) 
oaks — which,  though  usually,  perhaps,  of  average  fertility,  is  sometimes  absolutely 
poor,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  scrubby,  stunted  growth  it  then  bears,  the  pro- 
ductiveness varying,  it  appears,  very  nearly  in  proportion  to  the  approach  of  the 
rotten  limestone  to  the  surface.  Here  we  find  not  un frequently,  where  these 
uplands  slope  off  toward  the  creek  bottoms,  "hummock"  lands,  increasing  in 
fertility  as  we  descend;  and  in  the  bottoms  themselves,  (where  the  white  rock  is 
only  a  few  feet  under  ground,)  passing  into  black  prairie  soil,  differing  little  from 
that  on  the  ridges,  though,  perhaps,  in  general,  it  is  somewhat  lighter  and  richer 
in  vegetable  matter. 

On  the  western  side  the  prairies  are  in  much  greater  force,  and  are  the  pre- 
dominant surface  soil  for  considerable  areas,  as  in  parts  of  Madison  and  Hinds. 
In  the  eastern  portion  the  country  is  spotted  very  much. 

The  yellow  loams  of  Madison  and  North  Hinds  are  justly  considered  as  being 
among  the  best  uplands  of  the  State;  superior  to  the  prairies  as  to  "safeness," 
while  little  if  at  all  inferior  in  productiveness ;  like  the  Marshall  table-lands,  and 
about  equally  well  suited,  on  an  average,  to  corn  and  cotton. 

I  confess  that  much  of  the  eastern  half  of  this  prairie  has  extraordinary 
fascinations  for  me.  The  great  varieties  of  soil  is  one  great  attraction.  A  few 
hundred  yards  from  the  stifFest  black  fertile  soil  underlaid  with  limerock,  and  the 
soil  par  excellence  for  clover,  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  such,  is  to  be  found  sandy 
loams  fit  for  the  peach,  pear,  sweet  potato,  and,  in  fact,  every  sort  of  fruit  and 
vegetable  possible  to  the  climate;  where  swift,  clear  streams,  teeming  with  fine 
fish,  are  dancing  over  golden  sands  and  pebbles.  The  great  attraction  in  stock 
raising  is  that,  in  wet  seasons,  one  can  turn  the  sheep  and  cattle  on  these  sandy 
tracts,  where  they  have  a  dry  foot.  And  the  well  watered  character  of  the  lands, 
with  the  richness  and  limestone  character,  make  them  an  ideal  for  stock  raising 
purposes. 

These-  lands,  in  the  eastern  part,  have  been  rather  poorly  situated — having 
indifferent  railroad  connections ;  but  new  combinations  have  brought  them  juto 
new  relationships  with  railroad  facilities.  The  New  Orleans  and  Northeastern 
Railroad  is  a  very  considerable  help,  and  the  Vicksburg  and  Meridian  Railroad, 
at  one  time  of  comparative  little  importance,  becomes  a  link  in  a  trans-continental 
chain;  and  from  being  on  an  "off"  road,  now  becomes  on  what  will  probably 
soon  be  one  of  the  great  thoroughfares  across  the  continent. 

The  lands  in  this  belt  have  been  selling  for  almost  nothing.  I  have  seen 
some  most  superbly  timbered  and  very  rich  held  at  from  $2  to  $6  per  acre. 

THE  PINE  WOODS  REGION. 

The  Pine  Woods  Region  is  a  section  only  touched  here  and  there,  as  it  were, 
with  the  impress  of  development  in  much  of  its  area,  and  which,  with  a  large 
population  of  Scotch  or  French  agriculturists,  could  be  transformed,  as  can  much 
of  the  same  country  south,  into  a  land  of  beauty  and  plenty. 


278  MISSISSIPPI. 

Infertile  in  the  main,  it  can  be  and  has  been  made  to  yield  immense  crops; 
and  its  variety  of  products  almost  defies  enumeration,  and  has  no  limit  but 
climate.  As  fine  wheat  as  can  be  produced  can  be  raised  there,  and  barley,  rye, 
upland  rice,  corn  and  buckwheat  are  all  "at  home."  Sugar  cane,  too,  does 
extremely  well. 

The  range  of  fruits  is  very  great  there.  On  the  coast  the  orange,  fig,  pear, 
many  varieties  of  grape,  many  small  fruits  do  well,  and  even  some  varieties  of 
summer  apples.  Higher  up  (leaving  out  the  orange  and  tender  fruits)  almost 
every  fruit  possible  to  the  climate  succeeds  that  will  succeed  at  the  north.  Among 
grapes,  the  Delaware  is  superb ;  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  grape  growers  gave 
this  as  his  judgment,  after  thorough  investigation.  The  pear  and  winter  apples  of 
several  varieties  are  fine.  As  to  peaches,  I  have  never  seen  finer,  although  a  long 
resident  in  Central  Delaware,  and  familial-  with  the  peaches  of  other  favored 
localities. 

Vegetables,  it  would  be  superfluous  to  praise.  The  quality  of  coast  vege- 
tables— Mobile,  for  instance — is  now  well-known.  There  the  business  of 
vegetable  raising  is  of  immense  proportions,  and  it  is  growing  on  the  coast,  along 
the  Jackson  Railroad,  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad,  and  the  New  Orleans  and 
Northeastern.  In  diseases  of  the  throat  and  lungs,  the  pine  woods  climate  is 
rapidly  gaining  reputation  for  its  ameliorating  and  curative  effects.  Florida  only 
emphasizes  by  her  vastly  more  renowned  and  popular  patronage,  by  invalids,  an 
effect  common  to  those  who  seek  the  pine  woods  of  Southern  States.  Nearly  a 
decade  ago,  I  collected  testimony  in  abundance  to  demonstrate  what  Southern 
Mississippi  would  do  towards  lung  and  throat  troubles  by  climate  cure.  Some 
astonishing  attestations  were  given  of  the  cures  and  ameliorations  incident  to 
mere  residence.  And  this  is  not  peculiar  to  Mississippi.  South  Carolina,  at 
Aiken ;  Georgia,  at  Thomtisv-ille ;  Alabama,  at  Citronelle,  and  other  places  only 
demonstrate  virtues  common  to  most  of  the  pine  woods  country  far  enough 
south  to  share  the  benefits  of  a  certain  mitigation  of  the  rigors  of  winter.  At 
what  point  nature  draws  this  cordon  is  undefinable.  Years  ago,  while  in  pur- 
suit of  statistics  with  reference  to  one  mattei  and  another,  I  was  told  by  Sir 
John  Crossley,  M.  P.,  who  was  then  traveling  in  the  United  States  in  the  interest 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Society,  an  English  organization  of  which  he  was 
president,  that  we  ought,  in  behalf  of  the  South,  and  to  eliminate  a  deeply  rooted 
impression  in  the  English  mind  that  foreigners  could  not  stand  field  labor  in  the 
South,  to  endeavor  to  extirpate  this  most  injurious  belief.  I  immediately  sent  out 
circular  letters  to  all  the  newspapers  printed  in  Mississippi  and  Louisiana,  asking 
all  readers  of  European  rearing  and  of  Northern  and  Western  life  to  stmd  me  tes- 
timonials as  to  the  point  in  question.  I  had  letters  enough  to  fill  a  volume, 
showing  that  field  labor  was  prosecuted  with  but  little  more  discomfort  and  with 
as  good  health  as  in  their  former  homes. 

Though  in  strictness  foreign  to  the  topic  of  Mississippi,  these  questions,  in 
justice  to  the  South,  must  find  a  discussion  somewhere,  and  had  as  well  be  gotten 
rid  of  here  as  elsewhere,  I  therefore  give,  under  this  topic  of  health,  a  letter  written 
by  me  several  years  ago  to  answer  enquiries  of  northern  men,  and  taken  from 
a  paper  called  "The  New  South."  Its  language  I  mean  for  far  broader  applica- 
tion than  was  its  intent  when  written.  j.t  was  written  from  a  town  in  the  pine 
woods  of  Southwest  Mississippi : 

First  and  last,  there  have  been  addressed  to  me  many  inquiries  as  to  the 
healthfullness  of  our  climate  and  locality,  and  while  I  may  have,  in  a  general 
way,  answered  them,  I  have  never  done  so  with  the  particularity  that  ihe  import- 
ance of  the  subject  demands.  Nor  is  it  possible,  in  the  scope  of  such  a  letter  as 
your  columns  would  admit  the  publication  of,  to  do  justice  to  the  subject.  Still, 
with  your  permission,  I  will  deal  more  elaborately  with  it  than  I  have  heretofore. 


MISSISSIPPI.  279 

"  It  goes  without  saying  "  that  we  have  a  larger  proportion  of  deaths  from 
malarial  diseases  than  from  any  other.  These  diseases  are  the  great  bugbear  of 
the  Southern  climate,  and  they  are  the  favorite  and  most  effective  topic  of  invec- 
tive to  all  who  seek  to  deter  immigration  or  sincerely  dread  to  seek  a  refuge  from 
unrequited  toil  or  bleak  and  dreary  winters  in  the  inhospitable  climes  or  unre- 
munerative  fields  of  labor  far  North  and  West.  To  say  that  we  nave  eight  months 
of  beautiful  weather;  bland  climate  from  October  to  May;  that  lands  are  cheap; 
that  the  products  of  our  soil  are  incomparably  more  varied  and  productive  than 
theirs,  passes  for  little  or  nothing  with  many  of  them.  They  concede  it,  perhaps, 
but  they  say,  with  long  visages,  in  a  solemn  voice,  "  You  have  fever  and  ague," 
and  that  determines  them  to  bear  it,  and  reconciles  them  to  the  long  dreary  winters 
of  their  homes. 

This  letter  will,  therefore,  endeavor  to  eradicate  from  the  minds  of  many 
persons  the  very  erroneous  impressions  that  this  locality  is  so  unhealthy,  because 
of  malarious  diseases.  I  would  not  undertake  to  prove  that  our  climate  is  superb 
for  pulmonary  affections  and  rheumatism;  that  we  are  comparatively  exempt 
from  enteric,  cerebro-spinal  and  typhus  fevers,  which  are  such  a  scourge  else- 
where; or  that  we  are  very  little  subject  to  fatal  cases  of  intestinal  diseases.*  We 
shall  assume  that  as  all  yielded. 

But  the  charge  against  our  climate,  above  all,  is  that  it  is  a  malarious  one, 
and  the  dread  of  it  engrosses  the  apprehensions  of  most  who  think  of  coming 
here,  or  furnishes  the  most  credible  imputation  of  our  detractors. 

Flinging  very  much  of  everything  else  aside,  therefore,  I  reply  to  this  great 
bugaboo.  If  any  one  will  consult  the  map  of  the  vital  statistics  of  the  ninth 
census — 1870 — there  will  be  found  most  startling  facts.  No  mere  guess-work  that, 
but  hard,  dry,  relentless  truth,  that  deals  with  no  hypotheses  nor  theories,  but 
chronicles  things  as  they  are.  Let  that  one,  therefore,  who  seeks  for  enlighten- 
ment, turn  to  the  map  giving  "Deaths  from  Malarial  Diseases."  He  will  there 
find  this  locality  colored  as  No.  II.  He  will,  by  examination,  see  that  we  are  as 
healthy,  with  respect  to  malarial  diseases,  as  a  very  large  portion  of  Kansas,  quite 
a  portion  of  Nebraska,  very  considerable  portions  of  Iowa,  large  tracts  of 
Missouri,  a  large  slice  of  Illinois,  the  same  of  Indiana,  the  greater  portion  of 
Michigan,  some  of  Ohio,  a  portion  of  Pennsylvania  along  the  Susquehanna,  a  part 
of  New  York,  and  parts  of  Delaware  and  Maryland.  But  that  is  not  all.  He  will 
find  the  malarial  hue  deeper  on  the  map,  and  a  larger  per  cent,  by  nearly  a  hun- 
dred, of  deaths  from  malarial  diseases  in  several  States  than  here.  Those  States 
are,  large  tracts  of  Missouri,  quite  a  portion  of  Illinois,  a  considerable  area  in 
Indiana,  two  areas  of  Michigan.  All  this  may  surprise  readers,  as  it  did  the 
writer,  but  these  are  facts,  and  disenchanting  as  they  may  be,  the  stern  reality 
confronts  us. 

But  a  consideration  of  the  naked  facts,  as  much  as  they  enlighten,  do  not  do 
justice  to  us.  No  consideration  of  the  question  which  did  not  involve  a  view  of 
the  habits  of  the  people  inhabiting  this  locality,  would  do  justice  to  the  question. 

Here,  our  people,  in  the  main,  are  poor;  when  they  get  sick  doctors  are  not 
sent  for  promptly,  and  bills  for  medicine  are  dreaded.  Their  houses  are  ill-built, 
and,  in  many  cases,  very  poor  protection  against  wind  and  weather.  They 
remind  one  of  the  "ruined  tenement"  in  one  of  Lord  Chatham's  finest  bursts: 
''They  may  be  frail;  the  roofs  may  shake;  the  wind  may  blow  through  them; 
the  storm  may  enter  them."  Then  look  at  the  fare,  the  habitual  food  of  by  far  the 
larger  proportion  of  our  people — corn  bread,  bacon  and  collards.  Another  habit 
of  many  is  to  work  in  any  kind  of  weather.  Does  a  heavy  cold  rain  come  on, 
they  stick  to  their  work  in  the  field,  instead  of  unhitching  teams  and  seeking 
shelter. 

Almost  all  the  travel  is  done  on  horseback,  or  in  heavy,  slow  wagons,  where 
there  is  no  protection  from  rain.  I  have  seen  men  by  the  score  come  to  court  in 
midwinter,  wet  to  the  skin  with  a  cold  rain,  after  a  ride  of  a  dozen  or  twenty 
miles,  and  trust  to  fires  and  whiskey  to  dry  and  warm  them.  They  mount  their 
horses,  or  get  into  wagons  for  an  all-day  jaunt,  in  the  hardest  of  rains. 

Take  the  indoor  life  of  many  of  them.  Instead  of  building  a  little  fire 
morning  and  evening  in  fall  and  spring,  they  disregard  the  precaution.  Indeed, 
you  may  go  into  many  houses  in  the  best  society  South,  and  in  midwinter  you 
will  find  the  inmates  without  fires,  trusting  to  shivering  and  shuddering  through 
the  low  temperature  that  chills  the  blood  and  sows  the  seed  of  fever  and  ague.  I 

*This  language  will  apply  to  much  of  the  Pine  Woods  Region  South,  as,  indeed,  will  most  of  the 
statements  of  the  letter. 


280  MISSISSIPPI. 

hardly  remember  ever  to  have  eaten  a  meal  in  a  Southern  gentleman's  house  when 
there  has  been  a  fire  in  the  eating-room.  Let  a  bright  day  come  in  midwinter, 
(and  there  are  many  of  them,)  and  the  children  are  out  in  troops,  barefooted  and 
next  to  naked. 

But  I  cannot  exhaust  the  enumeration.  With  such  a  catalogue  of  neglects, 
imprudences,  etc.,  is  there  any  wonder  that  people  are  sick  ?  Need  I  contrast  the 
habits  of  Northern  people  with  those  I  have  enumerated?  Their  comfortable 
homes,  warm  "wraps,"  consideration  of  fare  and  hygiene,  promptitude  in  admin- 
istering medicine,  etc.?  Yet,  notwithstanding  all  this,  we  excel  or  equal  so  many 
States  in  respect  to  our  most  dreaded  scourge — malarial  diseases  ! 

What  a  transformation  will  come  when  Northern  people  try  this  climate! 
Indeed,  the  experience  of  Northern  people  shows  that,  with  respect  to  malarial 
diseases,  they  are  incomparably  more  healthy  than  the  natives,  and  the  reason  is 
plain — they  tako  better  care  of  their  health. 

Now,  if  any  one  shall  inquire  why  we  are  so  healthful  here,  the  country  need 
only  to  be  seen  for  an  explanation.  We  are  in  the  great  pine  belt,  in'a  high  and 
rolling  country,  and  one  whose  drainage  is  perfect,  and  there  is  nothing  to  pro- 
duce malarial  sickness  but  the  imprudence  or  neglect  of  hygiene  of  the  residents. 

I  wish  I  had  time  to  say  more.  I  could  tell  of  hundreds  of  Swedes  who  have 
tried  the  climate,  and  how  those  who  were  prudent  had  the  best  of  health,  and 
how  those  who  were  imprudent  died  ;*  how  I  have  scores  of  letters  from  men  of 
almost  every  nationality,  who  have  tried  field  labor  in  the  South,  and  had  good 
health. 

I  hope  that  I  have  let  some  light  into  sincere  but  benighted  minds,  who  have 
thought  this  country  a  "vast  Sarbonian  bog,"  reeking  with  malarias  and  swarming 
with  venomous  reptiles. 

To  this  I  add  the  forcible  testimony  of  Dr.  A.  C.  Stevenson,  of  Indiana,  the 
former  president  of  the  American  Association  of  Short  Horn  Breeders,  in  writing 
from  Mississippi  to  the  Prairie  Farmer,  of  Chicago,  Illinois.  He  says : 

uln  conclusion,  permit  me  to  contradict  the  old  notions  that  were  promul- 
gated in  the  days  of  slavery,  that  white  men  could  not  work  in  this  climate.  I 
have  conversed  with  numbers  of  men  from  the  West,  from  your  State  and  city, 
who  have  lived  here  for  years,  who  all  bear  witness  to  its  falsity.  But,  more,  here 
are  foreigners  from  almost  every  part  of  Europe,  who  work  at  all  seasons  with  as 
much  impunity  as  the  colored  race.f  And  again,  here  are  many  neighborhoods  and 
families  in  various  places,  that  never  owned  a  slave,  who  have  done  their  own 
work,  and  are  to-day  the  most  prosperous  and  healthy  people  in  the  South. 
Another  great  error  is  that  persons  from  the  States,  formerly  not  slaves,  will  not 
be  kindly  received.  This  may  be  contradicted  by  the  very  broad  fact  that  they 
are  more  desired  here  than  any  others  whatever,  and  will  meet  the  most  hearty 
welcome.  Lands  can  be  had  for  from  three  to  twelve  dollars  per  acre,  and  in  the 
most  healthful  situations." 

As  an  illustration  of  how  grossly  misjudged  Mississippi  is,  as  to  her  health- 
fulness,  we  give  the  following  most  striking  compilation  from  the  United  States 
census : 

ANNUAL  DEATH  RATE  FOR  EACH  THOUSAND  OP  POPULATION. 

Massachusetts 18.59 

New  York 17-30 

Virginia 16.32 

Indiana I5-77 

Texas 15-53 

Kansas 15.22 

Pennsyl  /ania z4-92 

Illinois 14.60 

Kentucky 14-39 

Alabama 14.20 

Georgia 13-97 

Colorado 13.10 

Mississippi 12.89 


*This  came  from  their  eating  (the  first  year  from  Sweden)  voraciously  of  salt  pork.     It  was  an 
instructive  illustration. 

fHe  was  writing  from  a  town  where  almost  all  the  citizens  were  other  than  natives — most  of  them 
from  New  England  and  the  North  and  West. 


MISSISSIPPI.  281 

In  the  year  187o  I  was  appointed  to  a  position  on  the  southern  branch  of  the 
Illinois  Railroad,  then  under  the  control  of  Col.  H.  S.  McComb,  of  Wilmington, 
Delaware,  who  was  its  president,  to  develop  the  material  interest  of  the  road.  I 
immediately  addressed  myself  to  the  work  of  developing  the  fruit  and  vegetable 
interests  and  encouraging  tock  raising  and  grass  growing.  Among  other 
interests,  I  induced  S.  H.  Edgar,  Esq.,  the  then  vice-president  of  the  said  road,  to 
bestow  a  liberal  sum  of  money  to  further  my  work  in  exciting  attention  to  the 
adaptation  of  the  soil  and  climate  along  part  of  the  road  to  fruits.  Through  this 
liberality  and  enterprise,  a  number  of  gentlemen  were  enabled  to  attend  the 
Quarter  Centennial  Association  of  the  American  Pomological  Society,  held  in 
Boston,  in  September,  1873,  to  which  meeting  they  had  been  appointed  dele, 
.gates  of  the  Louisiana  Fruit  Growers'  Association.  The  following  report,  in 
part,  is  taken  from  the  report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  American  Pomological 
Society  for  that  year.  In  the  report  by  the  committee,  the  area  to  which  this  list 
is  limited  is  to  "the  southwest  and  that  portion  of  the  Gulf  coast  between  Mobile 
and  Eastern  Texas;"  but  I  am  now  satisfied,  for  my  part,  that  the  district  to 
which  this  list  is  adapted  is  very  much  larger  than  the  limits  therein  given ;  for, 
since  then,  fruit  growing  in  many  parts  of  the  South  (then  never  conceived  of) 
has  become  a  very  important  industry. 

LIST   OF   SELECT   FRUITS. 

Apple*. — Early  Harvest,  Red  Astrachan,  Carolina  Red  June,  Primate,  Garret- 
son's  Early,  Yellow  June,  Early  Strawberry,  Bevan,  Golden  Sweet,  American 
Summer  Pearmain,  Rhode's  Orange,  Bruce's  Summer,  Yellow  Horse,  Cane  Creek 
Sweet,  Batchelor,  Taunton,  Hoover,  Carter. 

Pears. — Doyenne  d'Ete,  Julienne,  Osband's  Summer,  Beurre  Goubault,  Doy- 
enne Boussock,  Bartlett,  Beurre  Superfin,  Howell,  Sickel,  St.  Michael  Archangel, 
Duchesse  d'Angouleme,  Gray  Doyenne,  Beurre  d'Anjou,  Lawrence,  Winter  Nelis. 

Peaches. — Early  Tillotson,  Yellow  St.  John,  Tuskena,  Amelia,  Yellow  Rare- 
ripe, Mountain  Rose,  Chinese  Cling,  Early  Crawford,  Stump  the  World,  Susque- 
hanna,  Oklmixon  Free,  Oldmixon  Cling,  Columbia,  Raymond  Cling,  Picquet's 
Late,  Lady  Parham. 

Plums. — Temple,  Lombard,  German  Prune,  Wild  Goose,  Indian  Chief,  Brill. 

Grapes. — Hartford  Prolific,  Ives,  Concord,  Clinton,  Maxatawney,  Scuppernong. 

Figs.— Lemon  or  "  Angelique,"  Celeste,  Green  Ischia,  Brown  Turkey,  White 
Genoa,  Black  Genoa,  Brunswick,  White  Smyrna. 

Oranges. — Louisiana  "  Creole,"  Mandarin,  Brazilian. 

/Strawberries. — Longworth's  Prolific,  Wilson's  Albany,  Mary  Stuart,  Presi- 
dent Wilder,  Charles  Downing,  Kentucky. 

Raspberries. — Davison's  Thornless,  Mammoth  Cluster,  Golden  Thornless, 
Clark,  Herstine. 

Blackberries. — Early  Wilson,  Lawton. 

This  list  can  be  very  much  enlarged,  and  I  attempt  it  in  a  measure  with  refer 
ence  to  Southern  Mississippi ;  and  some  of  the  varieties  may  suit  many  other 
localities. 

To  apples  may  be  added:  Summer — Striped  June,  Sweet  Bough,  Early 
Red  Margaret,  Hames,  Carolina  Watson,  Early  Golden  Sweet,  Family,  Julian, 
Aromatic  Cheese,  Stanley's  Seedling.  Autumn — Bonum,  Yopp's  Favorite,  Penn- 
sylvania Cider,  Tuscaloosa  Seedling,  Mamma,  Phillippi,  Lawren's  Greening, 
Carter's  Blue,  Buncombe,  Junaluskee,  Maverick  Sweet,  Yates,  Ben  Davis,  Disha- 
roon,  Carolina  Greening.  Winter — Ferdinand,  Cannon  Pearmain,  Oconee  Green- 
ing, Moultries,  Neckajack,  Hockett  Sweet,  Stevenson's  Winter,  Holly,  Pryor's 
Red,  Stansil,  Shockley,  Romanite,  Santa,  Limbertwig.  Cider  apples — Dean  Crab, 
Hewes'  Virginia  Crab,  Yates. 

To  pears  we  will  add — Madelame,  Ott's  Seedling,  Doyenne  Boussock,  Clapp's 
Favorite,  Edmonds,  Andrews,  Buffum,  Belle  Lucrative,  Urbaniste,  Louise  Bonne 
.De  Jersey,  (stiff  sods  in  north  part  of  State),  Niles,  Kieffer,  Garber's,  Hybrid, 


282  MISSISSIPPI. 

China  Sand,  Le  Conte.    The  last  is  planted  in  prodigious  numbers  South,  of  late. 

To  the  list  of  grapes  I  add,  without  any  hesitation,  Delaware,  growing  as  I 
have  never  seen  it  elsewhere  and  yielding  crops  in  the  gravelly  hills  of  Mississippi. 

In  the  same  country  the  Tokay  is  considered  very  fine  by  an  expert  who  was 
reared  in  Hungary. 

I  am  very  glad  to  be  able  to  add  such  distinguished  testimony  as  the  follow- 
ing from  Parker  Earle,  Esq.,  who  wrote  it  to  the  New  York  Tribune  over  ten 
years  ago : 

"I  have  often  seen  very  beautiful  and  perfect  pears  from  that  country.  I 
think  the  fruit  averages  as  well  as  in  Northern  orchards.  All  kinds  of  berries 
grow  well,  and  vegetables  are  in  season  winter  and  summer.  Going  from 
Southern  Illinois,  where  our  grapes  universally  rot,  I  was  much  delighted  with 
their  perfection  in  Southern  Mississippi,  where  I  found  no  rot  whatever,  but 
great  luxuriance  of  vine  and  fruit." 

THE  GRASSES  IN  MISSISSIPPI. 

I  shall  say  for  grasses  in  this  State  what  is  applicable  to  most  of  the  Southern 
States.  I  have  spent  years  in  the  study  of  them ;  not  from  the  scientific  stand- 
point of  botany,  or  in  the  books,  but  from  the  practical  point,  "to  know  what 
would  succeed  and  where."  I  have  even  sown  the  seeds  for  hundreds  of  miles 
out  of  the  car  windows  along  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad,  in  East  Mississippi, 
I  did  this  not  as  a  mere  vagary.  I  had  a  double  motive.  I  thought  it  would  be  a 
monument  of  my  own,  and  keep  me  green  in  the  memory  of  time  as  long  as  grass 
grew,  and  I  knew  it  would  impress  the  stranger.  In  my  work  to  develop  the 
State,  I  was  constantly  impeded,  thwarted  and  harrassed  by  numbers  of  pessimists, 
who  would  declare  to  people  who  were  looking  through  the  country  to  buy 
homes  "that  grass,  clover,  blue  grass,  etc.,  would  not  succeed;  that  the  climate 
was  too  hot;  that  the  sun  and  dry  weather,  long  heat.,  etc.,  etc.,  would  kill  it 
out."  I  determined  to  have  a  living  refutation — nature's  own  assertion  of  the 
pernicious  heresy;  so  I  sowed  Kentucky  blue  grass,  white  clover,  red  top, 
orchard  grass  and  may  be  one  or  two  others,  from  Verona  to  Shugulak,  on  the 
main  line  of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad,  on  the  branch  from  Artesia  to  Stark- 
ville,  on  the  branch  from  Artesia  to  Columbus,  on  the  branch  from  Muldon  to 
Aberdeen.  All  told,  I  did  not  sow  over  four  or  five  bushels ;  yet,  if  the  traveler 
will  look  sharp,  he  will  find  some  beautiful  catches  any  time  between  mid- 
December  and  July  first — the  proper  season  for  these  grasses  South,  so  far  as 
Mississippi.  It  has  had  a  poor  chance.  The  road  bed  is  of  sand.  The  hogs  root 
it,  the  half-starved  cattle  and  mules  browse  it.  The  spades  of  the  track-repairers 
destroy  it  more  or  less,  but  it  is  to  be  found,  and  will  stay.  So  much  for  the 
benefit  of  the  casual  traveler,  and  that  he  may  note  this  living  epistle,  and,  as  he 
"  runs,  may  read." 

But  I  have  not  only  sown  these  seeds  in  the  rich  lime  belt  of  East  Mississippi, 
but  in  the  poor  pine  woods  in  various  places,  and  always  with  success.  I  com- 
menced in  1873.  In  that  year  I  sent  out  hundreds  of  circular  letters  and  collected 
testimony,  without  measure,  as  to  the  success  of  various  grasses  South.  Not  only 
so,  but  I  had  as  assistants,  to  inform  the  country  at  large,  the  aid  of  eminent 
journalists.  These  I  invited  South  to  my  Mississippi  home,  and  showed  them 
ample  demonstrations.  Their  pens  attest  their  conclusions.  Dr.  M.  L.  Dunlap, 
deceased,  was  a  visitor.  He  thus  writes  to  the  Chicago  Weekly  Tribune,  of 
which  he  was  the  agricultural  editor,  with  the  nom  de  plume  of  "  Rural,"  from 
McComb  City,  Miss.,  under  date  of  December  21,  1874 :  "  The  mayor  of  this  city, 
Col.  Hillyard,  has  shown  me  a  large  collection  of  letters  from  planters  in  regard 
to  the  products  of  the  country.  These  were  in  reply  to  tabulated  questions  sent- 


Ml'iMISSIPPL  283 

out  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  out  the  true  state  of  facts.  Clover,  sown  at  the 
close  of  summer*  and  having  the  advantage  of  the  wet  season,  does  remarkably- 
well,  *  *  *  in  some  cases  cutting  three  or  four  tons  to  the  acre  during  the 
season.  [I  have  known  over  9,000  pounds  of  extra  cured  hay  made  during 
the  summer  season  from 'one  acre.— M.  B.  H.]  On  the  lawn  of  the  De  Soto- 
House  is  a  patch  of  red  clover,  sown  last  May,  that  is  doing  finely."  (As  the  last 
statement  may  mislead,  I  will  state  that  the  clover  was  sown  late  in  May  by  me, 
because  I  could  not  get  the  seed  earlier.  I  advise  no  one  to  sow  later  than  March; 
always  in  the  autumn,  in  mid-October,  if  possible,  for  the  latitude  in  question.) 

After  his  visit  to  the  writer,  I  accompanied  him  over  the  State.  Visiting 
Jackson,  Mississippi,  on  his  tour  of  observation,  Dr.  Dunlap  writes  soon  after  to 
the  Tribune  says :  "  Mr.  Musgrove  showed  me  on  his  grounds  red  clover,  Bermuda 
grass,  white  clover,  timothy  and  orchard  grass,  all  looking  well.  *  *  The  barn 
of  Mr.  Musgrove  was  filled  with  clover,  hay  and  oats  of  his  own  growing,  and  the 
hay  was  selling  at  $45  per  ton  to  those  who  knew  that  clover  would  not  grow  in 
the  State  of  Mississippi.  And  yet,  here  is  the  evidence  that  red  and  white  clover 
will  grow  as  freely  as  in  Illinois." 

A  little  after  he  visited  John  Handy,  Esq.,  at  Canton,  Miss.,  and  wrote :  "  He 
has  been  very  successful  in  growing  clover  for  hay  and  pasturage ;  also  white  and 
Alsike  clover.  Strange  as  it  may  appear,  this  latter  clover  is  of  thrifty  growth. 
*  *  *  He  has  a  herd  of  Jerseys  as  fine  as  I  have  seen  in  the  North.  The  secret 
of  this  is  his  pasturage,  which  is  abundant  the  entire  year." 

Thomas  Meehan,  Esq.,  Editor  Gardeners'  Monthly,  and  then  editing  the 
Weekly  Press,  Philadelphia,  paid  me  a  visit.  He  writes  thus  in  the  latter  paper: 
"  Old  "William  Cobbett  once  said  that  a  grain  of  good  practice  was  worth  a  whole 
ton  of  theory;  but  here  tons  of  practice,  in  the  shape  of  grass,  may  satisfy  those 
whose  theories  lead  them  to  think  that  grass  will  not  grow  South.  Mr.  Herwig 
is  very  fond  of  fine  cattle  and  dairying.  *  *  *  His  stock  is  of  the  Jersey 
breed,  wThich  does  all  that  any  one  can  expect." 

Mr.  Herwig  then  lived  on  the  southern  branch  of  the  Illinios  Central  Rail- 
road, at  Arcola,  Louisiana,  in  the  Pine  Woods  Region,  and  had  even  then  a 
considerable  herd  of  Jerseys. 

Mr.  Meehan  visited  me  again.  He  wrote  to  the  Philadelphia  Press:  "I 
noticed  many  little  patches  of  blue  grass,  clover  and  similar  plants  used  in 
Northern  agriculture,  which  seemed  to  feel  themselves  perfectly  at  home,  though 
it  is  the  general  impression  they  are  unsuited  to  the  climate." 

After  his  return,  he  thus  writes :  "  The  easy,  good-natured  people  of  the 
South  made  up  their  minds  that  clover  and  grass  would  not  grow  down  there,  but 
made  no  attempt  of  their  own  to  test  it,  With  grass  and  clover,  Southern  agri- 
culture would  have  a  glorious  future.  The  writer  of  this,  having  traveled  much 
in  the  South  lately,  has  seen,  "  with  his  own  eyes,"  grasses  and  clover  as  good 
there  as  anywhere,  and  wonders  why  the  idea  ever  prevailed  that  grass  or  clover 
will  not  grow." 

The  late  Rev.  Alexander  Clark,  D.  D.,  then  editor  of  the  Methodist  Recorder, 
of  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  writes  to  the  Evening  Chronicle:  "It  has  been 
thought  that  the  grasses  are  not  adapted  to  the  Southern  soil.  This  is  a  popular 
delusion.  While  cotton  was  king,  corn  was  a  conscript,  and  clover  and  timothy 
spies  from  an  enemy's  camp.  The  penalty  was  beheading  and  annihilation  !  The 
negro  has  been  trained  from  time  immemorial  to  destroy  grass  as  an  interloper. 
He  intuitively  takes  to  cotton.  But  our  friend,  Col.  M.  B.  Hillyard,  lately  from 
Delaware,  has  made  it  a  special  business  to  study  the  grasses,  and  has  wrought 

*Middle  October  is  the  best  time  to  sow  grass  seeds  in  Mississippi. 


284  MISSISSIPPI. 

some  significant  results.  Within  a  year  or  two  the  planters  have  seen  the  neces- 
sity of  cultivating  hay.  By  more  than  one  hundred  letters  from  various  portions 
of  Mississippi,  the  testimony  is  that  meadows  are  soon  to  become  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  Southern  landscape.  We  have  seen  clover  a  foot  high  in  Pike 
County,  Mississippi,  the  last  week  in  March.  We  have  walked  over  as  splendid 
a  sward  in  the  same  vicinity  as  ever  greened  the  Miami  valley.  And  these  things 
were  the  result  of  the  simple  sowing  of  the  seed  on  the  natural  soil,  that  of  the 
pine  ridges.  On  the  bottoms  the  chances  are  still  better.  The  statistics  show 
that  blue  urass,  Herd's  grass,  Hungarian,  clover,  timothy,  Guinea,  tall  meadow  oats, 
orchard  grass,  Bermuda,  Mesquite  and  Rescue  grass,  will  grow  anywhere  in  the 
State.  While  the  sun  is  hot  for  some  of  these  species,  the  rains  and  dews  are  so 
copious  that  they  never  burn  out,  except  in  droughts,  such  as  are  more  common 
in  Illinois  than  here.  We  look  forward  to  the  day  when  dairies  will  be  conducted 
on  a  larger  scale  in  Mississippi  than  New  York  or  Northern  Ohio.  The  winters 
here  will  be  so  much  lighter,  and  the  yield  of  grass  so  much  more  abundant,  that 
this  branch  of  business  must  necessarily  have  large  room." 

This  prediction  of  dairies  South  don't  look  so  "wild"  now  as  it  did  then, 
especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of 
Mississippi  has  the  only  professorship  of  dairying  in  the  United  States. 

Mr.  J.  G.  Kingsbury,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Indiana  Farmer,  visited  me 
and  inspected  the  country.  He  writes  to  his  paper :  "  As  to  the  adaptation  cf 
this  region  to  the  growth  of  our  cultivated  grasses,  Col.  Hillyard  has  already 
given  sufficient  testimony  in  his  letters  on  the  subject  in  our  columns.  We  saw 
blue  grass,  timothy  and  clover  all  growing  thriftily." 

In  another  part  of  the  letter  he  refers  to  a  New  Yorker  who  had  moved  to 
Mississippi,  and  says:  u  He  was  exceedingly  well  informed  regarding  the 
capabilities  of  this  country,  and  assured  us  that  he  had  never  seen  ranker  and 
better  blue  grass  than  some  he  was  growing  on  a  farm  he  owned  in  another  part 
of  the  State.  With  this  fact  established,  it  is  easy  to  imagine  what  a  chance  there 
is  for  making  easy  fortunes  in  the  cattle  business,  in  a  country  where  the  climate 
does  not  require  the  animals  to  be  sheltered  for  a  single  month  in  the  entire  year, 
and  where  vegetation  scarcely  ceases  its  growth  the  year  round." 

Further  on  he  says :  "  No  doubt  but  clovering  will  be  found  as  successful 
here  as  at  the  North,  as  a  cheap  and  beneficial  renovator." 

Dr.  A.  C.  Stevenson,  of  Greencastle,  Indiana,  then  the  president  of  the 
American  Association  of  Short  Horn  Breeders,  visited  the  South  three  times, 
investigating  the  capabilities  for  and  inducements  of  the  country  to  stock  raising 
and  grass  growing.  On  two  of  these  occasions  he  was  my  guest,  and  I  accom- 
panied him  on  extensive  tours  on  both  sides  of  the  State  of  Mississippi  and 
extending  into  Louisiana,  showing  him  the  facts  I  wished  to  impress  upon  him, 
and,  through  him,  the  country  at  large.  While  on  these  visits  South,  his  pen 
was  pretty  busy  inditing  letters  to  various  Northern  journals  about  what  he  saw 
and  thought.  The  following  part  of  a  letter,  though  somewhat  off  the  topic,  is  so 
weighty  in  its  facts  and  its  way  of  putting  them,  that  I  make  a  long  extract  from 
it.  It  is  from  the  Indiana  Farmer  of  February  2, 1876 : 

*  *  "  The  inducements  to  emigrants  to  come  South,  instead  of  North 
and  West,  are  many.  The  winters  are  so  mild  as  not  to  stop  the  production  of 
many  of  the  necessaries  of  life  during  the  whole  season.  Cattle  may  be  kept 
through  the  winter  with  little  or  no  food,  as  many  are  kept;  the  comforts  to 
man  and  beast  during  the  winter  season  are  most  striking.  All  and  more  that 
can  be  raised  North  or  AVest  can  be  raised  here.  Here  corn  can  be  raised 
with  the  most  slovenly  cultivation ;  ground  ploughed  three  inches  deep  with  one 
:small  mule,  when  it  should  be  ploughed  eight.  Oats  do  well,  and  may  be  sowed 


MISSISSIPPI.  285 

in  the  fall  and  pastured  all  winter.  In  the  northern  part  of  this  State  wheat 
products  are  entirely  satisfactory.  Barley  grows  and  produces  finely.  But  there 
are  crops  here  of  very  great  value,  in  addition  to  anything  that  can  be  grown  in 
the  West.  Rice  is  alone  a  Southern  product,  and  one  of  great  value  as  an  article 
of  food,  and  in  demand  everywhere.  Sugar  is  also  a  Southern  product,  and  one  of 
universal  consumption.  Cotton  is  also  a  Southern  product  of  world-wide  demand. 
These  are  in  addition  to  the  field  and  garden  crops  of  the  North  and  West,  and 
are  no  insignificant  product,  but  of  the  greatest  value,  and  in  which  the  South  can 
have  no  competition.  So  that  the  market  in  these  articles  is  always  sure.  This 
brings  us  to  the  realization  of  another  fact:  The  better  markets  that  must 
be  realized  by  those  producing  breadstuffs  here  (grain  and  meat)  over  those 
who  go  West.  Corn  here  averages  about  $1.50  per  bushel;  West,  about  $0.30 
per  bushel;  other  grains  in  the  same  proportion.  Hay  here  will  average 
$35.00  per  ton;  *West,  about  $10.00.  These  differences  depend  upon  the 
"middle-men,"  and  transportation.  This  being  one  of  the  great  markets  for 
all  such  products,  and  the  South  must  continue  to  be  a  market  for  such 
products  as  the  West  grows,  so  long  as  cotton  and  sugar  are  produced.  These 
products  may  as  wrell  be  grown  here  as  West,  and  the  question  is,  and  the  only 
true  one,  had  he  who  desires  to  emigrate,  as  a  farmer,  better  go  West  and  produce 
corn  and  hay,  the  former  at  thirty  cents  a  bushel  and  the  latter  at  ten  dollars  per 
ton,  or  go  South  and  produce  corn  at  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  bushel  and 
hay  at  thirty -five  dollars  per  ton?  Now,  if  the  Western  farmer  produces  fifty 
bushels  of  corn  per  acre  at  thirty  cents  per  bushel,  it  is  fifteen  dollars  per  acre. 
Tweiity  bushels,  at  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents,  is  thirty  dollars,  just  double,  and  if 
the  Western  farmer  makes  one  ton  and  a-half  per  acre,  at  ten  dollars  per  ton,  an 
acre  will  amount  to  just  fifteen  dollars;  whilst  a  Southern  acre,  at  one  ton  per 
acre,  would  yield  thirty-five  dollars.  But  this  is  not  a  fair  representation.  I  can 
select  lands  here,  with  fine  dwellings  which  \vill  cost  half  the  value  of  the  land,  at 
twelve  dollars  per  acre,  which  will  yield,  with  Western  culture,  forty  bushels  of 
corn  per  acre,  and  which  will  yield  at  two  mowings  during  the  season,  two  tons 
of  hay.  The  winters  are  satisfactory.  But  you  ask  me  what  of  the  summers? 
Personally,  I  cannot  answer.  But  here  are  a  number  of  men  from  Indiana,  who 
testify  most  positively  that  the  summers  are  not  perceptibly  warmer  than  they  are 
in  Indiana,  and  the  nights  are  even  pleasanter.  The  summer,  or  warm  season,  is 
longer,  that  is  the  only  perceptible  difference.  One  thing  more,  health.  How  is 
it?  I  have  no  doubt  that  Mississippi,  which  I  have  now  visited  twice,  is  as 
healthy  as  any  of  the  Western  States  or  Territories— the  bottoms  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  other  large  streams  excepted.  The  count ly  is  undulating,  generally, 
and  a  more  jobust  people  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  United  States." 

In  a  full  survey  of  stock  raising  in  the  South,  in  a  letter  to  the  National 
Live  Stock  Journal,  Chicago,  for  March,  1876,  after  commenting  upon  domestic 
animals  South ;  after  stating  that  a  very  erroneous  opinion  has  too  generally  pre- 
vailed that  this  is  a  grassless  country ;  after  some  cordial  tributes  to  various  native 
grasses  South,  lie  thus  writes:  "The  Mesquite  and  Guinea  grass  are  much 
esteemed  here.  Besides  these,  some  of  our  common  grasses  do  well.  The  orchard 
grass  does  well,  and  will  make  here  the  best  of  pasture.  I  have  seen  a  few  fields 
of  red  clover,  and  I  have  just  cut  branches  nine  inches  long.  Herd's  grass,  also, 
is  a  sure  crop.  Timothy  I  have  seen  looking  well  in  special  localities.  Blue  grass 
is  growing  in  the  yard  from  whence  I  write,  but  I  see  it  seeks  shady  spots.  It 
might  do  on  north  hill  sides.  White  clover  seems  to  grow  spontaneously;  it  may 
be  seen  on  every  cleared  spot  not  in  cultivation." 

*The  Southern  farmers  now  raise  so  much  of  their  own  corn  and  hay  that  the  figures  must  be 
reduced  at  least  one-third. 


286  MISSISSIPPI. 

At  this  day,  few  well-informed  persons  can  doubt  that  the  South  has  some  of 
the  best  grass  regions  on  the  continent ;  but  I  thought  it  well  to  give  the  testi- 
mony of  these  eminent  authorities,  who,  nearly  ten  years  ago,  were  satisfied  as  to 
Mississippi  and  other  parts  of  the  South.  If  such  men  had  no  doubts  then,  who 
can  doubt  now  ?  I  ought  to  try  to  impress  the  reader  with  another  most  impor- 
tant consideration.  The  testimony  I  elicited  at  that  day  bore  reference,  in  the 
main,  to  one  of  the  most  infertile  divisions  of  the  South  ;  the  country  visited  and 
seen  by  these  gentlemen  is  one  of  the  least  adapted  to  grass  raising — the  Pine 
Woods  Region  of  Mississippi.  The  land  is  thin,  and  will  not  bring  over  twelve 
bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre,  when  fresh — much  of  it.  Worse  than  all,  so  far  as 
grass  is  concerned,  there  is  little  or  no  lime  in  the  soil.  The  deduction  is  obvious 
then.  If  this  country  will  bring  such  grasses  and  in  such  quantity,  what  will 
these  soils  do  when  enriched  and  limed,  or  marled  ?  For  marls  are  very  common 
and  abundant  in  much  of  the  South.  Better  still,  what  will  the  good  lands  and 
the  rich  bottoms  do  ?  And  greater  yet,  what  will  those  rich  cretaceous  soils  do 
that  are  so  abundant  in  parts  of  the  South  ? 

I  hope  that  this  effort  to  impress  the  inhabitants  of  the  pine  woods  of  the 
South  will  not  be  in  vain ;  for  from  Virginia  to  Florida,  in  the  pine  woods, 
clovers  and  other  grasses  can  be  grown ;  having  satisfied  myself  as  to  Florida,  with 
reference  to  red  clover  some  years  ago  while  visiting  that  State.  And  I  desire 
that  much  and  most  of  what  I  have  said  and  shall  say  of  grasses  (the  native 
varieties  excepted)  in  the  article  on  Mississippi,  shall  apply  to  the  South  gen- 
erally. In  this  connection  I  will  give  a  list  of  grasses  adapted  to  most  of  the 
South,  known  to  me  by  having  tested  them  or  seen  them,  or  avouched  by  most 
satisfactory  testimony:  Clovers — red,  white,  Alsike,  Alfalfa,  Lucerne,  spotted, 
Medick  (commonly  known  as  California  clover,  burr,  or  yellow  clover),  Japan 
clover,  Mexican  or  Florida  clover  (last  two  of  which  have  only  made 
their  appearance  within  a  few  years,  are  spontaneous,  and  exceedingly 
rich  in  nutriment  and  valuable  in  other  respects).  Kentucky  blue  grass 
(superb  in  the  cretaceous  soils  of  the  South,  and  good  even  in  rich  pin? 
lands,  if  limed),  red  top,  the  Bent  grass  of  England,  or  Herd's  grass  of  Penn- 
sylvania (almost  inextirpable  in  some  soils  and  growing  on  very  poor  soils  and 
even  uplands),  Timothy,  the  Herd's  grass  of  New  York  and  New  England  (a 
native  of  South  Carolina,  I  believe),  orchard  grass,  velvet  grass,  tall  meadow, 
oat  grass,  Italian  rye  grass  (which  last  two  cannot  be  too  highly  extolled),  John- 
son grass,  Guinea  grass  (wonderful  for  hay,  but  should  never  be  put  in  land 
not  destined  for  its  perpetual  use,  as  it  is  ineradicable,  or  nearly  so),  Texas  blue 
grass  (new,  very  promising  and  highly  commended).  I  might  swell  the  list  by 
giving  many  native  Southern  grasses,  but  this  is  needless.  There  are  two  other 
grasses  I  cannot  pass.  One  is  carpet  grass.  This  I  have  never  seen  out- 
side of  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Mississippi  and  Florida,  although  it  is  likely  it  is 
found  in  most  Southern  States.  Cattle  prefer  it  to  Bermuda.  It  is  one  of  the 
earliest  and  latest  grasses,  and  green  all  the  year  as  far  south  as  New  Orleans. 
The  other  is  Bermuda  grass,  the  sacred  grass  of  India.  This  grass  will  afford 
perpetual  pasture  in  the  extreme  South.  It  is  a  grass  so  valuable  as  to  beggar 
praise.  I  have  lately  discovered  that  it  will  grow  well  as  high  as  French- 
town,  Maryland.  On  the  banks  of  the  James  River,  in  Virginia  it  is  known  as 
wire  grass,  and  regarded  as  a  great  pest.  No  grass  known  will  stand  as  much 
pasturing  and  drouth,  and  none  will  support  as  many  head  of  stock  per  acre.* 
It  will  grow  on  rich  or  poor  land.  The  ideal  pasture  is  this  grass,  Kentucky  blue 
grass  and  white  clover  on  the  same  ground.  In  much  of  the  South  this  combina- 

*Dr.  Ravenel,  of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  by  certain  treatment  of  soil,  obtained  near  there  ten  tons  of 
hay  per  acre. 


MISSISSIPPI.  287 

tion  will  afford  pasture  every  day  in  the  year,  while,  if  the  land  be  drained  well, 
it  will  hold  up  the  "foot"  of  stock  and  keep  them  out  of  mud  in  the  most  rainy 
seasons. 

I  have  been  so  elaborate  on  grasses  because  I  would  have  no  reader  left  in 
uncertainty  as  to  whether  the  South  is  naturally  a  great  grass  country.  If  any 
one  doubts  now,  I  commend  that  one  to  a  personal  inspection.  After  this  long 
digression,  I  return  to  the  Pine  Woods  Region  of  Mississippi.  But  before  I  com- 
ment more  particularly  on  the  Pine  Woods  District  of  Mississippi,  I  wish  to  say  a 
few  words  about  the  Pine  Woods  District  of  the  South  as  a  sheep  raising  country. 
I  believe  that,  in  a  few  years,  this  area,  which  stretches  from  the  James  River  in 
Virginia  to  Cedar  Keys  in  Florida,  and  from  the  Atlantic  coast  far  back  into  the 
interior,  west,  is  destined  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  sheep  walks  in  the  world. 
Whoever  has  read  the  work  of  John  L.  Hays,  Esq.,  Secretary  of  the  Wool 
Growers'  Association  of  the  United  States,  on  sheep  raising  in  the  South,  must 
have  been  struck  with  the  capabilities  he  concedes  to  the  country  in  question  in 
the  behalf  stated. 

Some  years  ago,  in  a  very  minute  and  tedious  examination  as  to  the  health  of 
sheep  and  cattle,  and  the  feasibility  of  making  these  industries  great  and  profit- 
able in  the  country  I  was  writing  of,  I  became  satisfied  that  dairying,  sheep 
raising  and  stock  raising  would  become  great  industries  South.  For  very  much 
of  this  Pine  Woods  Region  of  the  South  there  is  a  great  future.  Sheep  are 
almost  exempt  from  disease,  are  almost  incredibly  fecund,  cost  almost  next  to 
nothing  to  raise,  produce,  for  obvious  reasons,  wool  of  the  finest  character.  The 
country  is  so  well  watered,  is  so  exempt  from  the  depredation  of  beasts  of  prey 
(except  the  negro's  inevitable  cur),  the  climate  so  mild,  the  variety  of  food  so 
great,  that  it  is  almost  an  ideal  sheep  country. 

In  much  of  the  area  Japan  clover  is  making  its  appearance.  Some  States  are 
becoming  wrell  "set"  in  Bermuda.  These  grasses  will  do  well  in  the  pine  woods. 
If  one  will  scatter  the  seeds  of  white  clover,  orchard  grass,  red  top  and  blue  grass, 
these  grasses  wrill  furnish  winter  pasture,  and  sheep,  for  much  of  the  area,  will 
need  no  attention  in  winter.  Every  railroad  running  through  a  pine  woods 
country  South  ought  to  sow  these  grass  seeds,  so  that  a  traveler  can  see  what  the 
lands  will  produce. 

And  this  Pine  Woods  Region,  some  day,  will  become  the  great  factor  in 
establishing  in  the  United  States,  and  most  likely  in  the  South,  one  of  the  future 
great  industries  of  the  country — the  manufacture  of  the  finest  woolen  fabrics,  of 
which  France  and  England  are  now  the  great  producers.  As  is  well  known,  what 
are,  in  the  United  States,  the  great  wool  producing  States,  cannot  raise  the 
Saxony  sheep.  The  climate  is  too  severe  for  this  delicate  breed.  The  tariff  on 
wool  prohibits  its  importation  in  the  measure  needed  for  a  great  industry  in  fabrics 
founded  upon  such  a  quality  of  wool.  So,  from  these  two  causes,  our  finest 
wear — French  and  English  cassimeres — must  be  supplied  from  abroad.  But  the 
day  will  come  ere  long  when  millions  of  these  sheep  will  be  raised  South,  and 
then  the  opportunity  for  an  industry  new  to  the  country,  and  most  beautiful  and 
lucrative,  will  enure  to  the  South.  Wool  from  this  breed  has  been  raised  South 
that  surpassed  the  best  of  the  imported  article. 

The  raising  lambs  for  early  markets  North  and  West  will  some  day  become 
a  great  industry  generally,  as  it  now  is  in  a  part  of  the  South.*  The  cheapness  of 
these  pine  woods  lands,  their  healthfulness,  their  climate,  their  adaptation  to  such 
a  vast  range  of  products,  mark  them  as  the  future  seat  of  a  great  population  and 


*In  Tennessee,  for  instance,  it  is  becoming  quite  a  business.  The  ewes  are  fed  wheat,  mixed  with 
a  little  cayenne  pepper  in  May,  and  become  "  in  heat."  Their  lambs  are  born  in  fall  and  ready  for 
market  early  in  the  next  year,  at  high  prices. 


288  MISSISSIPPI. 

of  great  and  varied  industries.  At  present,  the  buzz  of  the  saw  cutting  the  pines 
into  lumber,  and  turpentine  distilleries,  are  mainly  the  signs  of  life  in  much  of  the 
area;  for  I  have  ridden  on  some  Southern  railroads  (and  sometimes  off)  for  miles, 
and  have  seen  hardly  a  sign  of  life.  Along  many  railroads  the  timber  has  been 
cut  off  for  several  miles  on  either  side,  until  it  has  become  unprofitable  to  haul 
logs.  The  mills  have  been  moved,  and  stumps  and  heaps  of  sawdust  are  all  that  is 
left  to  show  that  there  has  ever  been  any  business  transacted  there.  The  land  is 
considered  worthless,  but  it  is  better  naturally  than  many  .parts  of  the  United 
States  I  have  seen,  where  a  wise  husbandry  produces  bountiful  and  remunerative 
harvests,  and  where  taste  and  wealth  make  life  a  charm.  Thus  much  for  the  pine 
woods  of  the  South,  in  general  terms.  A  country  too  much  disregarded. 

The  pine  woods  of  Mississippi  stretches  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  South; 
on  the  west  it  extends  to  the  Bluff  Formation  on  the  Mississippi  River;  east,  the 
pine  woods  run  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  Alabama  Pine  Belt  abuts  on  Mis- 
sissippi, indistinguishable,  except  by  the  arbitrary  line  of  the  State;  north,  it  is 
a  curving,  sinuous  line,  running  through  Lauderdale,  Newton,  Scott,  Madison, 
and  Yazoo  Counties.  On  the  northern  and  southern  borders  the  geologists  have 
made  divisions  into  which  I  cannot  particularly  follow.  But  the  Pine  Woods 
Belt  has  been  chiefly  notable  for  its  immense  wealth  of  timber,  its  production  of 
turpentine  and  rosin,  and  for  its  capabilities  for  the  production  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables—only utilized  of  late  in  the  last  two  respects.  Of  late  years,  the  value  of 
these  pine  forests  has  been  appreciated  somewhat,  more  especially  by  Western 
lumbermen,  who,  seeing  the  rapid  disappearance  of  the  Western  pine,  and  the 
enormous  appreciation  in  the  prices  of  lands  containing  it,  have  bought  millions 
of  acres  in  Mississippi.  Probably  six  millions  of  acres  have  passed  into  the 
hands  of  speculators  at  prices  of  from  one  to  two  or  three  dollars  per  acre. 
Fortunately,  there  are  millions  of  acres  left,  at  a  dollar  an  acre  and  higher, 
according  to  quality.  In  a  few  years,  however,  these  lands,  for  timber  alone,  must 
be  very  much  higher  in  price,  and,  unlike  much  timber  land  West,  the  land  can 
be  turned  into  valuable  agricultural  and  horticultural  uses;  although  my  sugges- 
tion for  all  rolling  pine  lands  in  the  South,  of  the  usual  sandy  formation,  would 
be  to  get  them  "set"  in  Bermuda  grass,  white  clover,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  etc., 
and  keep  them  thus  perpetually.  The  country  would  thus  be  kept  from  "  wash- 
ing ;"  its  beauty  and  symmetry  would  be  preserved ;  fine  pastures  for  cattle  and 
sheep  in  a  superbly  watered  land  could  be  found.  The  upland  flats  for  fruits ;  the 
bottoms  for  cotton  and  the  cereals.  By  the  above  management,  the  Pine  Woods 
Countiy  could  easily  be  made  the  "  thing  of  beauty  "  it  ought  to  be. 

This  Pine  Woods  Country  in  Mississippi  is  one  of  the  best  furnished  areas  in 
the  country  with  railroad  facilities.  On  the  east,  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad 
traverses  its  eastern  border ;  on  the  west,  the  Jackson  Railroad  (southern  branch 
of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad)  penetrates  the  centre  of  the  western  area;  along 
the  north  line,  the  Vicksburg  and  Meridian  Railroad  runs;  from  Meridian  to  New 
Orleans,  runs  the  New  Orleans  and  Northeastern  Railroad,  whose  names  desig- 
nate its  direction.  This  is  a  new  railroad,  and  opens  up  not  only  the  vast  pine 
forests,  but  a  beautiful  sheep  country  and  fruit  and  vegetable  area.  Another  rail- 
road is  projected  (it  is  said  now  that  it  will  be  built)  from  Jackson,  Mississippi,  to 
Ship  Island,  on  the  Gulf  coast.  This  will  open  new  pine  lands  and  give  another 
north  and  south  railroad.  Still  another  railroad  runs  through  the  southern  border 
of  this  Mississippi  Pine  Belt— a  division  of  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  Railroad. 
In  the  article  on  the  Alabama  Pine  Belt,  I  said  I  would  defer  further  notice  to 
remarks  on  the  coast  country.  This  country  will  soon  be  attracting  great  atten- 
tion from  the  country  at  large  for  its  charms  as  a  place  of  residence.  From  thirty 
or  forty  miles  east  of  New  Orleans  until  as  many  from  Mobile  west  (say  for  from 


MISSISSIPPI.  289 

fifty  to  sixty  miles),  there  is  an  area,  for  much  of  the  way,  in  which  the  orange 
will  succeed.  The  advantages  of  this  area  are  many.  It  is  accessible  to  the 
gayety  and  shopping  attractions  of  Newr  Orleans.  In  two  or  three  hours,  one  can 
leave  one's  town  on  the  coast  and  arrive  in  New  Orleans.  On  the  coast  one  can 
get  fish,  oysters,  crab,  shrimp,  in  the  greatest  abundance  and  cheaply.  There  are 
chances  for  sailing  in  many  large  shallow  bays,  where  there  is  little  or  no  danger; 
or  one  can  sail  in  the  sound  or  the  gulf,  or  run  up  the  many  beautiful  rivers  and 
creeks  that  "make  into1'  the  gulf.  The  huntsman  can  find  plenty  of  shooting,  in 
wild  cluck,  geese,  snipe,  woodcock,  quails.  If  he  goes  back  a  little,  he  finds  plenty 
of  wild  turkey  and  deer.  The  salt  water  for  bathing  in  summer  is  another  great 
attraction,  and  this  is  the  only  feature  of  its  many  charms  that  has  brought  any 
consideration  to  this  strangely  overlooked  area.  Hundreds  of  beautiful  cottages, 
with  orange  groves,  are  owned  by  residents  of  New  Orleans,  who  resort  there  in 
summer  for  bathing  and  for  the  cool  and  healthful  sea  breezes. 

It  is  somewhere  on  this  coast  that  I  have  seen,  in  fancy,  the  future 
ideal  city,  with  some  poetic  name,  arise ;  where  wealth  and  taste  shall  vie  with 
nature  in  lavish  embellishment;  where  architecture  shall  achieve  her  choicest 
triumphs;  where  time  shall  recall  the  glories  of  other  climes  and  seas,  and 
where  famous  cities,  now  (as  to  their  brightest  aspects)  only  memories,  shall 
have  glorious  similitudes.  At  thoughts  of  the  future  of  this  gulf  coast,  the  old 
time  splendors  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Adriatic  revive  in  recollection,  and  cities 
forever  embalmed  in  history  and  song — Naples  and  Nice  and  Venice.  This  city 
may  have,  in  its  environs,  its  vineyards,  from  whose  grapes  the  choicest  wTines  will 
be  made;*  groves  of  orange  and  olive,  orchards  of  peach  and  pear.  Silk  factories 
may  spring  up,  and  the  fabrics  there  made  may  vie  with  Lyons,  in  France,  or  Pat- 
terson, in  New  Jersey. 

And  how  varied  are  the  delights  of  the  sea !  At  eventide  the  pale  purple  of 
the  sky,  glassed  in  the  "ocean  mirror  rounded  large,"  over  which  a  vast  calm  is 
brooding,  where  the  sweet  contagion  of  the  tranquility  is  irresisti  bly  caught,  the 
hush  is  undisturbed,  save  by  the  gentle  wave  as  it  tenderly  lips  the  shore— kissing 
it,  as  if  stealthily,  like  a  lover  his  sweetheart,  lest  a  kiss  sound  may  betray  his 
dalliance.  Other  times  the  colors — here,  opaline  breadths;  there,  spaces  of  dark 
blue ;  nearer,  the  deep  green ;  cloud  shadows  dusking  and  dappling  here  and  there ; 
pearly  flashes  from  the  breaking  billows,  leaping  and  frisking.  There  are  the 
bounding  ships  and  the  screaming,  darting  sea  birds.  Along  the  shore  the — 

"Flying  foam  scuds." 

The  islands  lying — 

"  In  dark  purple  spheres  of  sea." 

And  then  the  morning !     Gray's  fine  line  rushes  to  memory : — 

"The  breezy  call  of  incense  breathing  morn." 

This  joyous  air  puts  the  most  inspiriting  influences  in  nature  in  sympathy 
with  it.  Hear  the  applauding  rustle  and  the  dancing  responsiveness  of  nodding 
and  curtsying  trees,  the  laughing,  leaping  plaudits  of  the  crisp  and  sparkling 
waves,  the  largeness  of  movement,  the  grand  swiftness  of  the  wind-driven,  wide- 
spreading  clouds,  as  they  fleet  so  joyously  down  the  sky.  Everything  on  this  sea- 
ward, wide-view  scene  speaks  of  freedom,  spaciousness,  exaltation.  The  air 
exhilarates  like  laughing  gas,  and  the  breast  seems  too  small  for  the  glad  throbs 
of  the  dilated  heart.  Landward,  the  narrow  horizon  is  fringed  with  varied  shades 
of  green  from  magnolia,  live  oak,  pine  and  other  trees.  And,  while  the  mocking 
bird  has,  for  song,  "  all  seasons  for  its  own,"  yet,  in  the  morning,  he  seems  most 
jubilant.  This  time  of  the  day  he  embellishes  and  ornaments  in  glorious  aban- 

*An  eminent  authority  thinks  the  scuppernong  destined  to  make  the  choicest  champagne  that  ever 
titillated  the  palate  of  epicure. 


290  MISSISSIPPI. 

ion,  and  with  "  bright,  keen  joyance."  From  his  exhaustless  repertoire,  he 
pours — 

"From  the  sleek  passage  of  his  open  throat,  a  clear,  unwrinkled  song." 

Never  a  mortal  approached  him.  Pretty  and  rapid  earthquakes  of  ecstasy  shake 
his  breast ;  little  storms  of  quavers  escape  his  throat ;  roulades,  cadenzas,  fioritures, 
all  ornamentations  of  music,  fly  from  "the  sugared  nest  of  his  delicious  soul." 
Diapasons  and  gamuts  are  gamboled  through  in  the  melodious  mazes  of  his  spark- 
ling song,  and  he  revels  and  riots — seeming  to  create  a  being  of  music,  the  vibra- 
tions of  whose  very  wings  are  tuneful. 

And  then  the  other  beauties  of  the  gulf  coast,  in  the  flowers,  the  flowers! 

Why  a  city,  such  as  I  have  faintly  foreshadowed,  should  not  be,  one  cannot  tell. 
And  in  its  villas  our  Southern  marbles — marbles  whose  variety  and  beauty  defy 
description — will  play  a  conspicuous  part.  These  beautiful  stones  are  at  the  very 
doors  of  the  gulf,  in  Louisiana  and  Alabama  especially,  and  in  exhaustless  quantity 
and  of  superb  quality.  I  am  not  sure  but  one  can  have  "marble  halls"  upon  the 
gulf  almost  as  cheaply  as  buildings  of  brick.  Hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  are 
invested  in  villas  North,  on  the  Hudson,  at  Long  Branch,  Newport.  Why  not  some 
South?  Let  one  point  be  deeply  engraven  on  the  mind  of  the  invalid.  Take  the 
map  and  see  how  far  from  the  raw  "north-easters"  one  is  who  lives  on  this  gulf 
coast,  between  New  Orleans  and  Mobile.  And  this  air,  when  incurred,  has  come 
hundreds  of  miles  through  forests  of  pine,  wrhose  influence  has  taken  out  its  fangs 
and  softened  its  rude  blasts  with  the  "  balmy  sigh  "  of  its  medicinal  breath.  All 
sea  winds  on  the  coast  are  bland. 

It  is  useless  to  elaborate  these  attractions.  They  will  soon  receive  atten- 
tion from  Europeans  and  Western  and  Northern  people;  and  the  coast  will 
become  a  Southern  Newport  or  Long  Branch  in  winter.  It  will  become,  in  name 
and  fact,  the  sanitarium  of  the  Southwest.  (What  I  shall  say  of  Florida  hereafter 
will  apply,  in  great  part,  to  the  gulf  coast).  I  should  have  a  profound  satisfaction 
in  commanding  consideration  for  and  helping  to  build  up  a  country  which  has  no 
superior  in  the  many  regards  in  which  taste,  wealth  and  culture  seek  their  most 
eJegant  and  charming  diversions  and  pursuits.  But  I  must  forbear.  The  country 
needs  no  eulogist.  Nature  sings  an  unceasing  paean  in  the  cadences  of  sea  beats, 
the  pathetic  pine  songs,  the  melodies  of  her  feathered  songsters,  and  her  balm 
dropping  blooms  forever  murmurous  with  busy  bees.  I  may,  however,  extract 
from  some  words  of  the  late  Hon.  J.  F.  II.  Claiborne,  the  historian,  some  remarks. 
In  a  letter  to  Gen.  A.  M.  West,  published  with  the  Centennial  Address  of  the  latter 
gentleman  by  the  Mississippi  State  Board  of  Centennial  Managers,  he  says,  on 
page  80 :  "  Southeastern  Mississippi  produces  a  great  variety  of  fruit.  The  peach, 
apple,  plum,  pomegranate,  pear  and  fig;  pecan  .grapes  of  many  varieties,  straw- 
berries, dewberries,  blackberries,  the  persimmon,  mulberry  and  pawpaw,  or  cus- 
tard fruit,  and  melons  of  various  kinds,  grow  in  great  perfection  and  yield 
abundant  returns.  Nearer  the  seashore  we  find,  in  addition,  the  orange,  lemon, 
citron,  shaddock,  jujube,  almond,  banana,  olive,  and  occasionally  the  pine  apple." 
Of  "  staple  crops,"  he  says:  "  Sea  Island,  or  long  staple  cotton,  is  a  safe  crop  on 
this  coast,  anywhere  within  the  influence  of  the  salt  air  from  the  sea,  It  rates  in 
the  market  quite  as  well  as  that  grown  in  South  Carolina.  Yield,  about  800  Ibs. 
of  seed  cotton  to  the  acre,  more  or  less,  according  to  land,  culture  and  season. 
Tobacco,  from  Florida  or  Cuba  seed,  has  been  tested,  and,  in  careful  hands,  would 
be  a  paying  crop.  A  large  area  of  Jand  here  is  specially  favorable  to  its  culture. 
Sugar  cane  succeeds  admirably,  and  in  a  reliable  and  remunerative  industry.  Rice, 
so  far,  has  grown  exclusively  on  uplands,  and  only  for  domestic  use.  Its  culture 
might  be  profitably  extended.  Sweet  potatoes  have  been  made  to  yield  500 
bushels  to  the  acre.  Two  crops  of  Irish  potatoes  are  grown  on  the  same  land,  the 


MISSISSIPPI.  291 

lirst  planting  in  January,  the  second  in  August.  Indigo,  broom-corn,  the  sor- 
ghums, and  the  castor  oil  bean,  have  all  been  successfully  planted." 

I  have  seen  fine  oats,  corn  and  buckwheat.  It  is  quite  certain,  too,  that  along 
this  coast  will,  some  day,  spring  up  an  immense  trucking  business.  Already  has 
-a  start  been  made.  Its  climate  is  a  little  earlier  than  Mobile,  with  about  the  same 
soil,  and,  as  is  well  known,  Mobile  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  vegetable  pro- 
ducing areas  in  the  country  now.  It  ought  to  be  a  great  point,  too,  for  canning 
figs,  oranges  and  other  fruits,  shrimp,  fish,  oysters  and  vegetables.  Here  and  there 
a  cannery  is  started.  Others  will  follow.  Dairying  ought  to  be  a  considerable 
business  there.  I  know  that  fine  Jerseys  can  be  raised  there.  I  know  that 
Bermuda  grass  and  Japan  clover  can  be  combined  with  Kentucky  blue  grass,  red 
top,  orchard  and  white  clover,  and  perpetual  pastures  are  to  be  had  of  the  choicest 
grasses.  All  it  needs  is  skill  and  rich  land.  There  ought  to  be  many  woolen  and 
cotton  factories  along  the  coast.  The  cheapness  of  living  for  the  operatives,  with 
the  sea  to  feed  them  from ;  the  healthfulness  and  the  delights  of  the  sea  shore;  the 
fact  that  Saxony  sheep  can  be  raised  so  well  and  cheaply  and  their  wool  had ;  the 
farther  fact  that  the  wool  already  raised  there  has  a  distinct  name — "lake  wool," 
is  of  very  superior  character,  and  brings  a  higher  price ;  the  fact  that  New  Orleans 
is  so  near,  where  cotton  can  be  bought  every  day ;  the  fact  that  Sea  Island  cotton 
can  be  raised  there — all  these  point  strongly  to  the  sea  coast  as  a  great  manufac- 
turing area.  All  these  operatives  of  factories,  canning  factories,  these  wealthy 
cottagers,  these  throngs  in  winter  from  the  North  in  the  future  palatial  hotels,  will 
furnish  to  many  dairymen  and  poultry-raisers  lucrative  vocations.  It  is  useless 
to  put  any  more  colors  into  the  picture.  The  sea  shore  furnishes  the  canvas. 
Art  and  enterprise,  wealth  and  culture  some  day  will  draw  such  a  "living  land- 
scape" upon  it  as  will  make  any  forecast  I  could  draw  the  veriest  daub.  I  have 
said  so  much  to  point  the  way  to  wealth  and  taste  and  enterprise,  hoping  they 
will  follow  it  and  construct  and  beautify  as  they  go. 

As  to  the  health  of  the  country,  it  ought  to  be  superfluous  to  speak.  Let  me 
"  close  the  chapter "  by  quoting  a  passage  descriptive  of  a  resort  I  am  familiar 
with,  from  the  pen  of  Col.  Claiborne,  in  the  book  I  have  been  last  quoting  from : 
"But  the  position  is  at  once  beautiful  and  commanding.  A  rippling  bay,  dotted 
with  verdant  islets,  and  looming  out  into  the  "  deep,  blue  sea,"  "  far  as  the  breeeze 
can  bear  the  billows'  foam."  In  the  back  ground  stands  the  great  pine  forest  of 
Mississippi — those  evergreen  Titans  that  have  "braved  the  battle  and  the  storm" 
for  ages,  and  now  fling  their  hoary  shadows  and  distil  their  balsamic  dews  over 
this  charming  shore.  A  crystal  river,  fringed  with  verdure,  winds,  like  a  thread  of 
silver,  around  the  village ;  and  gigantic  live  oaks,  that  no  elemental  strife  can  shake, 
gracefully  stoop  to  kiss  the  sparkling  waters.  The  prospect  and  the  air  are  exhil- 
arating, and  the  invalid  finds  these  powerful  adjuvants  to  the  elixir  of  the  springs." 

I  am  sorry  that  the  Forest  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Census  does  not  give 
the  quantity  of  pine  by  counties  as  it  does  in  some  'States.  It  was  issued  Decem- 
ber 1,  188 1.  It  gives  the  long-leafed  pine  (pinus  australis),  number  of  feet,  board 
measure,  total  17,200,000,000.  Of  this,  6,800,000,000  is  west  of  Pearl  River.  East 
of  Pearl  River,  7,000,000,000.  There  are,  in  the  "region  of  mixed  growth,  exclu- 
sive of  200,000  acres  injured  by  the  manufacture  of  turpentine,"  3,800,000,000  feet. 
The  region  of  mixed  growth  is  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Pine  Belt.  It  is  like 
a  right-angled  triangle.  It  starts  in  the  southeast  corner  of  Wayne  County  and 
runs  northwest  diagonally,  the  base  of  the  triangle  resting  on  Wayne,  Jasper  and 
Smith  Counties,  the  apex  in  southeast  Kemper.  This  variation  is  explained  in 
the  fact  that  what  is  called  the  Central  Prairie  Region  brings  its  rocks  to  the  sur- 
face, making  a  very  fertile,  in  part,  but  very  variable  soil,  and  making  a  very- 
mixed  forest  growth.  There  was  cut,  for  the  census  year  1880,  108,000,000  feet 


292  MISSISSIPPI 

of  yellow  pine.  The  quantity  cut  per  annum  has  doubtless  greatly  increased. 
Of  short-leaved  pine  (pinus  mitis),  there  were  standing  on  December  1,  1881, 
6,775,000,000  feet,  board  measure.  It  grows  mainly  in  a  country  closely  related 
to  the  position  of  the  Pontotoc  Ridge.  I  shall  say  something  now  as  to  the 
natural  products  of  Mississippi,  not  noted  before  or  only  glanced  at. 

Lignite. — This  material  underlies  the  whole  area,  and  even  more  territory  of 
the  Yellow  Loam  Region. 

Hydraulic  Limestone. — Prof.  Hilgard  speaks  of  an  "excellent  hydraulic  lime- 
stone" in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  State.  In  another  place  of  a  certain 
locality,  he  says :  "  The  rock  which  forms  the  bald  hilltops  on  the  right  bank  of 
Yellow  Creek  (and  which  may  probably  be  found  in  many  similar  positions  in  the 
hilly  country  lying  between  the  Red  Sulphur  Springs  and  Eastport  road,  and  the 
Tennessee  River),  I  have  found  to  be  of  very  superior  quality.  The  cement  made 
from  it  sets  almost  as  rapidly  as  plaster  of  Paris,  and  becomes  very  hard." 

Subsequently,  Prof.  W.  D.  Moore,  of  the  University  of  Mississippi,  visited  the 
locality  "  between  Eastport  and  the  Tennessee  line,"  to  make  a  report.  He  closes 
his  report  thus :  "  I  need  not  enlarge  upon  the  importance  to  the  immediate  dis- 
trict, and  to  the  whole  State,  of  such  an  immense  deposit  of  hydraulic  limestone, 
sufficient  to  supply  the  whole  valley  of  the  Mississippi  -with  cement  for  generations 
to  come,  which  can  be  easily  worked,  and  from  its  vicinity  to  the  Tennessee 
River,  easily  transported  to  every  part  of  the  South  and  Southwest." 

Limestones  for  quicklime,  building  stones,  grindstones  and  flagstones  are 
found  in  various  places  in  Mississippi,  but  would  take  too  much  space  to  particu- 
larize. The  limestone,  in  places,  can  be  safely  commended  as  yielding  a  lime,  in 
some  instances,  "  as  good  as  the  majority  of  the  imported  article." 

Gypsum. — Considerable  is  said  about  gypsum  in  Prof.  Hilgard's  work.  Future 
explorations  will  doubtless  disclose  it  in  places  in  considerable  quantity.  "Pure 
gypsum  has  been  found  in  wTells  near  Cato,  in  Rankin  County,  twelve  inches 
thick.  It  has  been  found  near  Kosciusko,  Clinton,  West  Hinds  and  other  places." 

Kaolin. — Professor  Harper  says:  "The  kaolin  deposit  in  Tishomingo  County 
is,  I  believe,  the  largest  deposit  in  the  world.  *  *  *  The  most  remarkable 
phenomenon  offered  by  this  immense  and  really  invaluable  kaolin  deposit,  is  its 
appearance  on  the  place  where  it  is  found." 

Sand. — White  sand,  fit  for  glass  making,  I  understand  is  to  be  found  along 
the  coast.  I  am  credibly  informed  that  a  very  superior  article  in  vast  quantity 
has  lately  been  discovered  on  the  new  branch  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad, 
from  Kosciusko  to  Aberdeen.  Prof.  Hilgard  says  that  the  Pearl  River  and^its 
f  ributaries  furnish  "  drifts  of  white  sand  that  often  vie  in  purity  with  those  of  St. 
Genevieve,  in  Missouri,  whence  the  Pittsburgh  glass  works  receive  a  large  part 
of  their  supply." 

Marls. — To  much  of  the  area  of  the  State,  marls  of  various  character  are 
accessible.  Along  tne  eastern  portion  of  the  State  they  are  underlying  much  of 
the  whole  area  from  north  to  South.  Across  almost  the  whole  lower  half  of  the 
State,  from  east  to  west,  they  subsist,  (Of  course,  I  do  not  mean  they  are  every- 
where accessible).  These  marls  differ  much  in  texture  and  quality,  but  they  are 
all  well  worth  utilization.  I  again  quote  from  Prof.  Hilgard,  with  some  analyses: 
"My  deduction,  from  all  the  examinations  I  have  given  these  marls,  is  that  they 
are  far  superior  to  the  green  sand  marls  of  New  Jersey  in  potash,  for  which  the 
latter  are  chiefly  distinguished,  and  also  contain  many  other  and  valuable  elements 
of  plant  food  that  the  New  Jersey  marls  totally  lack."  An  analysis  of  marl 
near  Byram,  on  Pearl  River,  where  it  is  probable  that  there  are  millions  of  tons, 
gives: 


MISSISSIPPI.  293 

Insoluble  Matter  (chiefly  sand) 12.308 

Potash 0.611 

Soda 0.179 

Lime  •  • ; t 43-932 

Magnesia i  .658 

Peroxide  of  Iron  and  Alumina 2.696 

Iron  Pyrites 1.266 

Phosphoric  Acid 0.224 

Carbonic  Acid  and  Loss 34.720 

Water  and  Organic  Matter 2.396 

100,000 

Going  across  to  another  main  'line,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  State,  I  find 
Prof.  Hilgard  speaking  thus  of  two  counties  along  this  railroad:  "In  Clarke  and 
Wayne  Counties  we  have  a  great  variety  of  mineral  fertilizers."  Here  is  an 
analysis  of  green  sand  marl  from  Garland's  Creek: 

Insoluble  Matter  (silica  and  sand) . .  21.657 

Soluble  (in  NaO  CO2)  Silica 24  224 

Potash , 1.717 

Soda 0.465 

Lime 14  785 

Magnesia 2.476 

Brown  Oxide  of  Magnesia 0-403 

Peroxide  of  Iron » 13.020 

Alumina 7  751 

Phosphoric  Acid 0.327 

Sulphuric  Acid o  566 

Carbonic  Acid 12,492 

99-556 

This  marl  is  quite  remarkable  for  its  completeness  as  a  mineral  manure  in  all 
respects,  containing,  as  it  does,  large  amounts  of  every  essential  ingredient  (except- 
ing chlorine,  which  may,  however,  be  present  also) ;  being  so  constituted  as  to  be 
equally  well  adapted  to  light  and  heavy  soils,  and  without  any  danger  of  over- 
dressing. It  is,  thus  far,  the  most  complete  mineral  fertilizer  I  have  found  in  the 
State.  A  better  manure  can  hardly  be  found.  It  is  far  superior  to  all  manure 
which  the  agriculturist  himself  can  produce,  and,  indeed,  better  than  guano  itself. 
It  is  true  guano  has,  the  first  year,  a  better  effect  upon  the  crops  than  the  marl 
can  produce,  but  its  effect  is  confined  to  one  year,  while  the  effect  of  the  marl  lasts 
for  ten  years.  In  the  first  year,  the  effect  of  the  marl  is  only  slight ;  it  is  much 
better  the  second,  third  and  fourth  years,  and  decreases  then  again.  Whilst  the 
guano  supplies  only  the  food  for  the  vegetation  for  one  year,  and  acts,  as  it  were, 
only  as  a  stimulant,  the  marl  improves  and  enriches  the  soil.  While,  of  course, 
these  marls  can  not  compare  in  commercial  value  nor  in  fertility  with  the  cele- 
brated phosphate  rocks  that  have  now  made  South  Carolina  so  famous — which 
contain  from  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  which  will  doubt- 
less be  yet  laid  bare  both  further  north  and  south,  as  hals  been  measurably  done  in 
North  Carolina  of  late — yet  their  abundance,  accessibility  and  diffusion  make 
them  a  vast,  incomputible,  untouched,  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth  to  the 
country  where  found;  and  were  there  no  other  factor  to  enrich  that  country, 
there  would  be  the  pledge  of  its  future  fertility,  under  the  treatment  to  be 
accorded  that  area  by  its  inhabitants  within  the  next  half  century. 

Had  I  space,  I  should  like  to  give  a  list  of  the  forest  growth  of  Mississippi, 
Her  flora,  in  this  regard,  is  very  rich.  In  1876, 1  made  a  collection  or  list  of  names 
of  trees  for  use  at  the  Centennial  Exposition,  and  I  think  I  enumerated  nearly 
one  hundred  species  of  trees.  In  the  unique  building  contributed  by  Mississippi 
to  the  Centennial  Exposition,  and  which  illustrated,  in  part,  her  forest  wealth, 
there  were  sixty-eight  varieties  of  wood  used. 

SOME  LAWS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

There  is  exempt  from  seizure  and  sale,  under  execution  or  attachment,  in 
favor  of  each  head  of  a  family  or  housekeeper  in  this  State,  the  following  prop- 


294  MISSISSIPPI. 

erty,  to  wit :  Two  work-horses  or  mules  or  one  yoke  of  oxen,  two  cows  and 
calves,  five  head  of  stock  hogs  and  five  sheep,  one  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  of 
corn,  ten  bushels  of  wheat  or  rice,  two  hundred  pounds  of  pork  or  bacon  or  other 
meat,  one  cart  or  wagon  not  to  exceed  one  hundred  dollars  in  value,  household 
and  kitchen  furniture  to  be  selected  by  the  debtor  not  to  exceed  one  hundred 
dollars  in  value,  three  hundred  bundles  of  fodder,  one  sewing  machine,  and  all 
colts  under  three  years  old  raised  in  this  State  by  the  debtor,  and  the  wages  of 
every  laborer  or  mechanic  to  the  amount  of  one  hundred  dollars.  The  following 
property  is  likewise  exempt  in  the  hancte  of  the  persons  named,  viz:  The  tools 
of  a  mechanic  necessary  in  carrying  on  his  trade,  the  agricultural  implements  of 
a  farmer  necessary  for  two  male  laborers,  the  implements  of  a  laborer  necessary 
in  his  usual  employment,  the  books  of  a  student  required  for  the  completion  of 
his  education,  the  wearing  apparel  of  every  person,  the  libraries  of  licensed 
attorncyG-at-law,  practicing  physicians  and  ministers  of  the  gospel  not  exceeding 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  in  value;  also  the  instruments  of  surgeons  and 
dentists  used  in  their  profession  not  exceeding  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  in 
value,  the  arms  and  accoutrements  of  each  person  of  the  militia  of  the  State,  and 
all  globes,  books  and  maps  usecf  by  teachers  of  schools,  academies  and  colleges. 
That  every  citizen  of  this  State,  male  or  female,  being  a  householder  and  having 
a  family,  shall  be  entitled  to  hold,  exempt  from  seizure  or  sale  under  execution  or 
attachment,  the  land  and  buildings  owned  and  occupied  as  a  residence  by  such 
debtor,  provided  the  quantity  of  land  sha.ll  not  exceed  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres,  nor  the  value  thereof,  inclusive  of  improvements,  the  sum  of  two  thousand 
dollars.  The  Legislature  of  the  State  has  passed  a  law  "  exempting  from  taxation 
for  ten  years  the  machinery  used  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
yarns  and  fabrics  composed  of  these  or  other  materials,  or  for  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements  and  machinery."  The  municipal  corporations  are  moved 
generally  by  a  similar  spirit,  and  almost  in  any  town  capital  would  be  met  by  the 
same  exemption  the  State  grants. 

The  State  expends  nearly  a  million  of  dollars  for  education  in  her  common 
schools.  She  has  several  institutions  of  high  order  supported  by  the  State.  She 
divided  the  agricultural  land  scrip  dividend  equally  between  the  "  Alcorn  Univer- 
sity," for  colored,  and  "  The  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Mississippi," 
for  white  youth.  Tuition  free  in  both  instances.  The  fund  was  $227,150,  and 
liberal  appropriations  have  been  made  to  both  since.  Besides,  there  is  the  Touga- 
loo  University,  for  colored  students  of  both  sexes,  the  State  Normal  School,  for 
colored  students,  and  the  Shaw  University,  for  colored  students ;  besides,  there 
are  female  seminaries,  high  schools,  (to  say  nothing  of  the  State  University  at 
Oxford,  for  white  students  of  both  sexes,)  without  number,  scattered  over  the- 
State.  It  would  be  a  gross  injustice  to  pass  with  bare  mention  the  Agricultural 
and  Mechanical  College  of  Mississippi,  because  it  is  a  revolutionary  institution. 
It  is  presided  over  by  Gen.  S.  D.  Lee,  and  is  patronized  by  the  best  people  of  the 
State.  Its  curriculum  is  emphatically  agricultural.  The  labor  pertinent  to  the 
field  and  farm  is  compulsory.  It  is  winning  a  great  reputation  for  its  curriculum 
and  the  students  it  is  turning  out.  It  is  the  only  agricultural  college  in  the  United 
States,  I  believe,  that  has  a  professorship  of  dairying.  It  thus  bravely  leads  the 
way  to  the  development  of  one  of  the  most  lucrative  and  beneficent  industries  of 
the  world. 

This  State,  full  of  benevolent  aspirations  after  progression,  last  winter,  laid 
the  basis  for  an  industrial  school  for  females,  thus  taking  very  advanced  ground 
in  behalf  of  the  education  of  the  sex.  Its  features  are  to  be  as  follows:  The  bill 
creating  the  college  provides  that  the  object  shall  be  to  establish  a  school  where 
girls  may  acquire  a  normal  education,  together  with  a  knowledge  of  kindergarten. 


MISSISSIPPI.  295 

instruction;  also  a  knowledge  of  telegraphy,  stenography  and  photography;  also 
a  knowledge  of  drawing,  painting,  designing  and  engraving  in  their  industrial 
application ;  also  a  knowledge  of  fancy,  practical  and  general  needle-work,  and 
also  a  knowledge  of  book-keeping,  with  such  other  industries  as  may  be,  from 
time  to  time,  suggested  by  experience,  or  to  promote  the  general  object  of  said 
institution  and  college,  to  wit:  Fitting  and  preparing  girls  for  the  practical  indus- 
tries of  the  age. 

I  take  the  following  extracts  upon  the  climate  of  Mississippi  from  Volume  Vy 
Tenth  Census  United  States :  " The  climate  of  Mississippi  is  a '  warm  temperate' 
one,  in  the  literal  sense  of  the  term,  extremes  of  temperature  prevailing  farther 
north,  being  tempered  materially  by  the  influence  of  the  winds  blowing  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  extreme  cold  of  winter  sometimes  occurring  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  State  (at  Oxford  and  Holly  Springs,  where,  ordinarily,  the  winter  mini- 
mum is  from.  15°  to  20°  Fah.),  is  10°  Fah.,  sufficient  to  kill  fig  trees  six  years  old ; 
but  at  Grenada,  on  the  Yalobusha  River,  the  fig  rarely  suffers.*  At  Vicksburg 
and  Natchez,  the  extreme  cold  thus  far  observed  is  17°  Fah.;  inland,  at  Jackson, 
several  degrees  lower.  It  is  only  near  the  sea  coast  that  the  orange  and  lemonf 
can  ordinarily  be  grown  without  winter  protection  in  the  open  air.  A  warm  belt 
extends  along  the  Mississippi  River,  but,  unlike  that  of  the  coast,  it  is  liable  to 
'cold  snaps'  from  the  influence  of  northwest  winds,  which  render  the  outdoor  cul- 
ture of  the  sub-tropical  fruits  precarious,  even  as  far  south  as  Baton  Rouge.  Cool 
belts  or  regions  are  formed  by  the  elevated  ridge  lands  at  the  heads  of  the  larger 
rivers  of  the  State.  The  summers  are  long,  practically  including  May  and  Septem- 
ber. During  this  time  the  weather  is  warm,  the  usual  range  of  the  thermometer 
being  from  70°  to  90°  Fah.,  but  excessive  heat  and  sultriness,  such  as  prevails  so 
commonly  during  the  shorter  summers  in  the  Middle  and  Northern  States,  is  rare, 
and  sunstroke  is  almost  unknown." 

WINDS  AND  RAINFALL. 

During  the  summer  the  winds  are  altogether  predominantly  from  the  south, 
and  blow  quite  steadily  and  gently,  greatly  relieving  the  sun's  heat  and  allowing 
sultriness  only  for  short  periods.  Between  southeast  and  due  south,  these  winds 
bring  clear,  warm  weather;  but  as  they  veer  toward  southwest  the  sky  clouds 
over,  and  between  southwest  and  due  west  lie  the  winds  that  bring  warm,  steady 
rains,  usually  without  any  severe  electrical  excitement.  The  winds  between  due 
west  and  northwest  in  summer  bring  the  violent  thunder  storms,  coming  suddenly 
and  sometimes  rising  to  the  violence  and  cyclonic  character  of  tornadoes.  In 
winter  the  northwest  winds  bring  the  severe  cold  snaps,  usually  of  only  a  few 
days'  duration,  and  accompanied  by  but  a  slight  precipitation,  so  that  snow  rarely 
falls  to.  the  depth  of  more  than  a  few  inches  even  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State,  and  is  quickly  melted  by  the  south  and  southwest  winds  with  warm  rains. 
As  the  wind  rarely  lies  for  any  length  of  time  between  northwest,  east  and  south- 
west, either  in  summer  or  winter,  the  change  from  a  cold  and  dry  northwest  wind> 
with  snow  flurries,  to  warm  south  and  southwest  winds,  laden  with  moisture,  is 
frequent  and  rapid  in  whiter,  giving  that  season  a  character  of  rather  unenjoyable 
dampness  overhead  and  slushiness  under  foot,  wrhich  are,  however,  offset  by  its 
brevity,  for  the  temperate  and  beautiful  autumn  often  extends  into  the  latter  half 
of  December,  and  the  middle  of  February  usually  finds  the  early  vegetables  fairly 
up  in  the  gardens,  even  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  The  minimum  of  rain- 
fall is  in  autumn,  and  October  is  almost  uniformly  a  dry  month.  Winter  and 
spring  together  sometimes  include  nearly  two-thirds  the  rainfall  for  the  entire 


*I  have  known  the  celeste  fig  killed  by  cold  at  Hazlehurst — considerably  further  South. 
fl  hesitate  to  call  the  lemon  a  success  on  the  sea  coast  in  Mississippi. 


296  MISSISSIPPI. 

year  Although  long  dry  spells  are  liable  to  occur,  the  rainfall,  on  the  whole,  is 
well  distributed  through  the  seasons.  The  rains  are  often  torrential,  and  immense 
quantities  of  water  fall  in  a  given  time.  In  spring,  quite  well  into  the  season, 
nearly  daily  rains,  coming  on  about  or  a  little  after  noon,  are  a  strongly  marked 
feature  of  the  climate  for  some  distance  from  the  coast  up  into  the  interior,  for 
fifty  miles  or  more. 

PROGRESS  AND  DEVELOPMENT. 

The  following  table  will  prove  very  instructive  to  show  how  Mississippi  has 
progressed  in  some  of  her  material  aspects : 

PRODUCTS.  1870.  1880.  1882. 

Indian  corn,  bushels 15.637,316  21,349,800  30,233,600 

Cotton,  bales 564,938  963.111  1,064,000 

Oats,  bushels 414,586  1,959,620  3,080,800 

Hay,  tons 8,324  8,894  10,886 

Molasses,  gallons 219,674  53^,625                   

Rice,  pounds 374.627  1,718,951                    

Sweet  Potatoes,  bushels 1,743,432  3,610,610                   

Orchard  Products,  value £71,018  $378,I45                    

Live  Stock,  number 1,724,295  2,398,934  2,324,429 

1,643  


Butter,  pounds 2,613*52 1  7,454, 

Wool,  pounds 288,285  734,642 


No  one  will  understand  the  great  significance  of  these  figures  without  some 
comment.  I  should  have  liked  to  show  the  increase  in  the  produce  of  butter,  as 
an  indication  of  one  of  the  prettiest  aspects  of  the  progress  of  the  State.  There 
are  no  statistics  for  the  year;  but  there  were  nearly  10,030  more  milch  cattle  for 
1882  than  in  the  census  return  for  1880.  Every  intelligent  man  in  the  State 
knows  what  that  means— a  large  increase  in  the  product  of  butter  and  the  value 
of  the  cows;  for  the  reason  that  scores  of  thoroughbred  bulls,  mainly  Jerseys, 
have  been  scattered  through  the  country,  and  their  "get"  are  better  butter- 
producing  stock  than  "scrubs."  Besides,  there  are  many  thoroughbreds.  Again, 
although  the  number  of  live  stock  is  something  less  than  in  the  census  return,  yet 
there  are  two  remarks  relative  to  that:  The  swine  are  vastly  improved  in  quality, 
and  the  very  large  proportions  the  shipping  of  cattle  to  New  Orleans  has  assumed 
within  a  few  years,  explains  the  falling  off  in  numbers.  In  the  time  of  the  census, 
the  business  was  small ;  it  is  now  large.  But,  if  one  will  reflect  what  it  means  to 
Mississippi  to  keep  home  the  money  on  fifteen  million  bushels  of  corn — the  differ- 
ence between  1870  and  1880— he  will  be  impressed  with  how  the  State  is  growing. 

The  difference  to  the  West  of,  say,  five  States  like  Mississippi  buying  fifty  to 
seventy-five  millions  of  breadstuff's  per  annum  from  her  will  be  severely  felt  in 
the  end.  The  merchants  in  the  large  cities,  too,  will  feel  it;  and  between  the  loss 
to  them  by  reason  of  compressed  cotton  sent  North  or  through  to  Liverpool  on 
through  bills  of  lading,  and  their  loss  of  these  sales  of  pork,  hay  and  corn  to  the 
Southern  planter,  it  looks  like  their  capital  must  seek  new  channels:  The 
immense  indebtedness  of  the  cotton-planting  interest  will  still  enable  them  to 
control  shipments  for  a  time ;  but  it  must  be  that  European  and  Northern  money- 
lenders will  bring  their  capital  South,  and  thus  permit  the  planters  to  pay  off 
their  indebtedness  to  the  merchants,  upon  which  they  are  paying  ten,  twelve  and 
higher  per  cent,  interest.  Long  loans  could  easily  be  made  at  six  to  eight  per 
cent,  per  annum  interest.  There  is  room  for  millions.  No  investment  could  be 
safer.  The  productive  power  of  the  land  is  incredible ;  and  no  greater  anomaly 
marks  Southern  affairs  to-day  than  the  prices  at  which  lands  rent  and  the  value  of 
their  product,  as  compared  with  the  prices  for  which  they  can  be  bought.  Mr.  A. 
B.  Hurt,  in  his  valuable  little  pamphlet,  says :  "The  value  of  lands  per  acre  in 
Mississippi,  as  compared  with  the  value  of  products  per  acre,  according  to  the 
returns  of  the  census,  afford  an  interesting  study.  It  often  happens  that  lands 
which  rent  for  from  $5  to  $10  per  acre,  and  yield  products  in  value  from  $15  to 


MISSISSIPPI.  297 

$40  per  acre,  are  rated  in  market  as  low  as  $10  and  $25  per  acre."  Much  of  what 
I  have  been  saying  of  the  progress  and  development  of  Mississippi,  and  the 
chances  for  loans  and  investments,  will  apply  as  well  to  other  Southern  States.  I 
do  not  mean  to  convey  the  idea  that  Mississippi  alone  offers  fine  opportunities  in 
the  latter  regard,  or  is  the  only  State  that  has  made  great  development.  On  the 
contrary,  some  Southern  States  have  far  outstripped  her  in  the  race  of  progress. 
But  I  have  been  diffuse,  because  betrayed,  half  unconscious!}',  into  disquisition. 

But  no  aspect  of  development  in  Mississippi  promises  more  for  her  lasting 
and  alluring  greatness  than  the  raising  of  thoroughbred  cattle.  There  are  now 
in  this  State  four  distinct  live  stock  organizations,  every  member  of  which  must 
be  the  breeder  of  registered  stock  of  the  breed  of  which  the  association  is  the 
champion  and  exponent.  And  East  Mississippi,  with  her  rich  limestone  prairies 
and  her  large  fields  of  clover  and  blue  grass,  has  hardly  a  peer,  saving  East  Ten- 
nessee, in  the  number  of  her  distinguished  breeders  and  their  fine  stock ;  in  raising 
thoroughbred,  registered  cattle,  in  proportion  to  her  area  and  population.  And 
I  look  upon  her  as  to  be  one  of  the  most  renowned  theatres  for  dairying  and 
stock-breeding  in  the  United  States  within  the  next  quarter  of  a  century;  for  be 
it  understood,  that  those  who  shall  there  start  the  manufacturing  of  cream  cheeses 
of  the  fine  Jersey  cream,  have  a  life  of  opulence  awaiting  them. 

Another  phase  of  progress  in  which  Mississippi  is  distinguishing  herself  is 
jute  culture,  and  I  trust  I  am  doing  no  one  a  wrong  when  I  say  that  my  friend, 
Mr.  C.  Menelas,  who  is  such  a  zealous  and  munificent  experimentalist,  is  the  lead- 
ing culturist  in  the  South,  and  the  originator  of  it  South.  An  organization  was 
formed  a  year  or  two  ago,  and  great  progress  has  been  made  in  fashioning  a 
machine  to  decorticate  the  fibre.  Mr.  Menelas  lived  ten  years  in  India,  at  Cal- 
cutta, and  understands  jute  culture  well.  The  following  is  part  of  his  testimony 
before  the  Tariff  Commission  of  the  United  States:  "In  1878  I  bought  a  planta- 
tion in  Mississippi,  and  concluded  to  make  an  experiment  in  jute  culture.  I  wrote 
to  the  Agricultural  Department  at  Washington  about  it,  and  planted  one-eighth 
of  an  acre.  The  land  upon  which  I  planted  was  alluvial,  such  as  is  used  for  corn 
and  cotton.  To  my  surprise,  I  saw  that  crop  grow  magnificently  to  perfection. 
I  took  some  stalks  to  the  Cotton  Exchange  in  New  Orleans  which  measured 
fifteen  feet  high.  I  induced  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  of  Louisiana  and 
other  friends  of  mine  to  plant  several  acres,  and  I  have  been  through  their  planta- 
tions, and  it  seems  to  grow  admirably ;  so  there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that 
jute  will  grow  splendidly."  Jute  is  mixed  with  cotton,  linen  and  silk,  and  enters 
into  many  fabrics.  In  Dundee,  Scotland,  there  were,  in  1872,  one  hundred  jute 
mills  and  twenty  thousand  workmen,  It  is  a  large  and  growing  industry,  and 
promises  much  for  the  South. 


LOUISIANA. 


Louisiana  is  the  least  understood,  and,  until  very  lately,  has  been  the  most 
disregarded,  of  all  the  Southern  States.  Before  the  late  civil  war  her  position  was 
one  of  great  eminence  in  wealth  and  value  of  productions,  but  since  then  she  nas 
sunk  very  low  in  the  rank  of  States  in  these  regards.  However,  those  things 
remain  to  her  that  no  wars  nor  misgovern ment  can  take  away — climate,  soil, 
great  rivers,  and  a  geographical  position  second  to  no  State  in  the  Union. 

Louisiana  adjoins  Arkansas  on  the  north,  Mississippi  on  the  east  and  Texas 
on  the  west.  Its  southern  boundary  is  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  separated  from 
Mississippi  by  the  Mississippi  and  Pearl  Rivers,  except  along  the  northern  line  of 
a  strip  that  juts  out  to  the  east,  and  along  the  greater  part  of  its  western  limit 
the  Sabine  River  separates  it  from  Texas.  The  Mississippi  winds  through  the 
southern  part  of  the  State  and  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  105  miles  below 
New  Orleans.  The  State  lies  between  the  meridians  of  89°  and  94°  west  longi- 
tude, and  between  the  parallels  of  28°  56'  and  3:>°  north  latitude.  Its  area, 
according  to  the  latest  measurements,  is  "  about  45,420  square  miles,  exclusive  of 
fresh-water  lakes,  land-locked  bays  and  of  Lake  Pontchartrain.  Of  this  area 
about  20,100  square  miles  is  lowland,  belonging  to  the  alluvium  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Red  Rivers,  and  to  the  marsh  region  of  the  coast;  the  rest,  or  over  one-half 
of  the  State,  being  uplands  of  varying  character."  The  State  is  divided  into  58 
districts  called  *•  parishes,"  equivalent  to  the  "  counties  "  of  other  States. 

The  population  of  the  State  in  1880  was  939,946,  of  which  454,954  were  white 
and  483,655  colored;  885,800  native  and  54,146  foreign. 

The  following  on  the  surface  of  the  State  is  from  "•  Climate  and  Health  of 
Louisiana,"  by  Joseph  Jones,  M.  D.,  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  works  ever 
written  about  any  country: 

"There  is  not,  perhaps,  on  earth  a  continuous  tract  of  equal  extent  presenting 
a  greater  diversity  than  Louisiana.  Within  its  limits  are  included  all  the  varieties, 
from  the  most  recent  and  still  periodically  inundated  alluvium,  to  hills  approach- 
ing the  magnitude  of  mountains;  every  quality  of  soil,  from  the  most  productive 
to  the  most  sterile,  and  from  un wooded  plains  to  dense  forests. 

"All  the  southern  part  of  this  State  is  an  alluvial  tract  of  low  cliamplain 
country,  extending  from  Lake  Borgne  to  Sabine  River,  and  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  to  Baton  Rouge  and  Red  River — about  250  miles  long,  and  from  70  to  140 
wide.  This  extensive  tract  is  intersected  by  numerous  rivers,  bays,  creeks  and 
lakes,  dividing  the  country  into  a  great  number  of  islands.  A  large  extent  of 
country  in  Louisiana  is  liable  to  be  overflowed  by  the  Mississippi.  According  to 
Mr.  Darby,  the  accurate  and  learned  and  accomplished  surveyor,  the  average 
width  of  overflown  lands  above  Red  River,  from  latitude  31°  to  33°  north,  may  be 
assumed  at  20  miles,  equal  to  2,770  square  miles.  Below  latitude  31°  to  the  efflux 
of  the  Lafourche,  about  80  miles  in  extent,  the  inundation  is  about  40  miles  in 
width,  equal  to  3,200  square  miles. 


LOUISIANA,  299 

"  All  the  country  below  the  efflux  of  the  Lafourche  is  liable  to  be  inundated, 
equal  to  2,370  square  miles.  From  this  calculation  it  appears  that  8,340  square 
miles  are  liable  to  be  inundated  by  the  overflowing  of  the  Mississippi;  and  if  to 
this  be  added  2,550  square  miles  for  the  inundated  lands  on  Red  River,  the  whole 
surface  of  the  State  liable  to  inundation  will  amount  to  10,890  square  miles.  Of 
this  extent,  however,  not  one-half  is  actually  covered  annually  with  water;  and 
every  year,  by  the  extension  of  levees  and  by  the  deepening  of  the  mouths  of  the 
river,  the  area  of  cultivated  land  is  becoming  greater,  and  that  subject  to  over- 
flow less. 

"  The  water  of  the  lakes,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Mississippi  River,  moderate 
the  intense  heat  of  summer  and  the  severe  cold  of  winter ;  and  the  residences  of 
the  planters  on  the  banks  of  the  streams  are  noted  for  their  elegance,  comfort, 
thorough  ventilation  and  healthful  climate." 

The  alluvial  bottoms  of  the  rivers  and  bayous  afford  strips  of  land  of  unsur- 
passed fertility.  The  usual  width  of  the  alluvial  plain  of  the  Mississippi  bottom 
between  Vicksburg  and  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River  is  from  30  to  35  miles;  that 
of  the  Red  River  from  8  to  10  miles;  below  the  junction  of  the  two  Valleys,  the 
aggregate  width  is  about  the  sum  of  the  above  figures.  The  "  uplands  "  of  the 
State  also  furnish  soils  of  astonishing  productiveness;  scarcely  inferior  in  some 
instances  to  those  of  the  alluvial  regions. 

CLIMATE. 

As  to  the  climate  and  topography  of  Louisiana,  the  grossest  misconceptions 
prevail.  Col.  S.  H.  Lockett,  Professor  of  Engineering  in  the  Louisiana  State 
University,  who  traveled  over  all  the  parishes  of  this  State  in  search  of  data  for 
his  topographical  map  of  Louisiana,  says  of  it: 

"As  it  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  greatest  river  on  the  continent,  and 
contains  within  its  limits  the  delta  of  this  river,  intersected  by  numberless  lesser 
rivers  and  bayous,  and  filled  with  lakes,  most  people  conclude  that  Louisiana  isr 
throughout  its  entire  extent,  a  lowr,  wet,  swampy  region.  They  imagine  its  surface 
to  be  a  great  plain  of  wonderful  fertility,  when  at  all  arable,  with  an  indefinable 
succession  of  deep  jungles,  tangled  swamps,  marshes,  lakes,  sloughs,  cane  and 
cypress  brakes.  But  these  misconceptions  will  be  speedily  dissipated  by  a  journey 
into  the  interior,  and  it  will  be  discovered  that  few  States  of  the  Union  possess  a 
greater  diversity  of  surface,  soil,  climate,  scenery  and  products  than  Louisiana, 
and  no  State  has  a  more  varied  and  interesting  population,  or  a  more  eventful 
history." 

Professor  Hilgarcl,- in  his  article  on  Louisiana,  in  Vol.  5,  Tenth  Census,  speaks 
thus  of  the  climate  of  this  State: 

"Owing  to  its  nearness  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  prevalence  of  winds 
from  that  direction,  the  climate  of  Louisiana  is  much  less  extreme  than  that  of  the 
States  lying  further  north — the  summer  heat  being  less  oppressive,  though  more 
prolonged,  and  the  winter's  average  temperature  (52.8°  at  Nc*w  Orleans,  45  4°  at 
Shreveport)  very  mild,  though  liable  at  times  to  sudden  and  severe  'cold  snaps,' 
brought  on  by  northwesterly  storms,  which  restrict  the  culture  of  tropical  fruits 
on  a  large  scale  to  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  gulf  coast.  On  such 
occasions  the  temperature  may  fall  to  17°  even  at  New  Orleans,  and  to  15°  in 
northern  Louisiana.  November,  December  and  January  are  the  coldest  months, 
June,  July  and  August  the  hottest ;  the  temperature  ranging  from  74°  to  98°, 
with  a  mean  of  81.6°  at  New  Orleans,  while  at  Shreveport  the  range  of  tempera- 
ture within  the  same  months  is  from  64°  to  95°,  with  a  mean  of  about  81°. 

"The  rainfall  at  New  Orleans  amounts  to  nearly  73  inches  annually,  at 
Shreveport  about  47  only,  but  increases  slightly  toward  the  Mississippi  Valley. 


:300  LOUISIANA. 

At  New  Orleans  the  rainfall  is  most  copious  during  the  three  hottest  months,  and 
somewhat  less  during  the  three  coldest;  during  both,  about  40  inches  of  rainfall 
is  received,  the  rest  of  the  annual  precipitation  being  more  or  less  evenly  distribu- 
ted over  the  spring  and  autumn.  The  summer  rains  frequently  come  accompanied 
by  violent  thunder  storms  from  the  northwest,  but  the  southwest  is  the  regular 
rain  wind.  The  same  holds  true,  more  or  less,  all  over  the  State,  the  regular  sum- 
mer showers  being  considered  highly  conducive  to  the  welfare  of  the  cotton  crop, 
providing  they  are  not  too  much  prolonged  at  any  time." 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  book  above  quoted,  "Health  and  Climate 
of  Louisiana:" 

"The  atmosphere  of  Louisiana  is  loaded  with  moisture,  and  upon  this  condi- 
tion, as  well  as  its  warm  temperature  and  the  abundant  uniform  distribution  of 
rains  in  spring  and  summer,  mainly  depend  its  luxuriant  forests  and  splendid 
crops  of  sugar-cane  and  cotton. 

"  Whilst  the  rains  which  water  the  Atlantic  slope  are  equally  distributed,  and 
those  of  the  California  coast  are  periodic,  making  a  well-defined  wet  and  dry- 
season,  those  which  water  the  Mississippi  Valley  are  unequally  distributed — those 
of  spring  and  summer  being  greatly  in  excess.  In  winter,  the  mouths  of  the 
Mississippi  and  the  region  of  Pensacola  are  in  the  area  of  greatest  precipitation, 
(18  inches.)  From  this  center  the  lines  of  equal  precipitation  on  the  west  main- 
tain a  considerable  parallelism — first,  near  northwest,  along  the  Texas  coast ;  then 
rapidly  curving  near  northeast,  then  east,  and,  as  they  leave  the  continent,  north- 
east. In  autumn  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  region  of  Pensacola  are 
still  within  the  area  of  greater  precipitation.  The  lines  of  equal  precipitation 
pursue  a  north-northeast  direction.  *  *  * 

"  The  climate  of  Louisiana  is  rendered  moist  and  suited  to  the  culture  of  the 
sugar-cane  by  the  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

"Owing  to  several  causes — the  absence  of  protracted  drouths,  the  abundant 
rainfall,  and  the  presence  of  large  bodies  of  water  in  the  city  and  lakes  surround- 
ing New  Orleans — the  climate,  as  well  as  that  of  the  gulf  coast,  comprising  a  large 
area  in  the  Southern  States,  is  very  humid,  containing  a  large  quantity  of  vapor, 
though  not  in  the  sensible  form  of  clouds  or  fogs.  This  condition  of  the  atmos- 
phere, combined  with  the  tropical  heat  of  summer,  favors  the  rapid  development 
of  animal  and  vegetable  organisms.  *  *  * 

"  The  presence  of  large  masses  of  water  within  and  around  Louisiana,  as  well 
as  the  mass  of  cold  water  introduced  from  the  northern  regions  or  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  into  the  heart  of  the  continent  by  the  Mississippi  River,  render  the 
climate  of  this  State  less  liable  to  extremes  of  heat  than  positions  far  north  and 
in  the  interior  portion  of  the  Mississippi  Valley." 

SOIL  AND  PRODUCTIONS. 

There  is  probably  no  other  State  in  the  Union  possessing  so  much  land  of 
such  marvelous  fertility,  capable  of  such  continuous  cultivation  without 
exhaustion,  and  adapted  to  such  a  wide  range  of  products.  On  this  point  Dr. 
Jones'  book,  above  quoted,  says : 

"  The  soil  of  this  State,  in  virtue  of  its  variations  in  composition  and  eleva- 
tion, is  adapted  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  rice,  cotton,  corn, 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  all  the  fruits  common  to  the  temperate  and  sub- 
tr$pical  zones.  Louisiana  possesses,  perhaps,  the  most  fertile  soil  of  any  of  the 
States  of  this  Union,  in  virtue  of  the  large  proportions  of  the  alluvium  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  enclosed  within  her  borders. 

"As  is  well  known,  a  wide  belt  of  recent  alluvium  borders  the  Mississippi 
Biver  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  to  the  gulf,  75  miles  wide  in  the  greatest 


LOUISIANA.  301 

expansion  at  Napoleon,  and  25  miles  in  its  greatest  contraction  at  Natchez  and 
Helena.  The  area  of  the  alluvial  tract  above  the  delta  is  19,450  square  miles. 
The  depth  of  the  alluvial  deposits  from  Cairo  to  New  Orleans  ranges  between  25 
and  40  feet. 

"  The  area  of  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi  River,  which  lies  almost  wholly 
within  the  borders  of  Louisiana,  assuming  that  it  begins  where  the  river  sends  off 
its  first  branch  to  the  sea,  namely,  at  the  mouth  of  Bayou  Atchafalaya,  is  esti- 
mated at  12,300  square  miles.  This  would  be  at  the  mouth  of  lied  River,  in 
latitude  31°,  whilst  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi  are  in  latitude  29°;  so  that  the 
delta  extends  through  two  degrees  of  space.  The  entire  delta  is  elevated  but  a 
few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and,  from  its  fertile  soil  and 
proximity  to  the  Mississippi  River  and  bayous,  is  perhaps  as  fertile  as  any  body 
of  land  in  this  or  any  other  continent,  and  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  cultivation 
of  rice  and  the  sugar-cane." 

The  southwestern  portion  of  the  State  deserves  especial  mention  in  this 
connection.  Col.  Daniel  Dennett,  in  his  able  and  valuable  work  on  "  Louisiana 
As  It  Is,"  refers  to  it  as  "that  magnificent  portion  of  Louisiana  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  Teche  and  Opelousas  Region,  usually  called  'Attakapas  and  St. 
Landry' — the  land  of  enchanting  scenery,  of  beautiful  bayous  and  glassy  lakes 
and  bays,  of  splendid  prairies  and  noble  forests,  of  pleasant  skies  and  gentle 
breezes  ;  the  land  of  flowers,  of  beauty  and  of  health." 

Professor  Eugene  W.  Hilgard,  in  his  "Preliminary  Report  of  a  Geological 
Survey  of  Western  Louisiana,  remarks : 

"  Few  sections  of  the  United  States,  indeed,  can  offer  such  inducements  to 
settlers  as  the  prairie  region  between  the  Mississippi  bottoms,  the  Nez  Pique  and 
Merrnentau.  Healthier  by  far  than  the  prairies  of  the  Northwest;  fanned  by  the 
sea  breeze ;  well  watered ;  the  scarcity  of  wood  rendered  of  less  moment  by  the 
blandness  of  the  climate,  and  the  extraordinary  rapidity  with  which  natural 
hedges  can  be  growTn  for  fences ;  while  the  exuberantly  fertile  soil  produces  both 
sugar-cane  and  cotton  in  profusion,  continuing  to  do  so  in  many  cases  after  70 
years'  exhaustive  culture — well  may  the  Teche  Country  be  styled  by  its  enthu- 
siastic inhabitants  the  '  Garden  of  Louisiana.' " 

I  quote  from  the  book  above  referred  to,  "  Louisiana  As  It  Is."  The  country 
denominated  Southwestern  Louisiana  embraces,  according  to  the  treatment  of 
Col.  Dennett,  the  parishes  of  St.  Landry,  Lafayette,  St.  Martin,  Iberia,  Vermillion 
and  St.  Mary.  Of  this  area  he  sa}Ts : 

»  "  These  six  parishes  contain  more  than  3,000,000  acres  of  tillable  land,  most 
of  it  of  inexhaustible  fertility.  Even  most  of  the  sea-marsh  and  all  of  the  swamp 
lands  may  be  reclaimed  by  local  levees  and  draining  machines,  and  may  become 
the  most  productive  rice  and  sugar  lands  in  the  State. f  *  *  *  On  thousands 
of  acres  the  grass  grows  on  a  smooth  surface  under  the  waving  branches  of  noble 
trees.  These  lands  are  far  more  beautiful  than  the  famous  woodland  pastures  of 
Kentucky.  The  trees  have  a  more  luxuriant  growth ;  the  foliage  is  richer  and 
hangs  out  on  the  broad  branches  in  a  more  generous  abundance,  and  the  soil  is 
rich  beyond  anything  we  ever  saw  in  the  great  West.  And  it  is  the  cleanest 
looking  country  we  have  ever  traveled  over.  The  beautiful  smooth  prairies  look 
as  though  they  had  just  been  washed;  the  grass  looks  like  a  lawn  neatly  shaved 
by  some  "Fine  Old  English  Gentleman,"  who  prides  himself  on  his  aristocratic 
estate.  The  fat  herds  grazing  upon  these  green  prairies  help  in  giving  the  finish- 
ing touch  to  this  magnificent  landscape  scenery. 


f  1,250,000  acres  of  these  marsh  lands  have  been  purchased,  and  a  wealthy  English  company  is 
rapidly  reclaiming  them. 


302  LOUISIANA. 

"  On  the  border  of  the  sea  marsh  of  St.  Mary  and  Iberia,  extending  from  a 
point  below  Berwick's  Bay  to  and  into  the  parish  of  Vermillion,  a  line  of  forest 
trees,  mostly  heavy  cypress,  stands  as  the  dividing  line  and  wall  bet  ween  the  marsh 
and  the  tillable  lands  of  the  Atchal'alaya  and  the  Teche.  In  places  this  line  of 
timber  is  from  one  to  two  miles  wide,  and  even  wider.  This  line  of  forest  extends 
down  to  the  mouth  of  Bayou  Sale  on  both  sides,  and  clown  both  sides  of  Bayou 
Cypremout.  At  Petit  Anse  Island  the  sea  marsh  and  prairie  meet,  and  the  chain 
of  timber  is  broken  for  a  few  miles.  On  the  side  of  this  crooked  chain  of  timber 
next  to  the  plantations,  in  places,  there  is  a  heavy  growth  of  gum,  oak,  ash,  hack- 
berry,  and  an  undergrowth  of  dogwood,  vines,  palmetto,  haws,  etc.>  etc.  These 
lines  of  timber,  reckoning  that  on  both  sides  of  Bayou  Sale  and  Bayou  Cypre- 
mont,  are  over  125  miles  in  extent. 

"In  the  lower  or  eastern  part  of  the  parish  of  St.  Mary,  around  Berwick's 
Bay  and  the  lower  Teche,  the  highest  land  is  about  10  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Near  Franklin,  the  highest  bank  is  from  12  to  13  feet.  Near 
Breaux  Bridge,  the  first  bank  is  22  feet  high ;  the  second  bank  27  feet. 

"  In  the  parish  of  Lafayette,  the  Cote  Gelee  Hills,  Beau  Basin  and  the  banks 
of  the  Vermillion  are  40  feet  above  the  level  of  the  gulf.  The  general  average  of 
St.  Landry  is  about  60  feet  above  the  same  level.  The  parish  of  Vermillion  is 
about  on  a  level  with  St.  Mary. 

"Plums,  figs,  quinces,  pears,  cherries,  grapes,  papaws,  persimmons,  pecans, 
hickory  nuts,  'walnuts,  blackberries,  dewberries,  May  apples,  mulberries,  crab 
apples,  black  and  red  haws,  chinquapins,  strawberries,  and  some  other  fruits,  nuts 
and  other  fruits  of  little  importance,  thrive  and  mature  well  in  these  parishes. 

"  In  St.  Mary  and  along  the  coast  to  the  Mermentau,  oranges  are  raised  yearly 
in  great  abundance ;  and  the  mespilus  or  Japan  plum,  lemons,  limes,  bananas  and 
pineapples  may  be  produced  in  the  open  air  as  high  up  as  Franklin,  by  giving 
them  a  little  extra  protection  in  the  winter. 

"  Turnips,  cabbages,  beets,  and  all  the  other  garden  vegetables  and  melons, 
grow  as  well  in  these  parishes  as  they  do  north  of  the  Ohio  River.  The  best 
winter  gardens  contain  large  white-head  cabbages,  rutabaga  and  flat  turnips, 
onions,  eschallots,  garlic,  mustard,  roquette,  radishes,  cauliflower,  beets,  cress, 
lettuce,  parsley,  leeks,  English  pease,  celery,  endive,  etc.,  etc.  These  thrive  well 
in  the  gardens  all  winter,  except  in  very  cold  winters,  back  from  the  coast,  when 
a  part  of  the  list  give  way  before  the  frosts. 

"  The  yield  of  oranges  per  acre  is  enormous.  It  is  impossible  to  make  any 
estimate  that  is  reliable,  as  we  have  not  the  acres  or  yield  of  any  one  orchard. 
The  largest  orchards  produce  over  3,000,000  of  oranges  yearl}'.  Some  trees  com- 
mence bearing  when  they  are  five  or  six  years  old,  and  earlier  bearing  can  be 
produced  by  grafting  and  budding. 

"  A  full-grown,  healthy  orange  tree  15  or  20  years  old,  in  a  good  season,  will 
produce  5.000  oranges  It  takes  from  300  to  4CO  oranges  to  fill  a  flour  barrel ;  so 
the  largest  orange  trees  produce  from  40  to  50  bushels  of  fruit  in  a  favorable 
season." 

From  a  report  on  Southwestern  Louisiana,  issued  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  following  extracts  are  taken  : 

"The  trees  are  all  draped  with  moss,  which  grows  in  great  abundance,  and 
forms  one  of  the  industries  of  this  country,  and  really  makes  the  laboring  man 
independent;  for  a  man  with  ordinary  industry  can  easily  earn  from  $1.50  to 
$2.50  per  day  gathering  and  preparing  it  for  sale.  The  market  appears  to  be  as 
certain  as  our  wheat  market.  There  are  dealers  along  the  railroad  always  ready 
to  take  it  at  quotation  price,  and  ship  it  to  the  manufacturers.  It  is  principally 
used  in  making  mattresses,  which  are  sometimes  sold,  or,  at  least,  bought,  for  hair 


LOUISIANA.  303 

mattresses.  I  was  very  forcibly  struck  with  the  idea  that  this  moss  business  could 
be  worked  on  a  much  larger  scale.  The  quantity  is  almost  inexhaustible.  The 
cypress  swamps  are  so  heavily  covered  with  it  that  in  many  cases  the  heavy  limbs 
of  the  trees  are  broken  off  by  its  immense  weight,  and  there  it  lies  in  absolute 
waste.  There  is  a  constant  demand  at  a  remunerative  price,  and  the  material  is 
free  to  any  one  who  wishes  to  gather  it.  You  can  reach  by  boat  all  those  cypress 
swamps,  gather  and  take  off  the  material  with  much  less  expense  and  trouble 
than  you  could  cart  it  over  dry  land. 

"  The  prairie  and  all  the  level  lands  I  visited  in  this  locality  are  of  alluvial 
origin,  with  a  surface  soil  of  from  three  to  four  feet  of  almost  inexhaustible 
fertility,  formed  and  kept  up  by  the  annual  decay  of  vegetable  matter  and  over- 
flows from  higher  altitudes.  Some  of  this  land  will  produce  four  crops  of  hay  a 
year.  I  allude  to  Bermuda  grass,  which  makes  the  best  hay  that  is  made  in  this 
section.  A  slight  variation  is  found  in  the  subsoil.  In  this  vast  prairie,  containing 
three  or  four  millions  acres,  there  is  a  series  of  islands  that  are  not  surrounded  by 
large  and  distinct  rivers,  but  by  bayous,  which  are  simply  little  streams  that  drain 
them  and  part  of  the  adjacent  prairie.  On  these  islands  the  soil  is  good  and  easy 
to  cultivate,  but  of  course  not  so  rich  or  so  deep  as  that  of  the  prairies.  Asa 
general  rule  the  soil  runs  as  follows:  first,  rich  vegetable  mold  from  four  to  six 
inches  deep,  next  loam,  then  sand,  and  lastly  clay.  So  far  as  the  soil  is  concerned, 
I  know  of  nothing  that  could  not  be  raised  here,  except  timothy  and  some  small 
fruits  that  fail  in  midsummer  if  the  season  be  dry. 

"Although  the  prairies  are  wet  during  the  winter  and  spring  months,  you 
never  find  them  sour  or  boggy,  and  the  sweet,  nutritious  grass  never  ceases  to 
grow ;  and  I  have  noticed  the  cattle  foraging  when  the  surface  was  covered  with 
water.  In  going  from  place  to  place  the  residents  drive  right  through  the  ponds 
and  lakes  after  heavy  rains  in  March  in  preference  to  going  around  them.  No 
matter  how  deep  they  look  to  be,  there  is  but  little  deviation  from  the  level.  The 
wheels  hardly  ever  sink  beyond  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  even  when 
-wagons  are  loaded.  The  manner  in  which  these  prairie  lands  are  drained  is  by 
open  ditches  cut  to  natural  ponds,  as  they  are  termed  by  the  natives,  or  to  the 
bayous.  It  would  be  impossible  to  drain  these  soils  by  blind  ditches.  There  is 
almost  an  endless  variety  of  vegetables  grown  here,  and  the  house  gardens  can  be 
so  planted  to  yield  fresh  vegetables  of  some  kind  the  year  round.  They  all  seem 
to  grow  to  perfection,  and  yield  abundantly.  The  people  live  largely  upon  sweet 
potatoes  and  yams,  together  with  fish  and  game.  It  seemed  to  be  the  market 
gardens  only  that  were  stocked  with  any  great  variety  of  vegetables.  It  was  a 
very  agreeable  sight  to  see  how  thoroughly  these  gardeners  attended  to  their 
crops,  after  noticing  with  what  carelessness  the  farmers  attended  to  their  kitchen 
gardens.  Not  much  wheat  is  growrn.  The  yield  of  straw  is  very  heavy;  the 
yield  of  grain  generally  light.  They  sow  nothing  but  spring  wheat. 

"  Farmers  turn  their  cattle  on  the  grain  fields,  chiefly  oats,  about  the  middle 
of  February,  and  let  them  graze  two  or  three  weeks.  This  furnishes  good  pasture 
and  does  not  seem  to  interfere  with  the  yield.  I  failed  to  obtain  the  average  yield, 
but  in  reply  to  my  questions  a  farmer  told  me  he  expected  to  make  at  least  40 
bushels  to  the  acre.  The  Texas  or  other  rust-proof  varieties  are  generally  sown, 
because  they  are  best  adapted  to  the  climate  and  less  susceptible  to  rust  and 
insects.  Rye  is  seldom  growrn  for  the  grain,  but  is  sometimes  sown  in  the  fall  for 
winter  and  spring  pasturage.  When  grain  is  sown  in  the  fall  the  land  is  thrown 
up  in  dead  furrows — that  is,  throwing  it  up  in  beds  about  18  or  20  feet  wide,  with 
an  open  or  dead  furrow  between,  which  holds  the  water  during  a  wet  season. 

"One  of  the  principal  industries  of  this  locality  is  raising  cattle  for  the 
butcher,  and  very  little  attention  is  paid  to  growing  fine  stock  for  dairy  purposes. 


304  LOUISIANA. 

I  stopped  for  some  time  at  the  bouse  of  a  gentleman  who  owns  about  3,000  cowsy, 
and  the  butter  for  his  table  came  weekly  by  express  from  Philadelphia.  Cattle 
grazing  yields  an  enormous  profit.  Cows  can  be  bought  very  cheap,  from  the  fact 
that  there  is  so  little  demand  for  their  meat ;  even  the  poorest  class  do  not  care  to 
eat  it.  They  can  be  bought  from  $12  to  $18  per  head,  and  calves  will  command 
from  $7.50  to  $9  in  the  pasture  fields.  The  only  way  to  account  for  this  high 
price  for  calves  is  that  veal  seems  to  be  the  favorite  meat.  Fresh  pork  is  seldom 
cooked;  in  fact,  I  never  saw  any  during  my  stay  in  that  locality. 

"Cattle  raising  could  be  made  more  profitable  than  it  is  by  dividing  the 
prairies  into  smaller  pasture  fields,  and  by  cutting  and  curing  thousands  of  tons 
of  hay  that  go  to  waste,  to  be  fed  from  the  rack  when  the  pasturage  grows  short. 
During  at  least  nine  months  in  the  year  the  grass  is  so  strong  and  luxuriant  that 
the  cattle  tramp  down  and  destroy  more  than  they  consume.  It  has  only  recently 
been  discovered  that  the  sea  marsh  in  this  part  of  Louisiana  affords  as  good 
pasturage  as  there  is  in  the  world.  Strong,  nutritious  grass  grows  in  great  abun- 
dance, resembling  very  much  in  taste  and  appearance  what  is  known  in  the  Middle 
States  as  red  top,  only  a  little  taller  and  as  thick  as  it  can  stand.  From  as  near  an 
estimate  as  I  could  make,  if  cut  and  cured,  which  could  be  easily  done  in  the 
proper  season,  it  would  yield  five  tons  of  good  hay  per  acre.  There  are  thousands 
of  acres  of  the  sea  marsh  that  could  be  most  profitably  used  by  those  owning  the 
prairie  or  higher  land  adjoining  it.  I  am  writing  from  personal  observation, 
having  ridden  over  it  on  horseback  in  perfect  safety.  The  only  obstructions  to 
guard  against  are  nmskrat  holes;  but  for  a  pasture  for  at  least  six  months  in  the 
year,  without  expenditure,  it  cannot  be  excelled.  I  see  no  reason  to  prevent  them 
from  using  it  longer,  if  they  will  build  sheds  to  protect  their  cattle  in  midsummer. 
Some  of  the  natives  say  that  the  mosquitoes  would  kill  them  in  the  spring  season, 
but  this  I  doubt,  for  there  is  always  a  strong  gulf  breeze. 

"Deer  are  to  be  found  here  in  great  numbers;  also  wild  cattle  and  hogs. 

"  There  is  no  danger  from  floods  from  the  higher  countries,  for  by  inquiry 
from  the  oldest  inhabitants,  and  these  I  could  rely  on  for  the  most  accurate 
information,  there  has  been  no  overflow  for  23  years,  and  then  the  water  reached 
the  depth  of  about  10  inches  by  backing  up  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  meeting 
the  floods  from  the  higher  lands,  remaining  but  a  short  time  and  then  flowing  off 
rapidly.  Even  in  cases  of  an  overflow,  there  are  spots  elevated  above  the  common 
level  on  which  they  can  go  for  safety.  During  the  winter  season  the  marsh  is 
covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  the  season  previous,  which  makes  very  good  hay, 
being  perfectly  clean,  free  from  rust  or  mold,  and  we  noticed  our  horses  ate  it 
whenever  we  gave  them  the  opportunity.  But  the  cattle  seem  to  prefer  the  green 
spring  growth  which  is  just  making  its  way  through  the  root.  It  has  a  sweet 
with  a  very  slight  salty  taste.  I  saw  a  lot  of  cattle  that  were  turned  on  the  marsh 
in  December  when  they  were  there  and  in  bad  condition.  They  are  now  looking 
fine  and  healthy,  and  nine-tenths  of  them  seal  fat. 

"This  sea-marsh  land  is  very  cheap,  and  yet  it  is  better  pasture,  in  winter 
especially,  than  the  prairie  lands  that  command  ten  times  the  price.  The  cattle 
dealers  who  own  sea  marsh  and  the  adjoining  highlands  and  prairie  have  a  great 
advantage  over  those  in  the  Middle  and  Western  States,  for  there  is  no  need  of 
fertilizer  of  any  kind,  no  outlay  for  shelter,  and  very  little  need  of  fencing.  If 
they  fence  at  all,  it  is  by  sticking  green  willow  poles.  It  seems  to  make  little 
difference  whether  they  be  the  main  stock  or  branches;  they  immediately  take 
root.  On  these  they  stretch  the  wire,  with  stakes  driven  down  along  the  line  to 
strengthen  it.  As  the  fencing  is  cheaply  done,  the  older  it  gets  the  stronger  it  is. 
Those  who  use  the  sea  marsh  as  a  cattle  range  drive  them  off  in  the  latter  part  of 
August.  At  this  season  the  heavy  spring  and  summer  growth  has  fully  matured 


LOUISIANA.  305 

and  begins  to  dry,  when  it  is  burned,  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  coming  crop. 
This  grows  rapidly,  and  furnishes  good  pasture  about  the  time  the  prairie  shows 
the  effect  of  midsummer,  especially  if  the  hot  season  be  long  and  dry. 

"  In  the  native  cattle  there  can  still  be  seen  traces  of  the  old  Spanish  breed, 
with  enormously  long  and  wide-spreading  horns,  narrow  chests,  high  flanks  and 
deeply-sunken  backbones.  All  the  characteristics  requisite  for  good  breeding 
animals  are  absent.  The  stock-raisers  say  that  these  cattle  are  so  thoroughly 
acclimated  that  it  is  a  rare  thing  to  see  disease  or  sickness  of  any  kind  among 
them,  and  requiring  so  little  attention,  they  look  upon  them  as  the  most  profitable- 
Past  experience  teaches  them  it  is  a  mistake  to  import  old  cattle  in  order  to 
improve  the  breed,  for  they  invariably  die  off.  The  few  that  live  after  the  first 
year  have  made  these  efforts  to  improve  stock  expensive  and  unprofitable.  Some 
are  now  adopting  a  new  method,  and,  I  think,  the  right  one,  from  what  I  saw. 
It  is  importing  calves  as  soon  as  they  are  old  enough  to  leave  the  cow.  Some 
attention  must  be  paid  to  them  for  the  first  season.  They  will  then  thrive  and  do 
as  well  as  the  native  cattle. 

"  I  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  finest  lot  of  registered  Holstein  calves  that 
I  have  ever  seen.  The  owner  says  they  are  doing  well  and  looking  better  than 
the  herd  from  which  he  bought  them  in  New  York.  They  are  about  10  months 
old,  and  are  as  large  as  any  of  the  Alderney  cows  on  the  plantation.  This  herd 
is  on  Mr.  J.  Jefferson's  plantation.  He  also  has  a  herd  of  about  40  registered 
short-horns  and  some  fine  specimens  of  the  Aberdeen  Angus  breed.  He  is  very 
favorably  impressed  with  the  Holsteins  and  thinks  they  are  the  cattle  for  the 
country." 

The  following  from  the  description  of  St.  Landry  Parish  will  apply  to  the 
others  and  to  much  of  the  coast  country : 

"  The  crops,  fruits  and  gardens  of  St.  Landry  and  of  the  other  five  parishes 
described  in  this  circular,  excepting  cotton  and  oats,  are  less  troubled  by  insects 
and  vermin  and  less  liable  to  disease  than  they  are  in  higher  latitudes  in  other 
parts  of  the  United  States.  The  surface  cultivated  in  St.  Landry  yearly  amounts 
to  about  100,000  acres.  About  one-third  of  this  is  planted  in  cotton.  Not  a  tenth 
part  of  the  tillable  land  is  under  cultivation.  With  a  working  population  like 
that  of  the  Western  States  and  the  same  kind  of  cultivation,  that  parish  might 
send  to  market  yearly  100,000  bales  of  cotton,  50,000  hogsheads  of  sugar,  75,000 
barrels  of  molasses,  and  rice,  tobacco,  broom  corn,  basket  willow,  beeves,  hay, 
horses,  milch  cows,  sheep,  hogs,  hides,  poultry,  eggs,  rosin,  turpentine  and  other 
valuable  products  to  the  amount  of  from  $10,000,000  to  $15,000,000.'  Sach  varied 
and  valuable  resources  in  a  climate  so  salubrious  can  hardly  be  found  anywhere 
else  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  • 

"  The  timbered  bottoms  are  rich  and  are  excellent  for  sugar,  rice,  cotton,  corn, 
sweet  and  Irish  potatoes,  peas,  tobacco,  melons,  pumpkins,  hay,  garden  fruits,  &c. 
No  richer  land  can  be  found  anywhere.  They  are  heavily  timbered  with  the  best 
of  sugar  wood,  and  the  swamps  contain  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  the  best  ot 
timber  for  building  purposes  and  for  hogsheads  and  barrels  for  the  sugar  planters.'* 

The  most  noted  productions  of  the  State  are  cotton,  sugar-cane  and  rice. 
Cotton  is  grown  more  largely  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  State,  the  census 
reports  showing  that  78^  per  cent,  of  the  entire  crop  of  the  State  is  produced 
north  of  the  latitude  of  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River.  In  the  tidewater  parishes 
cotton  is  almost  entirely  replaced  by  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  and  rice. 
Sugar-cane  is  grown  on  all  the  alluvial  lands  in  the  State.  The  report  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  just  referred  to  says: 

"  Small  crops  of  sugar-cane  on  small  farms  are  well  adapted  to  white  labor. 
The  cane  may  be  planted  in  the  fall,  winter  or  spring,  and  laid  before  the  1st  of 


3C6  LOUISIANA. 

July,  and  no  labor  is  then  needed  in  the  crop  till  the  1st  of  November,  when  the 
ripe  cane  is  ready  for  the  mill.  Sugar-cane  is  not  subject  to  disease  and  the 
ravages  of  bugs  and  insects  like  most  other  crops.  Small  sugar  farms,  where  from 
20  to  100  hogsheads  of  sugar  are  made  by  white  labor,  are  very  profitable;  they 
are  a  complete  success." 

Within  the  last  two  or  three  years  considerable  activity  in  silk  culture  has 
taken  place.  The  cultivation  of  jute  is  also  receiving  attention.  Both  of  these 
have  been  referred  to  in  the  introduction. 

The  production  of  rice  has  been  steadily  increasing  in  Louisiana,  and  its 
quality  will  compare  favorably  with  that  of  the  famed  rice  of  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia. 

All  the  crops  of  the  Northern  States  are  raised  to  a  more  or  less  extent. 
Wheat  is  limited  to  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State.  Corn  is  grown  largely. 
Tobacco  is  a  prominent  crop.  The  raising  of  early  vegetables  for  the  Western 
markets  is  a  profitable  business.  What  has  been  quoted  in  reference  to  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  six  southwestern  parishes  will  apply  in  a  measure  to  much  of  the 
State  besides. 

MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

Among  the  resources  of  Louisiana  only  lately  utilized  is  the  rock  salt  at 
Petite  Anse  Island.  Dr.  Jones  says : 

"Fortunately,  Louisiana  produces  her  own  salt  of  the  purest  quality  and  in 
vast  and  unknown  quantities,  in  Petite  Anse  or  Avery's  Island. 

"Louisiana  rock  salt  presents  the  form,  appearance  and  optical  properties  of 
pure  chloride  of  sodium.  The  large  crystalline  masses  are  so  perfect!}'  trans- 
parent and  free  from  all  extraneous  matter,  and  are  so  uniform  in  their  structure 
and  density,  that  they  would  be  suited  in  all  respects  for  the  most  delicate  philo- 
sophical experiments  upon  the  transmission  of  heat  through  different  media.  The 
entire  mass  of  the  samples  selected  was  made  up  of  crystals  and  fragments  of 
crystals,  derived  from  the  cube,  the  primitive  form  of  chloride  of  sodium.  The 
crystals  present  a  foliated  texture  and  distinct  cleavage;  they  feel  when  rubbed 
in  the  hand  dry,  and  leave  no  impression  of  moisture  or  of  saline  matter. 

"  The  samples  of  Louisiana  rock  salt  submitted  to  analysis,  as  well  as  the 
large  solid  masses  weighing  several  tons,  are  the  purest  and  finest  samples  of  rock 
salt  that  have  ever  come  under  my  observation. 

"  One  hundred  grains  of  Louisiana  rock  salt  yield  upon  analysis : 

Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt) 99-617 

Sulphate  of  lime i 0.318 

Sulphate  of  magnesia 0.062 

Moisture  (dried  at  300° ) o-°93 

"It  will  be  observed  from  this  analysis  that  the  Louisiana  rock  salt  contains 
less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent.  (0.478)  of  those  substances  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  foreign,  viz:  moisture  and  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  which 
are  found  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  according  to  their  purity,  in  almost  all 
samples  of  salt." 

He  makes  an  analysis  of  Turk's  Island  salt,  and  shows  the  Louisiana  superior. 
He  also  says  it  contains  nothing  injurious  to  meats. 

In  "  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,"  Prof.  E.  W.  Hilgard  has  an 
article  on  "The  Salines  of  Louisiana,"  in  which  he  says: 

"A  salt-bearing  formation  appears  in  Louisiana  in  two  widely  separated 
portions  of  the  State,  and  under  two  different  aspects.  One  is  a  group  of  salty 
flats  or  'licks'  in  the  northwestern  part,  in  the  parishes  of  Webster,  Bienville  and 
Winn,  northward  of  Natchitoches ;  the  other  is  the  great  rock-salt  mass  of  Petite 
Anse  or  Avery's  Island,  situated  in  the  sea  marsh  on  the  shores  of  Vennillion 
Bay.  Last  year  large  quantities  of  a  grade  corresponding  to  the  Turk's  Island 


LOUISIANA.  307 

salt  were  shipped  to  the  extensive  packing-houses  in  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
Kansas  City.  The  article  was  found  to  be  especially  adapted  as  '  heading '  salt  for 
packers'  use,  both  on  account  of  its  purity  and  the  slowness  of  its  dissolution. 
Large  orders  from  these  points  have  been  renewed." 

The  report  on  Southwestern  Louisiana  issued  by  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment says: 

"  Shortly  after  the  late  war  a  company  was  formed  to  work  the  mine.  A 
shaft  was  sunk  and  some  work  done,  but  the  enterprise  was  abandoned  in  a  short 
time  and  lay  idle  until  1878,  when  another  company  was  formed  to  carry  on  the 
work,  but  finding  that  a  much  larger  capital  was  required  to  put  it  on  a  successful 
footing  than  they  had  anticipated,  they  in  turn,  after  a  very  short  trial,  retired  in 
favor  of  a  company  of  New  York  capitalists,  who  are  now  mining  the  salt  and 
pushing  tne  work  vigorously.  They  have  put  in  a  large  quantity  of  the  most 
modern  machinery,  dug  canals,  built  and  chartered  steamships  and  vessels,  and 
lately  have  completed  a  railroad  to  the  mine,  which  places  them  in  direct  commu- 
nication with  the  entire  railroad  system  of  the  United  States,  and  permits  ship- 
ment from  the  mine  to  any  point  without  breaking  bulk.  The  salt  from  this  mine 
is  marketed  principally  in  Galveston,  New  Orleans  and  Mobile  for  the  Southern 
States,  but  large  quantities  are  also  shipped  to  the  Western  meat  packers  in 
Kansas  City,  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  &c.,  and  its  sale  is  being  pushed  wherever  a 
market  can  be  found. 

"  The  salt  is  manufactured  into  any  size  or  grade  the  market  demands — from 
table  salt  as  fine  as  flour  up  to  lumps  of  solid  rock  as  large  as  can  be  conveniently 
handled  for  farmers'  use.  The  manufacture  is  mechanical,  no  chemicals  being 
used,  the  only  precaution  necessary  to  produce  a  beautiful  white  article  being  care 
and  cleanliness  in  handling.  The  works  are  now  producing  200  to  210  tons  per 
day,  and  machinery  is  being  erected  to  double  this  capacity." 

OTHEli  MINERALS. 

There  are  several  groups  of  limestone  in  Louisiana.  One  of  the  most 
important  is  a  rock  "  partly  substantially  identical  with  the  rotton  limestone  of 
Mississippi  and  Alabama."  In  his  article  on  "  Cotton  Production  in  Louisiana," 
in  Vol.  V  of  Tenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  Prof.  Hilgard,  in  a  brief  view  of 
the  geological  features  of  the  State,  says: 

"  So  far  the  geological  strata  show  a  definite  dip  southward  to  the  gulf;  but 
northward  of  the  Prairie  Belt  the  dip  seems  to  relate  more  or  less  to  a  (mostly 
subterranean)  ridge  or  'backbone'  of  older  rocks — cretaceous  limestone — which 
appears  to  extend  from  the  Prairie  Region  of  Southwestern  ArKansas  in  a  south- 
east direction,  diagonally  across  Western  Louisiana,  marking  approximately  the 
'divide'  between  the  Washita  and  Red  Rivers,  and  reaching  the  gulf  shore  at  the 
rock-salt  deposit  of  Petite  Anse,  which  undoubtedly  is  a  part  of  the  same  forma- 
tion as  that  from  which,  in  Northern  Louisiana,  numerous  salt  springs  flow. 
These  springs  or  'licks'  occur  in  flats  in  Webster,  Bienville  and  Winn  Parishes. 
Some  of  them  have  been  utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  salt,  and  in  all  of  them 
the  cretaceous  limestone  is  found  within  a  short  distance  from  the  surface,  and  of 
great  thickness.  Near  Winnfield  this  limestone  rises  into  a  ridge  75  feet  above 
the  surrounding  country.  A  similar  ridge,  but  much  lower,  exists  near  Chicot- 
ville,  in  St.  Landry  Parish.  It  is  again  found  overlying  the  great  sulphur  bed  in 
the  artesian  wells  of  Calcasieu,  but  at  a  depth  of  300  feet,  and  it  will  doubtless  be 
struck  below  the  rock-salt  bed  of  Petite  Anse.  *  *  *  Not  far  from  Brushy 
Valley*  is  a  salt  lick  known  as  Rayburn's  lick,  where  much  salt  was  made  during 
the  war.  It,  is  underlaid  by  gypsum  and  (cretaceous)  limestone,  from  which  good 

*Bienville  Parish. 


308  LOUISIANA. 

lime  can  be  burned.  *  *  *  A  similar  lick  is  '  King's,'  near  the  northeast 
corner  of  lied  River  Parish,  where  the  limestone  occurs  in  even  greater  abun- 
dance and  of  the  best  quality.  A  similar  limy  spot  occurs  in  the  northeastern 
portion  of  the  parish,  near  Judy  Post-office,  on  the  heads  of  Dugdemona  Bayou." 

The  State  is  rich  in  marls.  The  following  is  from  an  interview  published  in 
the  New  Orleans  Daily  States: 

"  The  marl  especially  is  a  fortune  to  the  State.  On  my  land  there  is  a  small 
lake  called  the  bottomless  lake,  because  a  pole  can  be  pushed  down  a  great 
distance  in  the  mud  and  no  stable  bottom  is  found.  This  is  pure  marl,  and  in  it 
there  are  millions  of  tons." 

The  Agricultural  Department  Report  previously  quoted  says: 

"The  deposits  in  the  bottom  of  the  bayous  are  rich  beds  of  muck,  into  which 
a  pole  may  be  run  to  the  depth  of  10  feet  or  more.  This  is  an  excellent  manure 
for  gardens.  The  supply  is  inexhaustible." 

Recently  several  varieties  of  fine  marble  have  been  discovered.  Building 
sandstone,  fire  clay  and  kaolin  also  exist.  Gypsum  has  been  found  in  several 
localities. 

TIMBER. 

Louisiana  is  rich  in  the  extent  and  varieties  of  her  timber.  There  are 
immense  forests  of  pine,  the  different  varieties  of  oak,  black  walnut,  hickory, 
gum,  lime,  pecan,  sycamore,  magnolia,  ash,  and  other  trees.  The  New  Orleans 
Times-Democrat,  in  a  recent  issue,  said: 

uln  Louisiana  there  are  over  33,000  square  miles  of  woodlands.  In  some 
portions  of  the  State  the  forests  average  97  per  cent,  of  the  whole  land,  leaving 
only  3  per  cent,  for  clearings  and  cultivated  fields.  The  timber  differs  with  the 
character  of  the  land.  The  prevailing  forest  growth  of  the  good  uplands  is  a  very 
good  one  of  mixed  timber.  Oaks  of  various  kinds,  but  principally  of  the  red, 
white,  black  and  post-oak  varieties;  the  dogwood,  beech,  sassafras,  hickory,  black 
gum,  sweet  gum,  ash,  maple  and  the  short-leaf  pine  constitute  the  larger  growth. 

"The  growth  of  the  pine  hills  is  almost  exclusively  of  majestic  long-leaf 
pines,  interspersed  with  an  undergrowth  of  scrubby  black-jacks. 

"The  forest  in  the  bluff  lands — always  magnificent — is  made  up  of  oaks  of 
all  kinds,  especially  the  white  and  the  water  oaks  varieties,  magnolias,  beeches, 
poplars  and  hollies. 

"  The  alluvial  lands,  except  where  cleared  for  cultivation,  are  covered  with 
magnificent  forests  of  cypress,  gum,  ash,  pecan,  cotton-wood,  hackberry,  the 
varieties  of  oak,  maple,  sycamore  and  holly. 

"The  pine  flats  are  found  in  the  parishes  of  St.  Tammany,  Tangipahoa, 
Livingston  and  Calcasieu.  Their  growth  is  long-leaf  pine,  almost  devoid  of 
undergrowth.  The  supply  of  timber  in  the  State  seems  inexhaustible.  It  is 
estimated  that  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  the  virgin  forest  of  Louisiana  has 
been  felled.  The  live-oak  is  found  on  the  southern  or  gulf  coast,  on  the  Chenieres 
and  Buck  ridges  and  bayous,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  streams  throughout  the 
alluvial  region  of  the  State.  The  forests  of  the  State  are  filled  with  all  varieties 
of  timber  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  woodenware,  house  or  ship  building 
After  the  live-oak  in  value  comes  the  cypress.  The  split  timber  has  been  known 
to  withstand  the  exposure  of  a  hundred  years  in  a  fence.  It  is  indestructible 
under  ground  or  water,  and  is  largely  used  by  the  sugar  planters  for  coolers, 
barrels  and  hogsheads.  It  is  used  also  for  shingles  and  fencing.  The  long-leaf 
pine  is  the  finest  in  the  world  for  building  houses  or  ships.  These  endless  forests 
afford  an  ample  field  for  the  lumberman  or  manufacturer  of  tar,  pitch,  turpentine 
or  charcoal.  The  oak  is  in  demand  in  the  shape  of  staves  for  exportation,  and,  in 
connection  with  the  hickory,  pecan,  gum  and  locust,  affords  ample  material  for 


LOUISIANA.  309 

wagon  making.  The  great  State  of  California  grows  not  a  single  tree  which  will 
make  a  wagon  hub." 

The  estimates  of  the  Census  Department  placed  the  piue  supply  of  Louisiana 
in  1880  at  48,213,000,000  feet— 26,588,000,000  feet  of  long-leaved  pine  (pinua  aus- 
tralis)  and  21,625,000,000  feet  of  short-leaved  pine  (pinus  mitis.)  Louisiana  is 
famous  now  for  her  cypress.  It  is  comparatively  new  in  building,  but  is  getting 
very  popular.  A  prominent  writer  has  recently  said  of  it : 

"  A  wood  in  which  Louisiana  has  a  great  interest  is  cypress,  which  the  State 
grows  in  larger  quantities  than  any  other  in  the  Union.  Valuable  cypress  swamps 
exist  along  the  Atchafalaya  and  its  tributaries,  and  scattered  throughout  the 
southern  portion  of  this  State.  The  merits  of  this  wood  have  only  recently  been 
discovered.  When  the  saw  mills  began  manufacturing  cypress  lumber  they  found 
very  little  demand  for  it,  but  they  have  since  quadrupled  their  production,  and 
find  an  easy  market  for  all  they  can  saw.  This  lumber  is  just  beginning  to  be 
introduced  into  the  Northern  markets,  and  its  advantages  are  now  acknowledged. 

"  The  wood  is  fine  grained.  After  exposure  to  the  air  it  becomes  of  a  dim 
reddish  color.  It  possesses  great  strength  and  elasticity,  and  is  lighter  and  less 
resinous  than  the  wood  of  the  pines.  To  these  properties  is  added  the  faculty  of 
long  resistance  to  the  heat  and  moisture  of  a  Southern  climate.  The  color  of  the 
bark  and  properties  of  the  wood  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Trees  growing 
near  the  natural  bed  of  rivers,  and  surrounded  half  the  year  with  water  to  the 
height  of  three  or  four  feet,  have  a  lighter  colored  bark  than  those  standing  where 
water  does  not  reach  them,  and  their  wood  is  whiter,  less  resinous  and  lighter. 
These  are  called  white  cypress;  the  others  are  darker,  and  so  called  red  cypress. 

"Along  the  Mississippi  River  grow  large  cypress  swamps  just  back  of  the 
cultivated  land.  In  these  swamps,  where  on  the  deep,  miry  soil  a  new  layer  of 
vegetable  mold  is  every  year  deposited  by  the  floods,  the  cypress  attains  its 
greatest  development.  The  largest  trees  are  120  feet  in  height  and  from  25  to  40 
feet  in  circumference  above  the  conical  base,  which  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
always  three  or  four  times  as  large  as  the  continued  diameter  of  the  trunk. 

"This  wood  is  now  used  for  various  purposes,  and  there  is  an  increasing 
inquiry  for  it.  Boat  builders  use  it  to  a  considerable  extent.  Many  of  the  small 
boats  belonging  to  the  men-of-war  in  the  United  States  service  are  constructed  of 
cypress;  much  is  used  for  water-tanks,  sugar-coolers  and  cisterns  on  account  of 
its  durability;  some  enters  into  the  construction  of  houses  and  house  finishing,  it 
being  excellent  in  ceiling,  and  large  quantities  are  made  into  shingles  and  railroad 
cross-ties.  Some  claim  that  shingles  properly  prepared  will  last  100  years;  they 
are  certainly  very  durable.  Wood  taken  from  submerged  swamps,  which  has  been 
in  contact  with  the  decaying  influences  of  mud  and  water  for  untold  centuries,  is 
found  to  be  in  an  excellent  state  of  preservation.  Cypress  logs  have  been  taken 
from  the  soil  deep  underneath  New  Orleans  in  good  condition.  Evidences  are 
abundant  and  conclusive  in  regard  to  the  lasting  properties  of  the  wood;  hence, 
it  is  gradually  creeping  into  use  more  and  more  each  year.  Already  it  is  being 
used  in  many  houses  in  New  York  City  in  finishing,  with  calls  for  more." 

LANDS. 

There  are  both  United  States  and  State  lands  in  Louisiana  subject  to  home- 
stead entry.  The  price  of  State  lands  when  sold  outright  ranges  from  12£  cents 
to  $1.25,  the  former  being  for  overflowed  marsh  land.  A  homestead  of  160  acres 
can  be  entered  for  about  $14  cash  and  $9  at  the  expiration  of  five  years.  The 
United  States  lands  can  be  entered  under  the  Homestead  Act,  or  can  be  bought  at 
$1.25  to  $2.50  an  acre;  160  acres  can  also  be  procured  from  the  United  States 
Government  under  the  Timber  Culture  Act.  Thus  480  acres  of  land  can  be  pro- 


310  LOUISIANA. 

cured  in  this  State.  Women  can  homestead  the  State  land.  Aside  from  the  public 
lands,  immigrants  can  buy  land  in  nearly  every  parish  in  the  State  in  quantities 
to  suit  them,  and  at  extremely  low  prices.  The  scarcity  of  labor  and  other  causes 
have  necessitated  a  reduction  in  the  size  of  plantations,  and  land  is  sold  in  some 
instances  at  prices  merely  nominal.  Considerable  timber  land  is  yet  purchasable 
at  original  prices,  some  parts  of  which  are  most  bounteously  timbered. 

MANUFACTURES. 

In  manufacturing,  Louisiana  is  making  good  progress,  due  to  special  advan- 
tages possessed  by  the  State  for  certain  branches  of  industry,  such  as  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  goods,  the  manipulation  of  cotton  seed,  jute  and  rope  factories, 
canning  establishments,  the  manufacture  of  lumber,  etc.  The  cotton  mills  in  the 
State  run  89,668  spindles  and  824  looms. 

The  extent  of  the  cotton-seed  oil  mill  industry  in  Louisiana  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  extract  from  a  recent  address  of  Hon.  T.  J.  Semmes  at  New 
Orleans : 

"  To-day  the  oil  mills  of  Louisiana  consume  130,000  tons  of  cotton  seed.  The 
product  is  75,000  to  90,000  barrels  of  crude  oil,  worth  on  an  average  about  $17 
per  barrel ;  33,000  to  45,000  tons  of  oil  cake  and  meal,  worth  about  $26  per  ton ; 
4,000  to  6,000  bales  of  linters  or  short  staple  cotton  removed  by  machinery  from 
the  hulls  of  the  cotton  seed,  worth  $25  per  bale.  The  aggregate  value  of  the 
whole  product  fluctuates  annually  from  $2,200,000  to  $3,000,000,  while  prior  to 
the  war  cotton  seed  was  thrown  aside  as  useless  except  as  a  fertilizer,  and  that  to 
a  limited  extent.  This  industry  pays  annually  for  river  and  railroad  transporta- 
tion about  $350,000;  it  pays  for  labor  at  the  mill  about  $250,000,  besides  incident- 
ally affording  a  means  of  livelihood  to  numerous  agents  in  the  country,  as  cotton 
seed  is  an  article  of  barter  at  country  stores;  it  brings  to  our  port  annually  a  fleet 
of  vessels  to  transport  the  product  to  other  countries.  This  industry  is  yet  in  its 
infancy;  its  possibilities  are  vast." 

Like  all  the  Southern  States  in  which  there  is  a  large  supply  of  yellow  pine, 
the  business  of  manufacturing  lumber  has  greatly  increased.  Saw  mills  and  wood- 
working establishments  are  springing  up,  and  are  proving  profitable  enterprises. 

As  an  inducement  to  the  establishment  of  factories  in  the  State,  the  following 
article  has  been  embodied  in  its  Constitution.  Article  207  of  the  Constitution  of 
1879,  after  enumerating  the  property  used  for  worship,  charitable  institutions,  etc., 
which  are  exempt  from  taxation,  goes  on  to  say : 

"  There  shall  also  be  exempt  from  taxation  and  license  for  a  period  of  10 
years  from  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  the  capital,  machinery  and  other 
property  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  leather,  shoes,  harness, 
saddlery,  hats,  flour,  machinery,  agricultural  implements  and  furniture,  and  other 
articles  of  wood,  marble  or  stone;  soap,  stationery,  ink  and  paper,  boat  building 
and  chocolate ;  provided  that  not  less  than  five  hands  are  employed  in  anyone 

factory." 

EDUCATION. 

The  State  has  a  system  of  public  schools.  The  amount  appropriated  for  their 
support  has  not  heretofore  been  enough  to  ensure  the  thoroughness  and  elficiency 
characteristic  of  the  systems  of  some  of  the  other  States,  but  the  interest  in  free 
schools  is  increasing,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  a  short  time  the  schools  of  this 
State  will  be  placed  on  a  more  substantial  basis,  and  that  provision  will  be  made 
for  a  more  thorough  training  of  teachers. 

There  are  numerous  private  schools  and  colleges.  The  Tulane  University  of 
Louisiana  at  New  Orleans  is  one  of  the  leading  institutions  of  learning  in  the 
South. 


LOUISIANA.  811 

LAWS. 

The  following  are  some  provisions  of  law  that  will  be  of  interest: 

"  The  General  Assembly  shall  levy  an  annual  poll  tax  for  the  maintenance  of 
public  schools  upon  every  male  inhabitant  in  the  State  over  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years,  which  shall  never  be  less  than  one  dollar  nor  exceed  one  dollar  and  a  half 
per  capita,  and  the  General  Assembly  shall  pass  laws  to  enforce  payment  of 
said  tax. 

"The  State  tax  on  property  for  all  purposes  whatever,  including  expense  of 
government,  schools,  levees  and  interest,  shall  not  exceed  in  any  one  year  six  mills 
on  the  dollar  of  its  assessed  valuation,  and  no  parish  or  municipal  tax  for  all  pur- 
poses whatsoever  shall  exceed  ten  mills  on  the  dollar  of  valuation. 

"  There  shall  be  exempt  from  seizure  and  sale  by  any  process  whatever, 
except  as  herein  provided,  the  'homesteads'  bona  fide  owned  by  the  debtor  and 
occupied  by  him,  consisting  of  lands,  buildings  and  appurtenances,  whether  rural 
or  urban,  of  every  head  of  a  family,  or  persons  having  a  mother  or  father,  a  person 
or  persons  dependent  on  him  or  her  for  support;  also,  one  work -horse,  one  •wagon 
or  cart,  one  yoke  of  oxen,  two  cows  and  calves,  twenty-five  head  of  hogs,  or  one 
thousand  pounds  of  bacon  or  its  equivalent  in  pork,  whether  these  exempted 
objects  be  attached  to  a  homestead  or  not,  and  on  a  farm  the  necessary  quantity 
of  corn  and  fodder  for  the  current  year,  and  the  necessary  farming  implements  to 
the  value  of  $2,000." 

FISH  AND  GAME. 

The  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Mississippi  River,  the  lakes  and  bayous,  abound  with 
fish  of  the  greatest  variety;  and  Louisiana  produces  not  only  the  greatest  abun 
dance  of  delicious  fish,  but  she  has  also  sufficient  to  establish  a  large  export  trade. 

The  markets  of  New  Orleans  abound  with  oysters,  crabs,  crawfish  and  shrimp 
of  the  finest  quality  and  the  most  delicate  flavor. 

No  city  in  the  world  is  better  supplied  with  the  most  valuable  products  of 
her  soil,  forests  and  waters  than  New  Orleans,  and  her  resources  in  the  matter  of 
food  and  fruits  are  enlarged  to  the  greatest  extent  by  the  boundless  resources  of 
the  tropical  islands  and  continental  regions  lying  to  the  south. 

The  inhabitants  of  New  Orleans  and  Louisiana  generally  have  as  abundant 
supplies  of  the  great  staples  of  human  food  and  of  fruits  and  game,  and  of  the 
actual  luxuries  of  life,  as  any  people  on  the  globe. 

A  recent  writer  has  said  of  the  southwestern  parishes  of  the  State: 

"  The  very  poorest  class  of  people  live  on  what  we  of  the  Middle  Northern 
States  term  luxuries.  All  the  bayous  and  lakes  are  full  of  the  finest  fish,  such  as 
trout,  black  bass,  gar,  sachylia,  sunfish,  gaspergo,  and  numerous  others  which  I  do 
not  call  to  mind  just  at  this  moment,  and  on  these  same  waters  abound  in  great 
numbers  canvas-back,  red-head,  mallard,  bald-pate,  blue  and  green-wing  teal,  and 
summer  ducks.  Wild  geese  are  on  the  lakes  and  sea  marsh  the  entire  winter.  All 
this  is  perfectly  free.  There  are  no  ducking  clubs  or  fishing  monopolies  here. 
Every  one  is  at  perfect  liberty  to  fish  and  shoot.  The  best  jack-snipe  grounds  in 
the  world  are  found  in  the  Teche  Country.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  quantity  of 
snipe,  I  was  one  of  a  party  of  three  that  killed  53  birds  on  a  piece  of  ground, 
measured  as  accurately  as  we  could  by  stepping,  that  was  a  little  less  than  an  acre. 
Then  we  did  not  kill  half  that  flew  up.  Snipe  feed  here  by  the  thousand.  They 
also  have  plover,  rail,  prairie  chickens  and  quail  in  great  abundance.  I  have  seen 
gunners  a  little  farther  north  tramping  miles  and  miles  to  get  a  shot  at  birds  found 
here  feeding  and  jumping  around  seemingly  in  perfect  security,  for  they  are  not 
molested  here  by  the  sportsmen.  I  allude  to  such  birds  as  robins,  doves,  flickers, 
reed-birds,  field-larks  particularly,  for  they  are  very  shy  in  the  North.  They  do 


312  LOUISIANA. 

not  fly  away,  but  walk,  and  will  let  a  person  get  within  10' feet  of  them.  There 
are  also  a  great  many  deer  in  this  county,  which  generally  frequent  the  sea  marsh. 
Opossum,  coon,  rabbit  and  red  squirrel  are  very  numerous,  but  are  seldom  or 
never  hunted.  There  is  game  alwaj's  in  season.  When  it  is  out  for  one  kind,  the 
other  is  coming,  so  that  a  sportsman  is  always  in  his  glory." 

NEW  ORLEANS.  . 

No  other  city  on  this  continent  is  so  unique  in  its  aspects  as  this,  the  chief 
city  of  Louisiana.  Its  quaint  hurly-burly;  its  gay  and  giddy  people;  its  love  of 
pageantry;  its  surprising  abandon;  its  fondness  for  parades;  its  union  of  bustle 
and  idleness;  the  coarse  savagery,  squalor,  ignorance,  of  part  of  its  population, 
and  the  gentle  refinement,  high  culture  and  effervescent  brightness  of  manner  of 
another;  the  stench  of  its  gutters,  and  the  floral  glories  of  its  gardens  and  parks; 
its  grotesque  and  chaotic  architecture ;  its  markets,  and  their  noisy  and  nonde- 
script vendors;  the  diverse  dialects  of  its  inhabitants;  the  eloquence  of  its  clergy; 
the  desecration  of  the  Sabbath  in  games,  entertainments,  pic-nics,  theatres  and 
conduct  of  business;  its  extravagance  in  dress  and  the  gayety  of  it;  its  consum- 
mate beggars;  its  fine  wines  and  cigars;  its  world-known  carnival,  and  the 
matchless  participation  in  its  spirit;  the  knightly  valor  of  its  gentlemen,  their 
hospitality  and  unspeakable  charm  of  manner;  the  glorious  beauty,  elegance, 
sparkle,  of  its  ladies— these  and  far  more  that  defy  enumeration  give  to  New 
Orleans  aspects  kaleidoscopic  and  bizarre.  * 

The  business  possibilities  of  this  most  advantageously  located  city  are  almost 
beyond  computation.  "  New  Orleans  enjoys  advantages  which  are  peculiar,  and 
which  must  make  her  a  great  emporium  of  trade  and  commerce.  These  are  the 
facilities  for  transportation  of  heavy  freight  by  river;  her  system  of  railroads; 
her  safe  and  deep  water  port ;  her  geographical  proximity  to  Mexico,  Central  and 
South  America.  She  is  the  natural  outlet  for  the  products  and  manufactures  of 
the  Mississippi  basin  and  of  the  Western  States.  She  should  also  be  the  distribu- 
ting point  for  the  imports  from  neighboring  countries.  The  Panama  Canal,  when 
constructed,  will  cause  an  enormous  increase  in  her  traffic.  She  is  but  five  days 
from  Colon,  the  mouth  of  the  canal;  one  day's  crossing  will  bring  her  to  Panama. 
This  means  communication  in  six  days  with  the  western  coast  of  Central  and 
South  America,  and  an  absorption  of  all  the  heavy  freight  from  our  California 
coast,  and  the  supply  of  the  wants  of  the  people  on  the  western  coast  of  Central 
America  under  such  favorable  conditions  as  to  defy  competition.  More  intimate 
connections  with  Mexico  will  stimulate  traffic  between  the  two  countries,  a  large 
portion  of  which  must  necessarily  fall  into  the  lap  of  New  Orleans." 

New  Orleans  ought  to  be  the  great  center  of  sugar  refining.  Her  proximity 
to  Cuba  and  her  position  as  the  emporium  of  the  home  supply ;  her  river  for  dis- 
tribution, along  with  her  railroads,  show  this.  The  unnatural  competition  of 
German  beet-sugar  cannot  continue.  She  ought  to  manufacture  flour  from 
Southern-raised  wheat,  and  distribute  it  to  South  and  Central  America,  West 
Indies  and  Mexico.  Many  considerations  urge  her  eligibility  as  a  great  cotton 
manufacturing  city.  Years  hence  Southern-raised  wool  will  come  here  in  great 
quantity,  and  woolen  factories  ought  to  spring  up.  Silk  factories  we  ought  to 
confidently  expect,  too.  Her  proximity  to  Texas  and  South  America  for  hides 
point  to  her  as  a  most  proper  place  for  manufacturing  boots  and  shoes,  harness, 
trunks  and  other  articles  into  which  leather  largely  enters.  Here  ought  to  be 
canned  extensively  oysters,  shrimp,  fish,  terrapins,  wild  duck,  figs,  oranges,  pine- 
apples, many  vegetables,  etc. 

Iron  ship-building — and  wooden,  too,  for  that  matter— ought  to  here  find  one 
of  its  most  eligible  localities.  Proximity  to  coal  and  iron ;  competing  railroads 


LOUISIANA.  313 

from  the  fields  of  these  minerals,  with  clown  grades;  a  river  entering,  so  to  speak, 
distant  fields  to  cheapen  these  products;  the  cheapest  and  best  timber  in  the 
world — Southern  white  oak  and  yellow  pine — near;  deep  water  and%plenty  of 
room  for  launching — all  these  and  more  show  the  inducements  in  this  industry. 

No  place  seems  so  fit  for  the  seat  of  an  immense  industry  in  the  manufactur- 
ing of  furniture,  whether  one  regards  her  proximity  to  the  fine  woods  of  the 
tropics,  01  her  contiguity  to  the  abundant — almost  untouched — woods  of  the 
South.  This  city  could  hardly  have  a  rival  in  the  country  in  the  manufacture  of 
either  cheap  or  most  elegant  furniture.  Comparative  non-competition,  largeness 
of  territory  for  consumption,  cheapness  and  facility  of  distribution,  are  all  addi- 
tional and  most  important  factors. 

New  Orleans  ought  to  be  a  prodigious  producer  of  woodenware.  This  needs 
no  further  word.  Rags  are  exported  hence  to  New  York,  This  is  suggestive 
enough  of  paper  manufacture. 

New  Orleans  ought  to  export  the  bulk  of  the  tobacco  raised  in  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee.  This  product  would  thus  bring  more  money  to  its  producers. 

A  large  increase  of  capital,  available  for  current  uses,  is  badly  needed  in  New 
Orleans.  This  city  is  now  too  dependent  upon  New  York. 

Most  Western  importations  ought  to  come  via  New  Orleans,  and  the  South 
will  find  her  one  of  the  most  eligible  ports  for  the  exportation  of  her  future 
home-made  flour,  cotton  goods,  canned  meats  and  vegetables,  boots,  shoes,  harness, 
farming  utensils,  machinery,  etc.  Coal  and  lumber,  too,  ought  to  find  large  expor- 
tation from  this  port.  There  must  be  a  great  future  in  these.  Certainly,  New 
Orleans  ought  to  be  the  great  entrepot  for  the  teas  and  silks  of  China  and  Japan 
and  for  the  coffee  and  spices  of  the  tropics.  The  completion  of  either  the  great 
canal  across  the  Isthmus  or  Eads'  ship  railway  will  open  a  path  which  New 
Orleans  ought  to  enter. 

"The  South  is  the  coining  country."  New  Orleans  is  the  gateway  to  the 
Tvorld  to  and  from  the  South  and  West. 


TEXAS. 


It  is  with  a  sense  of  great  embarrassment  that  I  undertake  a  description  of 
the  State  of  Texas.  Her  vastness  of  area  is  oppressive  to  the  contemplation, 
when  attempting  to  convey  a  just  conception  of  it.  Her  marvellous  progress 
antiquates  authentic  statistics,  and  to  do  her  justice,  one  must  disregard  them 
and  invade  the  realm  of  conjecture — a  course  always  open  to  criticism,  greedily 
seized  by  the  caviller  and  detractor,  and  always  repugnant  to  a  writer  desiring  to 
secure  conviction  by  unquestionable  data.  Again,  Texas  has  had  no  geological 
survey,  and  in  this  regard  she  has  done  herself  a  gross  injustice  and  made  a  most 
egregious  mistake.  While  she,  beyond  cavil,  has  great  mineral  riches,  their  extent 
and  variety  are  illy  defined.  Not  to  speak  of  them  would  be  rank  injustice;  to 
define  them  with  even  an  approximation  is  impossible ;  to  endorse  the  wild  claims 
of  enthusiastic  ignorance  or  of  sinister  exaggeration  is  not  to  be  thought  of. 
Exploitation  is  in  progress  all  the  while.  Great  discoveries  are  claimed  to  have 
been  made,  of  which  many  are,  doubtless,  true;  and  it  is  likely  that  Texas  will 
add  to  her  other  stupendous  resources  stores  of  mineral  wealth  as  yet  unsus- 
pected— certainly  not  foreshadowed  as  yet  by  any  authentic  scientific  exploitation. 

It  is  also  true  that  Texas  is  largely  in  a  transition  state,  in  some  aspects. 
Areas  devoted  to  ranges  are  coming  into  agricultural  conditions.  Instead  of 
breeding  cattle  and  selling  them  young,  to  be  raised  and  fattened  on  Western  soil, 
she  will  disuse  more  and  more  the  ranch e  mode;  raise  corn,  and  rear  and  fatten 
her  own  cattle,  and  so  vastly  increase  her  own  wealth,  as  well  as  modify  a  char- 
acteristic vocation. 

It  is  certainly  true,  too,  that  Texas  is  gravitating,  in  common  with  other 
Southern  States,  more  and  more  towards  manufacturing. 

The  great  quantity  of  wool  she  raises;  her  ascendency  as  a  cotton  State,  sug- 
gest the  manufacture  of  these  staples  into  fabrics,  and  there  is  progress  that  way. 

Her  stores  of  iron  and  coal  suggest  possibilities  for  manufacture  for  home 
supply;  and,  Western  consumption,  it  would  be  idle  to  forecast. 

Her  wheat  area  and  production,  and  the  early  ripening  of  the  staple,  suggest 
an  industry  in  the  manufacture  of  early  flour  for  the  Northern  markets,  (to  be 
sent  thence  cheaply  by  water  from  Galveston  or  New  Orleans,)  and  for  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies. 

Any  one  can  see  that  in  this  undefinedness  of  progression,  in  this  undiscov- 
ered mineral  wealth,  in  this  ferment  of  transition  and  agitation  of  the  public 
mind  towards  the  new,  it  is  difficult  to  write  of  Texas;  for  while,  in  a  sense,  well 
settled — populated — she  is  unsettled.  She  ought  to  be  and  may  be  a  great  manu- 
facturing State  in  cotton  and  woolen  fabrics,  but  she  is  not;  her  capabilities  and 
superb  opportunities  only  promise  it. 

She  ought  to  be,  unless  appearances  greatly  deceive,  a  great  producer  of  iron, 
coal  and  copper,  yet  she  is  not. 

But  the  great  influx  of  population  and  capital;  the  pushing,  bustling,  driving 
spirit  of  her  people,  promise  at  an  early  day  an  awakening  to  all  great  possibili- 


TEXA8.  315 

ties  and  a  utilization  of  them.  Still,  her  phases  make  it  impossible  to  truly 
describe  her;  but  enough  is  known  to  entitle  her  to  the  appellation  she  will  one 
day  win,  without  questioning — that  of  the  Empire  State ;  the  facile  princeps  of 
American  commonwealths  in  the  mighty  republic  of  the  United  States. 

The  following  general  survey  of  the  State  is  from  the  last  census  report  : 

"  Texas  is  the  extreme  southwestern  State  of  the  Union,  the  Rio  Grande  sep- 
arating it  from  Mexico,  and  the  meridian  of  103°  forming  the  line  between  it  and 
New  Mexico.  On  the  north  the  boundary  is  marked  by  the  Red  River  from 
Louisiana  to  the  meridian  of  100°,  thence  northward  of  that  meridian  to  its  inter- 
section with  the  parallel  of  36°  30'  north  latitude,  and  thence  west  to  the  meridian 
of  103°.  There  are  225  counties  in  the  State,  72  of  which  are  still  unorganized, 
and  they  vary  in  area  from  150  to  12,000  square  miles,  the  large  counties  lying  in 
the  uninhabited  portion  of  the  State  on  the  west. 

"The  entire  area,  as  estimated  by  Mr.  Henry  Gannett,  geographer  of  the 
Tenth  Census,  is  265,780  square  miles,  which  includes  3,490  square  miles  of  water 
area,  comprising  coast  bays  and  gulfs,  rivers  and  lakes,  leaving  262,290  square 
miles  of  land  surface  alone. 

''The  area  of  Texas,  therefore,  comprises  8.7  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  of 
the  United  States  and  Territories  (3,025,600  square  miles),  and,  comparing  it  with 
other  States,  we  find  it  to  be  nearly  as  large  as  the  combined  areas  of  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  Alabama,  Georgia  and  Florida,  or  of  that  of  the  New  England  and 
Middle  States,  with  Ohio  and  Illinois,  all  combined.  In  comparison  with  the 
countries  of  Europe,  we  iind  that  Texas  is  larger  than  either  the  Austrian  or  the 
German  empire,  France,  or  the  islands  of  Great  Britain. 

"It  is  estimated  by  Mr.  Gannett  that  of  the  entire  area  of  the  State,  129,200 
square  miles  comprise  the  inhabited  portion,  with  a  population  of  1,591,749, 
giving  an  average  of  a  little  more  than  12  persons  per  square  mile.  The  remain- 
ing 133,000  square  miles  (land  area)  include  the  southwestern  prairies  and  the 
plains  and  g}rpsum  lands  of  the  west  and  northwest. 

"  Between  the  extreme  east  and  west  points  of  the  State  there  are  about  13 
degrees  of  longitude,  or  a  little  more  than  900  miles ;  from  north  to  south  there 
are  included  about  10.75  degrees  of  latitude,  or  nearly  750  miles. 

"In  the  State  of  Texas  we  find  combined  a  great  diversity  jn  both  soil  and 
topography,  the  former  passing  from  the  extreme  of  fertility  on  the  Red  River  on 
the  north,  the  Brazos  in  the  middle  and  the  Rio  Grande  on  the  extreme  south,  to 
the  extreme  of  sterility  in  the  sand  desert  of  the  south;  in  topography,  from  the 
extreme  of  low  and  flat  prairie  lands  and  a  very  little  marsh  along  the  coast,  by 
gradual  transitions  and  elevations,  to  the  chains  and  peaks  of  mountains  on  the 
far  west,  whose  summits  are  5,000  feet  or  more  above  the  sea. 

"  To  these  extremes  may  be  added  that  of  population,  for  we  find  on  the  east 
and  central  (north  and  south)  parts  of  the  State  comparatively  thickly-settled 
counties  and  large  and  flourishing  towns  and  cities,  while  on  the  west  emigration 
and  settlements  have  scarcely  yet  reached  the  foot  of  the  plateau  of  the  great 
plains. 

"  To  complete  the  picture  of  extremes,  as  it  were,  we  find  that  several  of  the 
great  agricultural  regions  that  form  so  prominent  a  feature  in  the  other  Southern 
States  have  their  termini  in  Texas,  and  are  cut  off  on  the  southwest  either  by  the 
prairies  of  the  coast  or  by  the  great  mesquite  and  cactus  chaparral  prairies  of  the 
Rio  Grande  region,  or  they  abut  against  the  eastern  bluffs  of  the  plains. 

"The  coast  of  Texas  presents  features  different  from  those  of  any  other  State; 
for  while  in  other  States  the  mainland  coast  is  greatly  cut  up  into  large  bays, 
extending  many  miles  inland,  it  is  here  bordered  by  an  almost  continuous  chain 
of  islands  and  peninsulas,  (the  latter  having  the  same  trend  as  the  islands.)  The 


316  TEXAS. 

gulf  border  of  this  chain  is  a  very  regular  line  southwest  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Sabine  River  or  lake  to  near  Corpus  Christi,  which  occupies  the  highest  point  on 
the  entire  coast,  and  thence  turns  with  a  regular  curve  south  and  slightly  south- 
east to  Mexico.  The  islands  and  peninsulas,  which  are  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  distances  of  from  10  to  20  miles,  more  or  less,  are  covered  with  heavy 
belts  of  sand  and  sand  dunes,  rising  l.l  or  20  feet  above  the  beach.  The  latter 
skirt  the  shore  line  for  many  miles,  and,  as  on  Galveston  Island,  are  usually  broad, 
and  offer  many  inducements  to  pleasure-seekers.  The  longest  of  these  islands  is 
Padre  Island,  which  extends  from  Corpus  Christi  Bay  to  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  a  distance  of  more  than  100  miles.  The  large  estuaries  that  have 
been  formed  at  the  mouths  of  the  streams,  except  the  Sabine,  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
those  of  the  Brazos  section,  form  another  feature  peculiar  to  the  Texas  coast. 
The  border  lands  of  these  estuaries  are  usually  high,  their  almost  vertical  clay 
bluffs  being  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  bay,  and  the  open  prairies  of  the  uplands 
often  extend  to  their  very  edge. 

"  Mr.  Gannett  estimates  the  water  area  of  the  coast  bays,  gulfs,  etc.,  to  be 
2,510  square  miles,  and  that  of  the  rivers  and  lesser  streams  at  about  800  square 
miles." 

CLIMATE. 

"  Temperature. — The  large  territory  occupied  by  the  State  naturally  presents 
a  variety  of  climate,  and  we  find  from  the  reports  of  the  United  State  Signal 
Stations  for  1880  (a  statement  of  which  has  been  furnished  me  from  the  chief 
office  at  Washington)  that  while  the  coast  counties  are  warmed  by  the  sea  breezes 
during  the  winter  months  and  have  a  mean  temperature  of  53°  in  December,  the 
northern  counties  along  Red  River  suffer  severer  weather,  the  temperature  of 
Denison  for  the  same  month  being  41°.  The  minimum  and  maximum  extremes 
during  December  were  at  Galveston  18°  and  72°,  and  at  Denison  2°  and  7C°.  At 
Corsicana,  an  intermediate  point,  the  extremes  were  6°  and  80°,  with  a  mean  of 
47.4°.  Brownsville,  situated  more  than  three  degrees  south  of  Galveston,  has  for 
the  same  mouth  the  same  minimum  (18°)  and  a  higher  maximum  (83°). 

"  During  the  summer  months  the  northern  counties  of  the  settled  portion  of 
the  State  enjoy  cooler  nights  and  hotter  days  than  those  of  the  coast,  though  the 
mean  temperature  was  the  highest  on  the  coast  by  several  degrees.  July  at  Gal- 
veston and  August  at  Denison  were  the  hottest  months,  the  average  temperatures 
being  respectively  83°  and  80°,  with  maximums  of  93°  and  101°. 

"  Eagle  Pass,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  seems  to  be  the  hottest  place  in  the  State, 
its  maximums  for  the  months  from  the  first  of  March  to  the  last  of  July  being 
greater  than  was  recorded  at  any  other  point  during  tne  same  time,  and  that  for 
the  months  of  June  and  July,  108°,  being  also  the  highest  in  the  State  for  the  year. 

"  At  Rio  Grande  City  a  maximum  temperature  of  105°  was  recorded  in  April 
and  June,  and  at  Fort  Stockton,  in  Pecos  County,  106°  in  June.  At  Brownsville 
and  San  Antonio  the  highest  temperature,  95°  and  98°  respectively,  was  reached 
in  July. 

"  Fort  Elliott,  in  the  northwestern  part,  or  Panhandle,  of  the  State,  enjoys 
the  coolest  summers,  the  thermometer  for  the  three  months  not  rising  above  86.7°. 

"  One  of  the  most  prominent  features  of  Texas  climate  is  what  is  commonly 
termed  *  the  Texas  norther,'  a  sudden  and  extreme  change  of  temperature  pro- 
duced by  a  rush  of  cold  wind  from  the  north,  usually  coming  unannounced, 
though  sometimes  indicated  by  a  haziness  in  the  northern  sky.  The  northers  are 
usually  preceded  by  a  warm  spell  of  24  hours,  more  or  less,  and  the  change  of 
temperature  is  very  great,  sometimes  in  the  winter  months  falling  as  mucn  as  30° 
or  40°,  though  usually  much  less.  They  continue  about  three  days,  the  second 
being  the  coldest,  and  are  succeeded  by  warm  weather,  though  sometimes  the 


TEXAS.  317 

northers  follow  each  other  so  closely  as  to  produce  eight  or  ten  days  of  cold. 
They  may  be  expected  at  all  times  of  the  year;  and  it  is  customary  for  travelers 
to  be  provided  with  blankets,  even  for  a  trip  of  a  few  days.  These  northers  are 
sometimes  accompanied  by  rain,  and  are  classed  as  dry  or  wet  northers.  The 
summer  northers  are  not  as  frequent  as  the  winter  ones  nor  as  marked,  sometimes 
being  oppressively  close  and  warm,  instead  of  cold." 

Western  Texas  has  an  elevation  of  about  4CO  to  1,600  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  atmosphere  is  dry,  dense,  very  invigorating,  free  from  fogs  and 
malaria. 

The  climate  of  Western  Texas,  according  to  the  isothermal  lines,  which 
differ  materially  from  the  parallels  of  latitude,  is  placed,  San  Antonio  being  the 
principal  city,  in  average  temperature  with  Guaymas,  Mexico,  New  Orleans,  La., 
Madeira  Islands  and  Canton.  The  climate  receives  some  of  its  mildness  from  the 
great  ocean  current  or  gulf  stream  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  makes  its  circuit 
of  about  10,000  miles,  bringing  its  heat  from  the  equatorial  region,  and  throwing 
its  warm  streams  hundreds  of  miles  inland ;  and  it  fortunately  escapes  the  chilly 
winds  of  the  Florida  coast,  caused  by  the  body  of  cold  water  coming  from  the 
north  and  insinuating  itself  between  the  land  and  gulf  stream,  the  coast  of 
Western  Texas  being  hundred  miles  beyond  its  terminus.  It  is  the  Pacific  Ocean 
current  (Kura  Sewa  stream)  which  imparts  to  the  coast  climate  of  California 
much  of  its  mildness. 

Western  Texas  is  again  favored  by  nature  in  the  abundance  of  her  disinfec- 
tant (ozone).  This  element  of  the  atmosphere  is  so  abundant  that  meats  are 
preserved  perfectly  in  the  open  air  without  salt.  The  bodies  of  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  dead  animals  lying  on  the  prairies  emit  no  odor  whatever.  It  is 
this,  with  the  other  elements  of  a  pure  atmosphere,  which  removes  tubercle  and 
cures  the  consumptive.  It  is  a  well-established  fact  that  yellow  fever  cannot  pre- 
vail here  as  an  epidemic.  It  is  equally  true  that  ozone  constitutes  the  exemption. 

I  again  quote  from  the  census  report : 

"Rainfatt  and  Water  Supply. — The  winds  that  bring  rain  and  thunder-storms 
usually  come  from  the  southwest,  those  from  the  north  being  mostly  dry.  From 
the  records  of  the  United  States  Signal  Office  it  seems  that  during  1880  the 
greatest  amount  of  rain  fell  at  Galveston,  amounting  to  50.1  inches,  and  at  Deni- 
son  46.3  inches,  while  at  Corsicana,  San  Antonio,  Fredericksburg  and  Bracketts- 
ville,  lying  in  a  northeast  and  southwest  course  from  each  other,  the  precipitation 
was  over  40  inches.  The  least  amount  of  rainfall  (from  16  to  24  inches)  was 
reported  from  Fort  Elliott,  in  the  Panhandle,  Fort  Davis,  wrest  of  the  Pecos 
River,  and  Rio  Grande  City,  in  Webb  County,  on  the  southwest,  while  at  several 
other  points  on  the  west  and  along  the  Rio  Grande  it  was  less  than  30  inches. 

"With  regard  to  the  seasons,  it  seems  that  the  winter  months  are  the  driest 
of  the  year  very  generally  throughout  the  State,  the  precipitation  varying  from 
three  to  seven  inches,  and  much  less  in  Denton  County  and  several  points  on  the 
west  and  southwest.  During  the  spring  months  the  rainfall  was  greatest  in  the 
eastern  counties,  amounting  to  from  12  to  13  inches.  At  all  other  points,  except 
San  Antonio,  Mason,  Fredericksburg  and  Fort  Griffin,  less  than  nine  inches  was 
obtained,  the  country  west  of  the  Pecos  River  being  very  dry. 

"During  the  summer  months  the  country  around  Corsicana  suffered  greatest 
from  droughts,  while  Denison,  San  Antonio  and  other  places  over  the  west  and 
southwest  enjoyed  their  greatest  rainfall  for  the  year,  the  maximum  for  any  one 
month  in  the  year  throughout  the  State  (21  inches)  having  been  reached  at 
Brownsville  in  August. 

"The  fall  months  vary  but  little  from  those  of  summer,  except  that  there  is 
more  rain  in  the  eastern  counties.  From  the  reports  given,  San  Antonio  seems 


318  TEXAS. 

to  enjoy  the  greatest  regularity  in  its  monthly  rainfalls,  there  being  but  one 
month  when  it  was  less  than  two  inches,  while  its  maximum  for  any  month  of 
the  year  was  8.6  inches.  The  record  of  Corsicana  shows  very  nearly  the  same 
regularity,  a  maximum  of  7.7  inches. 

"  The  country  west  and  southwest  of  the  black  prairie  region  is  visited  by 
rains,  chiefly  between  the  first  of  May  and  the  last  of  September.  These  rains 
come  suddenly,  and,  while  lasting  but  a  few  hours,  are  drenching  in  character, 
flooding  the  country,  and  hence  probably  producing  the  great  ravines  or  arroyos 
that  form  a  prominent  feature  of  the  south  west.  The  water  soon  disappears ;  the 
small  streams  are  dry  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  dependence  is 
put  chiefly  upon  the  larger  ones  that  have  their  sources  from  springs  at  the  foot 
of  the  great  plains.  In  the  red  loam  region,  on  the  north,  parties  have  sometimes 
been  successful  in  digging  wells  that  afford  a  supply  of  water  for  a  portion  of  the 
summer,  and,  when  near  a  village  or  town,  such  wells,  or  even  streams  of  water, 
are  a  source  of  revenue  to  the  owners.  Attention  is  now  being  turned  to  the 
sinking  of  artesian  wells,  but  I  know  not  with  what  success  their  efforts  have 
been  met. 

"In  the  black  prairie  region,  occupying  the  central  portion  of  the  State,  the 
A^arious  small  streams  usually  become  dry  during  the  summer,  and  some  trouble  is 
experienced  in  obtaining  a  sufficient  supply  for  general  purposes.  Wells  cannot 
be  relied  upon,  and  their  water  is  so  strongly  saturated  with  lime  from  the  rotten 
limestone  rock  (cretaceous)  as  to  be  almost  unfit  for  domestic  uses,  thus  compel- 
ling families  either  to  build  cisterns  or  to  haul  water  in  casks  and  barrels  from 
some  neighboring  stream,  sometimes  several  miles  distant.  In  the  large  cities 
water  is  furnished  from  artesian  wells  700  feet  or  more  in  depth,  the  supply 
coming  from  beneath  the  rotten  limestone  formation. 

"  The  timbered  region  of  Eastern  Texas  is  better  supplied  with  wrater  than 
any  other  part  of  the  State.  Springs  of  good  freestone  water  are  found  in  almost 
every  county,  and  wells  furnish  an  abundant  supply  for  domestic  purposes.  The 
small  streams  usually  become  dry  during  the  summer  months,  and  artificial  reser- 
voirs, or  simply  earth  embankments,  collect  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  during 
the  rainy  seasons  for  farm  and  stock  purposes." 

Although  Western  Texas  has  much  less  rainfall  than  much  of  the  South,  she 
has,  in  all  except  a  small  area  there,  more  than  the  western  side  of  the  United 
States,  (except  a  small  area  here  and  there,)  until  the  influence  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  is  felt  in  Washington  Territory,  California  and  Oregon.  The  belt  of  20-25 
inches  reaches  near  the  western  border  of  Texas,  and  it  increases  coming  east 
until  it  reaches,  on  the  coast,  60  inches  and  above,  ranking  with  the  heaviest  in 
the  United  States,  and  only  found  in  a  very  narrow  area.  It  will  be  sufficient  to 
say  that,  leaving  out  a  very  narrow  western  area,  the  dryest  part  of  Texas  is 
better  watered  than  much  of  Colorado,  part  of  Western  Nebraska,  and  a  good 
deal  of  Dakota,  Montana  and  other  States.  The  belts  of  rainfall  run  in  a  sinuous 
line  north  and  northeast,  and  are  of  various  widths — from  one-half  or  less  to  a 
degree  or  more  of  longitude.  They  penetrate  clear  up  to  the  British  possessions. 
Here  and  there  these  areas  are  deflected  by  rivers,  but  the  decided  course  is  north, 
and  increases  in  quantity  of  rainfall  as  they  come  east. 

Fortunately  for  Texas,  much  of  her  very  best  land  is  in  an  area  of  ample 
rainfall  for  crop  making — from  the  Sabine  River,  on  the  east,  (where  there  are  50 
inches  of  rainfall,  as  high  as  the  31st  parallel,)  to  the  Brazos,  as  high  up  as  above 
the  35th  degree  of  latitude,  where  the  least  rainfall  is  35  inches  per  annum.  In 
parts  of  the  West,  the  best  land  is  in  dry  areas  and  with  limited  time  for  crop 
making — a  matter  of  exceeding  moment,  as  every  Western  fanner  knows. 


TEXAS.  319 

Even  the  Stalked  Plains  (Llano  Estacado),  once  supposed  to  be  next  to  useless 
for  man,  now  seem  to  show  plenty  of  water  by  digging ;  and  even  this  area  is  no 
worse  off  for  rainfall  than  considerable  of  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  quite  a  consid- 
erable area  of  Western  Nebraska,  a  great  deal  of  Dakota,  Wyoming,  Montana, 
and  even  a  slice  of  Western  Kansas. 

So  important  a  matter  is  this  that  it  is  worth  pausing  upon,  for  it  opens  an 
area  in  which  there  seems  much  of  meaning  to  the  country  in  the  years  to  come. 
It  is  a  revelation,  really ;  for  only  a  year  or  two  ago,  when  the  writer  was  travel- 
ing through  that  country,  water  for  the  locomotive  had  to  be  carried  many  miles 
from  the  east.  Here  is  an  extract  from  a  paper  published  near  that  area : 

"  It  is  no  longer  a  problem  about  securing  water  on  the  Staked  Plains.  Wells 
of  pure  living  water  are  to  be  had  from  20  to  100  feet  deep,  and,  by  the  use  of 
wind-mills,  water  will  soon  be  made  to  flow  as  freely  and  abundantly  on  the  plains 
as  in  any  section  of  the  State.  The  cattle  and  sheep  will  nip  the  luxuriant  grasses 
that  have  heretofore  gone  to  waste  because  the  water  was  hidden  a  few  feet  under 
the  ground.  Nature  has  bountifully  supplied  this  section  with  water,  which  only 
needs  a  little  muscle  to  bring  it  to  the  surface.  Mr.  W.  T.  Stewart,  who  is  boring 
wells  for  a  land  company  northwest  of  here  about  60  miles,  is  meeting  with  splen- 
did success.  He  began  about  the  1st  of  July,  and  has  already  completed  12  wells, 
with  a  bountiful  supply  of  water  in  all  of  them.  In  no  instance  has  he  failed  to 
get  plenty  of  good  water,  nor  in  any  of  them  has  he  gone  exceeding  100  feet." 

Here  is  more  to  the  same  effect  from  the  Texas  Live  Stock  Journal: 

"Messrs.  Brune  &  Graham,  who  are  wool  growers  in  Hall  County,  Texas, 
have  settled  on  dry  land,  and  consider  the  best  property  they  own  besides  their 
sheep  to  consist  of  a  wind-mill,  pump  and  attachments,  which  they  make  good 
use  of.  At  100  feet  deep  they  found  an  abundance  of  water  for  their  3,000  sheep, 
and  in  going  to  this  trouble  and  expense  consider  themselves  amply  repaid.  They 
found  a  better  range  than  if  they  had  gone  on  a  watercourse,  and  obtained  better 
water  for  their  stock. 

"Mr.  Lee  Dyer,  ranchman  of  Hall  County,  who  controls  an  extensive  tract  of 
land,  has  improved  his  headquarter  ranch  by  the  same  method,  and  has  constructed 
several  large  tanks  during  the  past  year. 

"Messrs.  Gannon,  ranching  on  the  plains,  have  successfully  found  water 
without  going  deep. 

"  The  Quaker  colony  in  Crosby  County  have  found  water  at  a  depth  of  41  feet. 

"  A  sheep  raiser  in  Nolan  County  is  watering  several  thousand  sheep  at  one 
good  well,  and  in  the  country  west  of  Midland  and  thereabouts  the  drill  is  work- 
ing constantly. 

"  We  learn  of  several  companies  intending  to  use  the  drill  and  the  scraper 
during  the  coming  winter,  instead  of  discharging  hands.  This  is  a  move  in  the 
right  direction.  It  adds  to  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  range,  opens  new  ranges 
and  relieves  the  heavy  pressure  of  stock  on  the  streams,  leads  to  greater  improve- 
ments and  adds  to  the  wealth  of  the  country. 

"Want  of  water  need  be  no  detriment  to  Texas,  neither  in  the  older  counties 
nor  on  the  plains.  Fifty  cents  per  acre  will  water  the  dryest  land  we  have  and 
utilize  the  millions  of  acres  now  going  to  waste,  affording  to  Texas  an  indepen- 
dent position  in  enabling  the  State  to  carry  with  profit  the  increase  of  herds  and 
flocks  for  years  to  come. 

"  Water  is  the  first  necessity  of  Texas  stockmen,  and  there  seems  to  be  no 
limit  to  the  quantity  if  stock'men  will  make  but  an  effort  to  find  it." 

In  considering  the  capabilities  of  Texas  as  to  sustenance  of  stock,  her  annual 
rainfall  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  All  except  the  country  west  of  the  Pecos 
River— a  comparatively  small  area— is  in  the  region  from  15-20  inches  per  annum 


320  TEXAS. 

and  above.  The  Panhandle  is  in  this  category — 15-20.  Most  of  the  great  range 
district  of  the  Northwest  is  considerably  lower  than  this. 

Then,  Texas  borders  the  gulf;  has  no  high  intervening  mountains  to  extract 
the  moisture  from  the  damp  gulf  winds  before  they  reach  her  area,  and  has  over 
considerable  areas  heavy  dews,  which  the  Northwest  lacks.*  All  these  will  count 
for  more  when  grasses  like  Bermuda  and  others  shall  have  come  in  to  succeed  the 
native  grasses,  for  Bermuda  will  support  more  stock  to  a  given  area  than  any 
grass  known. 

Then,  the  bulk  of  this  rainfall  is  in  the  spring  and  summer,  or  the  growing 
season — a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance.  Thus,  for  illustration,  that  part  of 
the  Panhandle  in  Texas  having  an  annual  rainfall  of  15-20  inches  has  a  spring 
and  summer  rainfall  of  10-15.  This  permits  a  large  capacity  of  support — very 
different  from  an  almost  rainless  area — because  the  pastures,  after  having  been 
eaten  over,  come  on  again. 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND   SOILS. 

In  the  following  description  of  the  topography  aiitl  soils  of  Texas,  I  have 
drawn  largely  upon  the  census  report : 

The  State  of  Texas,  with  its  immense  territory,  naturally  presents  agricul- 
tural features  greater  in  variety,  perhaps,  than  those  of  any  other  State  in  the 
Union.  Its  position  at  the  southwestern  extreme  of  the  agricultural  regions  of 
the  South  gives  to  a  part  of  the  State  features  similar  in  most  respects  to  other 
Southern  States.  Including,  as  it  does,  the  southeastern  borders  of  the  great 
Western  plains,  the  lands  of  the  western  part  of  the  State  resemble  those  of  New 
Mexico.  Those  of  the  gypsum  formation  and  of  the  red  loam  region  seem  only 
to  extend  northward  into  the  Indian  Territory.  The  following  agricultural 
regions  may  be  conveniently  distinguished: 

1.  Timbered  upland  region  of  East  and  Central  Texas. 

2.  Southern  and  coast  prairie  region. 

3.  Central  black  prairie  region. 

4.  Northwestern  red  loam  lands. 

5.  Western  and  northwestern  uninhabited  region. 

6.  River  alluvial  lands,  including  the  Brazos  delta  or  "  sugar-bowl." 

THE  TIMBERED  UPLAND  REGION  OF  TEXAS. 

The  timbered  region,  which  name  is  popularly  applied  to  all  that  part  of  the 
State  lying  east  of  the  central  prairies  and  southward  to  the  coast  prairies,  and 
which  here  is  made  to  include  also  "the  cross  timbers"  of  the  former,  embraces 
an  area  of  45,995  square  miles.  It  covers  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  from  Red 
River  southward  to  the  marshes  of  the  Sabine  River,  and  extends  south  westward, 
becoming  more  and  more  narrow,  until  it  nearly  reaches  the  Frio  River,  about 
100  miles  from  the  Rio  Grande,  where  it  ends. 

The  area,  exclusive  of  the  cross  timbers,  is  40,685  square  miles,  or  greater 
than  that  of  either  Kentucky,  Indiana  or  Virginia.  It  includes  all  or  the  greater 
part  of  about  50  counties. 

The  country  is  properly  divided  into  three  general  divisions,  the  oak,  hickory 
and  short-leaf  pine  uplands,  the  long-leaf  pine  hills  and  flats,  and  the  prairies, 
which  are  interspersed  throughout  the  former.  In  addition  to  these,  the  bottom 
lands  of  the  entire  region  will  be  separately  described. 

Oak,  Hickory  and  Short-leaf  Pir^e  Uplands. — This  group  occupies  nearly  the 
entire  area  of  the  timbered  lands  southward  to  the  southern  part  of  Sabine,  San 


*The  dews  in  that  area  of  the  South  more  particularly  within  the  influence  of  the  saturation  of 
the  gulf  evaporation  are  exceedingly  heavy  and  precipitated  very  early.  Very  shortly  after  sunset 
the  quantity  is  equivalent  to  a  tolerable  shower  of  rain. 


TEXAS.  321 

Augustine,  Polk  and  San  Jacinto  Counties,  or  35,350  square  miles.  Its  surface 
presents  three  general  features,  which  are  best  described  separately,  viz:  a  region 
of  prominent  short-leaf  pine  growth  on  the  east  and  southeast,  known  as  "the 
pineries;"  a  belt  of  red  hill  lands  occupying  the  central  portion  south  westward ; 
and  the  oak  and  hickory  lands  proper,  with  some  short-leaf  pine  growth.  This 
region  is  more  thickly  populated  than  any  other  in  the  State,  the  average  being 
a  little  more  than  16  persons  per  square  mile.  The  proportion  of  lands  under 
cultivation  (13.2  per  cent.)  is  a  very  little  less  than  that  of  the  central  prairie 
region,  while  the  percentage  of  these  devoted  to  the  culture  of  cotton  is  34.4,  a 
far  greater  proportion  than  is  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  State.  The  cotton 
acreage  per  square  mile  is  28.4  per  cent.,  corn  being  the  chief  crop  of  the  region. 

The  Short-leaf  Pine  Region.— This  region,  thus  designated  because  of  the 
prevalence  of  the  short-leaf  species  of  pine,  embraces  the  eastern  part  of  the 
county  of  Bowie,  a  large  part  of  Cass,  and  portions  of  the  counties  south  border- 
ing the  long-leaf  pine  region,  and  also  extends  in  belts  along  the  Nueces  River,  in 
Cherokee  and  Anderson  Counties,  constituting  what  are  often  called  "pineries." 

The  lands  are  generally  but  slightly  rolling,  and  have  light  sandy  or  silty 
soils  from  10  to  12  inches  deep,  a  yellowish  sandy  subsoil  two  or  more  feet  deep, 
and  a  red  underclay.  These  depths  vary  greatly,  the  clay  often  coming  near  to 
the  surface.  The  pine  is  interspersed  more  or  less  with  oaks  and  hickory,  and 
the  bottom  lands  of  the  creeks  that  flow  through  the  region  have  a  growth  of 
sweet  gum,  elm,  oak,  etc.  The  sandy  nature  of  the  land  makes  tillage  easy. 
Drainage  is  good,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  lands  will  produce  an  average  of  800 
pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre  in  favorable  seasons  without  the  aid  of  fertilizers. 

The  Red  Hills. — Hills  of  ferruginous  sandstone  and  concretionary  iron  ore 
occur  in  a  number  of  the  counties  of  Eastern  Texas,  and  notably  in  Cherokee, 
Cass,  Marion  and  Rusk.  Southwestward  the  belt  of  iron  ore  and  red  lands 
extends  beyond  the  Guadalupe  River,  but,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  isolated 
hills,  the  country  is  not  so  broken,  the  rocks  rather  forming  beds  below  the  soils. 
The  iron  hills  of  Cherokee  County  are  from  150  to  200  feet  above  the  general 
level  of  the  country,  and  are  in  some  cases  broad  on  their  tops,  while  on  the  sides 
masses  of  iron  ore  outcrop  in  large  and  small  fragments.  The  soil  of  the  valley 
lands  between  these  hills  is  full  of  ferruginous  pebbles,  making  them,  as  is  claimed 
by  the  farmers,  more  liable  to  drought. 

Red  sandy  and  clayey  lands  occur  in  most  of  the  counties  of  the  oak  and 
hickory  region  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  but  chiefly,  so  far  as  known,  in  Cass, 
Morris,  Marion,  Harrison,  Smith,  Cherokee,  Rusk,  Nacogdoches,  San  Augustine, 
Sabine,  Houston,  Anderson,  Lee  and  Caldwell.  These  red  lands  are  considered 
best  for  corn  and  small  grain,  though  cotton  grows  well  and  produces  from  600  to 
800  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre.  In  Lee  and  some  other  counties  the  lands 
are  enriched  by  a  glauconitic  limestone  (tertiary),  which  lies  in  fragments  on  the 
surface.  The  timber  growth  of  the  red  lands  is  hickory,  red  and  post  oaks,  sweet 
and  black  gums,  and  elm. 

The  Oak  and  Hickory  Uplands. — The  timbered  uplands,  in  whose  growth 
pine  is  almost  entirely  absent,  covers  the  largest  part  of  this  division  of  the  State, 
and  lies  between  the  central  black  prairie  region  on  the  west  and  the  pineries  and 
southern  coast  prairie  region  on  the  east  and  south.  The  region  has  a  southwest- 
erly course,  reaching  from  the  Red  River  on  the  northeast  nearly  to  the  Nueces 
River  on  the  southwest,  and  while  wide  at  first  (from  60  to  100  miles),  becomes 
narrow  at  the  Brazos  River,  and  is  to  the  southwest  interspersed  with  and  pene- 
trated by  the  southern  prairies,  the  latter  feature  giving  the  appearance  of  Jong 
arms  or  peninsulas  of  timber  extending  out  from  the  main  region. 


322  TEXAS. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  generally  rolling,  sometimes  hilly;  the  soil 
sandy  to  a  depth  of  about  12  inches,  and  is  very  generally  underlaid  by  a  good 
clay  subsoil,  usually  red  in  color.  Decayed  leaves  and  other  vegetation  has  given 
to  the  surface  soil  a  df\rk  color  an  inch  or  two  deep,  adding  much  to  its  pro- 
ductiveness. 

The  general  timber  growth  of  these  lands  is  red,  black,  post  and  black-jaok 
oaks,  and  hickory,  with  a  thick  scrubby  undergrowth,  and  some  short-leaf  pine. 
The  crops  of  the  region  are  cotton,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  sugar  and  sorghum-cane, 
pease  and  upland  rice.  The  uplands  are  best  adapted  to  cotton,  which  comprises 
a  large  proportion  of  the  crops.  It  usually  grows  to  a  height  of  three  feet  in  dry 
and  five  or  six  feet  in  wet  seasons,  producing,  it  is  claimed,  from  800  to  1,000 
pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre  when  fresh,  and  from  600  to  800  pounds  after 
many  years'  cultivation.  The  lands  wash  readily  when  allowed  to  lie  idle  any 
length  of  time,  but  as  yet  any  effort  to  prevent  this  is  exceptional. 

Prairies  of  tlie  Eastern  Timbered  Region— ;Sandy  Prairies.— The  prairies  of  the 
region  differ  from  each  other  in  character,  those  on  the  west  partaking  largely  of 
the  black  waxy  nature  of  the  central  prairies,  while  those  on  the  east  are  lighter 
and  sandy.  In  Cherokee  County  the  latter  are  known  as  "  brush  prairies,"  from 
the  fact  that  they  are  rapidly  being  covered  with  a  low  scrubby  growth  of  red, 
post  and  black-jack  oaks.  The  past  eight  years  is  said  to  have  witnessed  a  great 
change  in  this  respect,  and  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  they  are  not  now  yearly 
burned  off,  as  formerly  was  the  case. 

The  soils  of  both  these  and  the  Boston  prairies,  in  Bowie  County,  are  light 
sandy  or  silty,  and  are  not  considered  as  productive  as  the  adjoining  timbered 
sandy  uplands,  the  cotton  plant  not  growing  as  high,  and  yielding  only  from  500 
to  700  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre  when  fresh.  The  prairies  are  very  level, 
those  of  the  Boston  being  about  a  mile  in  diameter,  and  interspersed  with  clumps 
of  trees. 

Brown  Loam  Prairies. — In  the  counties  of  Navarro,  Limestone,  Grimes, 
Brazos,  Burleson  and  Lee  there  are  high,  rolling  and  open  prairies  having  a 
brown  loam  soil  a  foot  or  two  in  depth  and  an  underlying  heavy  clay,  which  in 
the  prairie  valleys  or  lowlands  forms  very  heavy  waxy  lands,  similar  in  every 
respect  to  the  black  prairies  of  the  West.  The  largest  of  these  brown  loam 
prairies  covers  a  large  part  of  the  two  first  counties  named,  and  lies  along  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  black  prairie  region,  extending  on  the  north  and  south  into 
the  adjoining  counties,  and  covering  an  area  of  about  1,825  square  miles. 

The  lands  of  these  prairies  have  a  rich  brown  loam  soil  from  12  to  24  inches 
in  depth  and  a  heavy  reddish  clay  subsoil.  Mesquite  growth  is  plentiful.  The 
lands  yield  well  and  are  said  to  be  very  durable.  Cotton  grows  well,  often  to  a 
height  of  four  or  five  feet,  producing  an  average  of  about  800  pounds  of  seed 
cotton  per  acre.  It  is  stated  that  very  little  of  this  land  that  has  been  long  under 
cultivation  now  lies  turned  out  for  rest,  its  productiveness  being  as  yet  but 
slightly  diminished.  A  large  proportion  of  these  prairie  lands  has  never  been 
under  cultivation,  and  still  is  used  for  pasturage. 

The  "San  Antonio  prairies"  of  Burleson,  and  those  of  Brazos  and  Grimes 
Counties,  are  similar  in  character  to  these  described,  and  the  same  and  even 
greater  productiveness  is  claimed  for  them. 

Bottom  Lands  of  the  Timbered  Region. — Under  this  head  are  included  only 
the  lands  of  the  smaller  streams,  those  of  the  large  rivers  comprising  a  separate 
division. 

Sulphur  Fork  River  lies  mostly  within  this  region  on  the  northeast,  and  is 
parallel  with  Red  River,  to  which  it  is  tributary,  and  flows  almost  due  east.  Its 
bottom  lands,  as  well  as  those  of  the  neighboring  White  Oak  and  Big  Cypress 


TEXAS.  323 

Creeks,  have  a  dark  and  heavy  loam  soil,  quite  deep,  and  overlying  a  stiff  bluish 
clay.  They  have  a  timber  growth  of  hickory,  pecan,  ash,  walnut  and  white  oak, 
with  pin,  burr,  overcup  and  Spanish  oaks.  Cotton  is  very  much  inclined  to  run 
to  weed  on  these  lands,  and  is  represented  as  producing  as  much  as  1,500  pounds 
of  seed  cotton  per  acre  in  favorable  seasons. 

Angelina  and  Neches  Rivers,  in  their  separate  courses,  belong  to  this  division, 
uniting  soon  after  they  enter  the  pineries.  Their  bottom  lands  are  from  one- 
fourth  of  a  mile  to  one  mile  in  width,  and  have  a  timber  growth  of  oak,  elm, 
hickory,  beech  and  walnut,  with  an  undergrowth  of  cane,  bamboo,  muscadine  and 
wild  peach.  The  soil  is  a  black  loam  from  two  to  four  feet  deep,  over  a  heavy 
clay  subsoil.  Cotton  grows  to  a  height  of  five  feet,  and  is  said  to  yield  when 
fresh  as  much  as  1,500  pounds  of  seed  cotton,  or  from  800  to  1,000  pounds  after 
five  years'  cultivation.  The  hummock  lands  that  border  these  bottoms  have  a 
width  of  from  one-fourth  to  one  and  a-half  miles,  and  a  timber  growth  of  pine, 
oak,  hickory  and  ash.  The  soil  is  said  to  be  a  heavy  whitish  brown  clayey  loam 
from  12  to  24  inches  deep,  underlaid  by  a  heavier  subsoil  and  by  gravel  at  a  depth 
of  six  or  eight  feet.  It  yields  when  fresh  from  500  to  800  pounds  of  seed  cotton, 
or  from  400  to  700  pounds  after  five  years'  cultivation. 

Navasota  River  bottom  is  said  to  have  very  much  the  same  character  of  soil 
and  growth  as  that  of  the  Brazos,  to  which  its  waters  are  tributary.  A  very  high 
yield  is  claimed  for  both,  viz:  over  a  bale  per  acre. 

The  bottom  lands  of  the  Yeguas  (creeks  lying  between  the  Brazos  and  Colo- 
rado Rivers)  are  not  much  under  cultivation,  as  they  are  subject  to  overflow. 
They  have  a  timber  growth  of  pin  oak,  pecan,  elm,  ash  and  hackberry.  When 
cultivated  they  yield,  it  is  said,  about  1,400  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre.  The 
bottom  lands  of  the  Guadalupe  River  are  subject  to  overflow,  and  therefore  are 
not  under  cultivation.  Its  valley  lands  are  rich  and  productive,  having  a  dark 
loamy  or  often  a  black  prairie  soil  two  or  three  feet  deep  over  a  gray  clayey  sub- 
soil, and  at  10  feet  a  bed  of  sand  and  gravel.  Cotton  grows  usually  from  five  to 
eight  feet  in  height  and  yields  about  1,400  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

Lake  Bottom  Lands. — The  bottom  lands  of  Little  Cypress  River  and  Caddo 
Lake,  in  Harrison  County,  are  from  two  to  three  miles  in  width,  and  have  a 
timber  growth  of  pin  and  overcup  oaks  and  pine,  cypress  in  the  marshes,  and 
blue-jack  oak  and  myrtle  thickets  along  the  borders  of  the  lake.  The  soil  is  black 
and  stiff,  and  water  stands  on  it  during  half  of  the  year.  The  creek  bottoms  in 
the  same  county  have  a  growth  of  reel  oak,  sweet  gum,  hickory,  red  elm,  ehinca- 
pin  and  bitter  pecan.  These  lands  are  not  extensive,  and  are  little  in  cultivation. 

On  the  Sabine  River,  in  Rusk  County,  there  are  some  cypress  swamps.  The 
creeks  of  the  county  have  a  bottom  growth  of  white,  red,  post  and  overcup  oaks, 
ash,  maple  and  hickory,  and  a  fine  sandy  soil  18  inches  in  depth  overlying  a  com- 
pact clay,  and  said  to  produce  from  1,000  to  1,200  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

The  Long-leaf  Pine  Region. — The  region  thus  designated  does  not  include  all 
of  that  part  of  the  State  in  which  the  long-leaf  pine  is  found,  but,  as  in  Georgia 
and  other  States,  is  meant  to  represent  only  lands  that  are  so  sandy  as  to  support 
a  timber  growth  of  little  else  than  this  species  of  pine. 

In  Sabine,  Panola  and  other  counties  there  are  large  areas  covered  with  a 
prominent  growth  of  this  timber,  associated  with  such  hard  woods  as  oak  and 
hickory,  and  having  clay  subsoils.  They  thus  differ  from  the  lands  in  the  more 
southern  counties,  and  are  properly  classed  with  the  oak,  hickory  and  pine  region. 

The  long-leaf  pine  region,  or  "pineries"  as  it  is  called,  comprises  both  hills 
and  flats,  and  embraces  the  counties  of  Newton,  Jasper,  Tyler,  Orange  and 
Hardin,  the  southern  parts  of  Sabine,  Angelina,  Trinity,  San  Augustine  and 
acogdoches,  the  eastern  and  southern  part  of  Polk,  and  probably  the  south- 


324  TEXAS. 

eastern  part  of  San  Jacinto,  as  well  as  areas  in  Shelby  and  Panola  and  elsewhere. 
It  covers  an  area  of  about  6,000  square  miles.  The  "flats"  are  found  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  region  between  the  Trinity  and  Sabine  Rivers,  and  form  the 
western  limit  of  the  pine  flats  of  Louisiana  and  other  States.  The  rest  of  the  • 
region  is  more  rolling  and  well  timbered,  chiefly  with  long-leaf  pine,  and  forms 
the  western  extreme  of  that  great  belt  of  pine  timber  so  prominent  from  Texas  to 
the  Atlantic  coast. 

The  northern  part  of  the  pine  region  in  Texas  is  interspersed  with  open 
prairies  having  a  variety  of  soils,  from  sandy  to  stiff  black  loams  and  clays,  and 
is  similar  in  position  and  other  features  to  the  Anacoco  prairie  of  Louisiana. 
The  timbered  uplands  have  but  little  else  than  dark  or  gray  sandy  soils,  with 
mostly  sandy  subsoils,  sometimes  to  a  depth  of  several  feet,  and  are  not  consid- 
ered very  productive.  The  country  is  sparsely  settled,  with  an  average  of  about 
five  persons  per  square  mile.  The  chief  industry  of  the  people  is  the  cutting  and 
shipment  of  lumber. 

The  lands  under  cultivation  are  chiefly  the  hummocks  that  lie  along  the 
creeks  and  larger  streams.  Their  soils  are  sandy  to  a  depth  of  many  inches,  and 
have  a  growth  of  oaks,  hickory,  beech,  walnut,  magnolia,  etc.  It  is  claimed  that 
these  lands  will  produce  as  much  as  1,500  pounds  per  acre  when  fresh  and  800 
pounds  after  eight  years'  cultivation.  2.1  per  cent,  only  of  the  area  of  the  region 
is  under  cultivation,  and  that  is  mostly  devoted  to  corn.  The  cotton  average  is 
3.4  acres  per  square  mile,  comprising  25.6  per  cent,  of  the  tilled  lands,  with  an 
average  yield  of  615  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

The  Cross  Timbers. — The  name  of  "  cross  timbers  "  is  popularly  given  to  two 
wide  belts  of  timbered  lands  that  extend  southward  from  Red  River — the  one,  or 
""lower,"  in  the  central  part  of  the  black  prairie  region ;  the  other,  or  "  upper," 
on  the  west  of  the  prairie,  or  between  it  and  the  red  lands.  These  belts  resemble 
each  other  very  much  in  their  general  features. 

The  soils  of  the  uplands  are  generally  very  sandy  for  a  foot  or  more  in  depth, 
and  are  not  considered  valuable.  Along  the  streams  and  in  the  lowlands  the  soil 
is  a  dark  sandy  loam  with  a  clay  subsoil,  rich  and  productive.  On  it  cotton  grows 
four  or  five  feet  high,  and,  it  is  claimed,  yields  as  much  as  1,500  pounds  of  seed 
cotton  per  acre,  even  on  lands  that  have  been  several  years  under  cultivation. 

SOUTHERN    COAST  PRAIRIES. 

The  coast  of  Texas  is  bordered  by  a  low  and  level  prairie,  reaching  from  the 
marshes  of  Sabine  Pass  westward  to  the  densely  timbered  Brazos  alluvial  basin, 
and  thence  westward,  with  scarcely  any  interruption,  to  the  Rio  Grande,  except- 
ing the  narrow  timbered  lands  of  a  few  streams.  While  there  is  a  similarity  in 
some  of  its  features  throughout  its  length,  yet  certain  portions  of  the  coast  have 
such  marked  peculiarities  as  to  merit  a  division  Into  three  groups  for  purposes  of 
description.  These  are  the  prairie  region  east  of  the  Brazos  alluvial,  the^prairie 
region  west  of  the  Brazos  alluvial,  extending  to  the  Nueces  River,  and  the  south- 
western prairie  region,  lying  between  the  Kueces  and  Frio  Rivers  to  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  entire  region  embraced  is  about  47,680  square  miles,  which  is  about 
the  area  of  the  State  of  Mississippi. 

East  of  the  Brazos  Attuvial  Region. — In  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State, 
lying  between  the  Brazos  and  the  Trinity  Rivers,  and  extending  eastward  lo  the 
Neches,  there  is  a  large  region  of  level  prairie  lands,  having  large  areas  each  of 
gray  silty  and  black  waxy  soils,  interspersed  with  "motts"  of  pine  or  oak,  and 
intersected  by  timbered  streams.  The  region  extends  from  the  coast  inlandSnto 
the  counties  of  Waller,  Montgomery  and  San  Jacinto,  and  includes  besides  these 


TEXAS.  325 

all  or  portions  of  Jefferson,  Liberty,  Chambers,  Galveston,  Brazoria  (eastern  part) 
and  Harris. 

The  prairies  of  the  northeastern  part  of  the  division  usually  have  gray  silty 
soils,  and  deserve  more  properly  the  name  of  "pine  prairies;"  but  where  the 
underlying  Port  Hudson  clays  approach  the  surface  the  result  is  a  black  waxy 
soil.  On  the  northwest  of  the  city  of  Houston,  and  extending  nearly  to  Hemp- 
stead,  in  Waller  County,  there  is  but  little  to  break  the  monotony  of  a  level  and 
open  prairie,  Southward  to  the  coast  the  prairies  extend  almost  uninterruptedly, 
covering  areas  of  from  20  to  30  miles  in  breadth,  and  are  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  all  growth  other  than  grasses  and  occasional  motts  of  large  live-oak 
trees.  Along  Buffalo  Bayou  and  oilier  streams  the  uplands  are  well  timbered 
with  oak  and  pine,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  streams  the  magnolia 
(Magnolia  gra-ndiflora)  is  a  large  and  prominent  growth.  The«trees,  and  especially 
the  live  oaks,  are  very  generally  festooned  with  the  greatest  abundance  of  the 
long  moss  (Tillandsia  vmeoides)  so  common  in  the  coast  region  of  all  of  the 
Southern  StaUs.  The  surface  of  the  entire  region  is  very  level  and  even,  with  a 
descent  to  the  coast  so  gradual  as  to  afford  no  drainage  to  the  soils,  and,  as  a 
natural  consequence,  water  remains  in  pools  upon  the  prairies  of  the  region  until 
removed  by  evaporation. 

The  immediate  coast  lands  from  the  marshes  of  Sabine  River  westward  to 
the  Brazos  alluvial  are  almost  entirely  open  prairies  with  a  light  sandy  soil, 
becoming  darker  inland,  and  underlaid  by  a  white  concretionary  clay.  This 
latter  comes  to  the  surface  near  Clear  Creek  Station,  19  miles  from  the  s'.ore  line. 
Small  natural  mounds  from  10  to  20  feet  in  diameter  and  several  feet  high  cover 
some  parts  of  this  coast  region.  At  Allen's  Station,  about  40  miles  from  the 
coast,  the  subsoil  changes  to  a  yellow  clay  with  calcareous  concretions. 

The  soil  of  the  region  is  very  generally  a  light  sandy  loam  underlaid  at  vary- 
ingtdepths  by  heavy  impervious  clays.  Large  areas  of  black  clayey  lands  occur 
along  the  border  of  the  Brazos  alluvial,  and  eastward  to  Harrisburg  and  beyond 
the  Trinity  River,  which  are  very  similar  to  those  described  on  the  west  of  the 
Brazos. 

The  loam  prairie  lands  of  the  region  are  well  supplied  with  the  mineral  ele- 
jnents  necessary  for  fertility,  but  from  their  want  of  proper  drainage  are  not 
under  cultivation.  They  are  given  up  entirely  to  grazing  purposes  and  the  pro- 
duction of  hay,  for  which  the  thick  carpet  of  grass  that  covers  them  is  admirably 
suited.  The  farms  of  the  region  are  found  in  the  timbered  uplands  that  border 
Buffalo  Bayou  and  some  of  the  streams. 

West  of  the  Brazos. — One  of  the  prominent  features  of  the  southern  and  coast 
prairie  region  is  the  large  area  of  black  and  stiff  or  waxy  lands  that  occupies  a 
central  position  between  the  Sabine  and  Rio  Grande  Rivers,  andj-eaches  from  the 
coast  northward  into  Washington  County.  In  the  counties  of  Calhoun,  Victoria, 
Jackson,  arid  the  western  parts  of  Matagorda  and  Wharton,  these  prairies  are 
very  broad  and  extensive,  with  a  gradual  rise  from  the  coast  inland  for  20  or  30 
miles,  and  then  become  slightly  rolling,  the  view  interrupted  here  and  there  by 
the  timber  growth  of  the  streams  or  "motts"  of  mesquite  and  live  oak.  On 
Lavaca  Bay  there  is  much  Mexican  scarlet  bean  (Erythrina)  and  a  few  "  Brazil- 
wood" trees.  Northward,  in  the  counties  of  De  Witt,  Lavaca,  Colorado,  Fayette, 
Washington  and  Austin,  the  prairies  are  smaller,  and  are  interspersed  with  sandy 
and  timbered  uplands  and  sandy  prairies.  In  adjoining  portions  of  Gonzales  and 
De  Witt  Counties  there  are  high  and  rolling  sandy  prairies,  underlaid  by  sand- 
stone (Grand  Gulf).  In  the  lowlands  and  flats  of  these  the  soil  is  often  a  heavy 
black  clay.  On  either  side  of  the  alluvial  lands  of  the  Brazos  and  adjoining 


326  TEX  A  ft. 

streams,  in  Fort  Bend  and  Bra/oria  Counties,  or  the  "  sugar-bowl,"  there  are 
other  strips  of  black  prairies. 

As  far  inland  as  Clinton,  in  De  Witt  County,  and  Columbus,  Colorado 
County,  the  prairies  are  underlaid  by.  heavy  light  and  blue-colored  clays  (Port 
Hudson)  full  of  calcareous  concretions,  and  often  containing  crystals  of  gypsum. 
They  form  bluffs  from  15  to  25  feet  high  around  Lavaca  Bay  and  the  inland  lakes, 
and  in  them  have  been  found  large  fragments  of  the  bones  of  extinct  mammoth 
animals.  Limestone  also  occurs  to  some  extent  in  these  beds.  Excellent  grass 
covers  the  lands  of  the  region,  and  the  prairies  are  almost  entirely  devoted  to  the 
grazing  of  stock,  the  sandy  timbered  lands  of  the  streams  being  used  for  farming 
purposes.  The  entire  country  is  very  sparsely  settled,  "  nearest  neighbors  "  being 
generally  many  miles  apart.  But  little  cotton  is  produced  in  the  counties  along 
the  coast,  but  as  we  advance  inland  we  find  that  crop  receiving  more  attention, 
over  one-third  of  the  tilled  land  of  the  upper  counties  of  the  region  being  devoted 
to  cotton  culture. 

The  soil  of  these  prairies  is  black  waxy  or  adobe  in  character,  tenacious,  and 
very  difficult  to  till  in  wet  seasons,  while  in  dry  weather  it  becomes  hard  and 
shrinks,  forming  deep  and  wide  cracks — traps,  as  it  were,  for  the  feet  of  the 
unwary  beast.  Hog- wallow  lands  are  found  in  localities  throughout  the  region,  a 
featufe  resulting  from  the  shrinkage  and  subsequent  swelling  and  bulging  out  of 
the  underclay  upon  access  of  water  through  the  cracks  when  the  winter  rains 
come.  The  soil  has  a  depth  of  from  12  to  24  inches,  and  overlies  a  lighter-colored 
and  stiff  clay,  which  sometimes  contains  gravel.  The  lands  are  thought  to  be 
best  adapted  to  corn.  Cotton  grows  to  a  height  of  from  three  to  five  feet,  the 
yield  being  variously  estimated  to  be  from  600  to  1,000  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per 
acre  when  fresh  and  after  long  cultivation.  Some  planters  place  the  estimate 
much  higher. 

Tlie  Southwestern  Prairie  Region. — The  southwestern  part  of  the  State  Iving 
west  of  the  Nueces  and  Frio  Rivers  is  almost  entirely  a  prairie  region,  and 
includes  the  agricultural  counties  of  Frio,  McMullen  and  Duval,  and  the  counties 
of  Maverick,  Zavalla,  Dinimit,  La  Salle,  Webb,  Encinal,  Zapata,  Starr,  Hidalgo 
and  Cameron  (the  latter  two,  however,  having  large  areas  of  river  lands),  which 
properly  may  be  included  in  what  is  termed  "the  desert." 

The  entire  country  is  very  sparsely,  settled  and  almost  exclusively  devoted  to 
stock  raising.  Mesquite  and  a  scrubby  chaparral  variety,  with  occasional  live- 
oak  trees  and  cacti,  are  almost  the  only  growth,  giving  to  the  region  a  barren  and 
desolate  appearance.  ''  The  desert "  is  a  broad  area  of  white  sand  lying  along  the 
border  of  the  Laguna  de  la  Maclre  from  a  few  miles  south  of  Corpus  Christi  to 
the  Rio  Grande  alluvial  lands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sal  Colorado,  and  extending 
back  (westward)  to  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  up  that  stream  to 
near  Eagle  Pass. 

THE   CENTRAL   BLACK   PRAIRIE    REGION. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  features  of  the  State  is  the  broad  region  of  high, 
rolling  and  black  waxy  prairie  lands  lying  in  the  central  part  of  the  State,  from 
Red  River  on  the  north  south-southwest  to  San  Antonio,  and  thence  westward. 
A  line  marking  the  eastern  limit  of  the  region  would  begin  on  the  east  of  Paris, 
in  Lamar  County,  at  the  southern  edge  of  the  timbered  river  uplands,  pass  in  a 
southwest  direction  to  the  east  of  Terrell,  in  Kaufman  County,  and  four  miles 
west  of  Corsicana,  in  Navarro  County;  thence  south  to  Cameron,  in  Milam 
County,  southwest  to  a  point  a  few  miles  south  of  San  Antonio,  and  westward  to 
the  edge  of  the  great  plains  of  the  west.  The  western  limit  of  the  region  has  not 
been  fully  determined,  except  that  it  passes  from  Montague  south  through  the 
counties  of  Wise,  Parker,  Erath,  Comanche,  Lampasas,  Burnet  and  Blanco; 


TEXAS.  327 

thence  west  through  Gillespie  and  Kirnble.  The  region  has  a  width  of  about  140 
miles  on  the  north,  100  in  the  middle,  and  is  quite  narrow  on  the  south — not  more 
than  50  or  60  miles.  It  embraces  23  and  parts  of  26  counties,  covering  in  all 
about  26,050  square  miles.  A  white  rotten  limestone  (cretaceous)  underlies  the 
entire  region  and  often  appears  on  the  surface.  The  eastern  part  of  the  region 
throughout  its  length  is  composed  of  prairies,  slightly  rolling,  and  interrupted  by 
frequent  streams,  which  are  bordered  with  narrow  timbered  valleys.  In  its  cen- 
tral part  is  the  broad  belt  of  "lower  cross  timbers,"  extending  southward  from 
the  Red  River  to  the  Brazos,  near  Waco,  in  McLennan  County.  To  the  west  the 
country  is  more  and  more  rolling  and  broken,  the  bald  hills  on  the  extreme  west 
standing  out  in  bold  relief  as  isolated  peaks  and  prominent  ridges,  with  high  and 
abrupt  sides  facing  the  broad  prairie  valleys.  Rotten  limestone,  accompanied  by 
beds  of  cretaceous  fossils,  outcrops  everywhere  on  the  sides  of  the  hills,  in  the 
valleys  and  in  the  beds  of  the  streams. 

In  its  general  level  the  country  rapidly  rises  from  the  east  toward  the  west, 
the  altitude  of  Dallas  being  481  feet;  Fort  Worth,  30  miles  westward,  629  feet; 
Weatherford,  35  miles  still  westward,  1,000  feet.  The  latter  place  is  near  the 
western  border  of  the  region.  On  the  south  Austin  has  an  elevation  of  650  feet, 
San  Antonio  575  feet,  while  Fredericksburg,  60  or  70  miles  to  the  west,  has  an 
altitude  of  1,614  feet  above  the  sea.  From  San  Antonio  northwest  to  Cibolo  the 
country  is  a  rolling  prairie,  becoming  more  and  more  hilly,  and  covered  with 
clumps  of  live  oak  and  other  timber.  Thence  to  the  Guadalupe  River  the  hills 
increase  in  height,  with  alternating  rolling  prairies  and  flats.  Limestone  is  abun- 
dant all  the  way  to  Fredericksburg.  The  country  northward  is  well  wooded,  and 
granite  begins  at  17  miles. 

Mesquite  is  a  common  growth  of  all  the  prairies  of  the  central  prairie  region, 
but  especially  in  the  south,  where,  with  a  height  of  from  10  to  15  feet,  it  forms 
rather  dense  thickets.  The  "  chaparrals "  of  this  part  of  the  State  are  formed 
mostly  of  a  low  thorny  growth  of  what  is  known  as  "  wesatche,"  belonging  prob- 
ably to  the  mesquite  family. 

The  lands  comprise  three  varieties,  viz:  Black  waxy  prairie  or  "adobe," 
covering  the  greater  part  of  the  region ;  black  sandy,  occurring  in  localities  along 
the  borders  of  the  former,  and  forming  a  transition  to  the  sandy  lands  that  border 
the  streams ;  besides  these  are  the  bottom  lands,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
described  under  the  head  of  "  river  lands."  The  first  of  these  varieties,  or  the 
black  waxy  lands,  are  what  their  name  would  indicate — a  heavy,  deep  black  and 
tenacious  clay,  possessing  a  very  high  absorptive  power  (14  to  17  per  cent.)  Their 
extreme  tenacity  is  illustrated  and  appreciated  by  the  luckless  teamster  who  has 
to  drive  his  wagon  across  one  of  these  prairies  during  a  wet  season.  The  black 
mud  adheres  in  great  masses  to  the  wheels,  filling  up  the  spaces  between  the 
spokes  and  spreading  out  on  either  side,  thus  making  an  empty  vehicle  a  load  in 
itself  for  a  team.  The  mud  sticks  in  masses  to  the  feet  of  those  attempting  to 
walk  over  these  lands  in  wet  weather.  In  dry  weather  the  prairies  assume  alto- 
gether a  different  aspect;  the  roads  become  very  hard  and  comparatively  smooth, 
and  the  soil  cracks  open  in  every  direction. 

Iloy-wallow  Lands. — The  underlying  rock  of  the  region,  rotton  limestone, 
comes  to  the  surface  very  often,  though  chiefly  on  the  high  uplands,  being  covered 
to  a  greater  depth  by  the  soils  in  the  lowlands.  The  soils  have  a  general  depth  of 
from  12  to  24  inches,  the  only  perceptible  difference  in  the  subsoil  being  a  change 
in  color  from  a  black  to  a  lighter  yellow  or  drab-colored  clay. 

The  lands  are  very  productive  and  durable,  yielding  about  800  pounds  of  seed 
cotton  per  acre,  both  when  fresh  and  after  long  cultivation.  Many  farmers  claim 
a  greater  yield,  but  this  is  exceptional.  The  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  from  four 


328  TEXAS. 

to  six  feet,  and  is  very  often  troubled  with  blight  or  "  dying  in  spots  "  in  the  dry 
seasons  at  a  time  when  it  has  about  begun  to  bloom. 

Black  Sandy  Prairie  Lands. — These  are  formed  by  the  commingling  of  the 
black  waxy  just  mentioned  and  the  sands  of  the  upland  timbered  lands,  which  are 
usually  adjoining.  They  are  generally  underlaid  by  the  heavy  clay  subsoils  of  the 
prairies.  These  lands  are  comparatively  easy  to  till  and  are  fully  as  productive  MS 
the  waxy  lands  of  the  prairies.  The  plant  grows  three  or  four  feet  high,  yielding 
from  800  to  1,000  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

These  prairies  are  usually  level  and  present  excellent  farming  lands. 

The  timbered  uplands  that  border  the  streams  in  narrow  belts  have  gray 
sandy  soils  10  or  12  inches  deep  and  a  yellowish  clay  subsoil.  They  are  usually 
called  "  post-oak  lands,"  from  the  predominance  of  that  timber  growth.  Hickory, 
elm  and  mesquite  trees  are  also  common.  The  lands  are  easily  tilled,  well  drained 
and  produce  well,  and  are  therefore  most  preferred  for  agricultural  purposes. 

The  central  prairie  region  is  but  sparsely  settled  outside  of  the  towns  and 
cities.  The  houses  and  farms  are  mostly  situated  in  or  near  the  timbered  uplands, 
the  prairies,  with  their  excellent  grasses,  being  reserved  almost  exclusively  for  the 
grazing  of  cattle.  The  level  nature  of  the  land  and  the  comparative  freedom  from 
rocks  render  it  especially  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  improved  cultivators  and 
other  agricultural  implements.  The  seasons  of  summer  and  fall  are  always  very 
dry,  which,  though  sometimes  cutting  off  the  cotton  crop  as  much  as  one-third, 
never  produce  a  total  failure.  The  droughts  are  felt  most  by  other  crops  and  in 
the  scanty  supply  of  water  for  stock  and  for  domestic  uses.  Creeks  and  branches 
become  dry,  and  the  dependence  is  upon  "tanks"  or  artificial  ponds  and  cisterns 
filled  by  the  winter  and  spring  rains.  "Wells  are  unreliable,  and  their  waters  are 
to  such  an  extent  impregnated  with  lime  and  other  salts  from  the  rotten  limestone 
as  to  make  them  unfit  for  domestic  purposes. 

Within  the  past  few  years  much  interest  has  been  taken  in  artesian  wells,  and 
a  number  have  been  bored  in  Dallas  and  Fort  Worth,  from  which  a  bountiful 
supply  of  good  water  is  obtained  at  a  depth  of  300  or  400  feet  in  the  former  and 
700  feet  in  the  latter  place,  or  below  the  rotten  limestone.  They  are  probably 
practicable  throughout  this  region  at  a  depth  of  not  exceeding  1,000  feet. 

NORTHWESTERN   RED   LOAM   REGION. 

West  of  the  upper  cross  timbers  and  the  black  prairie  region  there  is  a  large 
region  embracing  what  is  known  as  the  red  lands  of  the  northwest.  It  enters  the 
State  from  the  Indian  Territory  and  extends  westward  and  southward  to  the 
gypsum  formation  and  the  plains,  while  a  large  section  passes  southeast  nearly  to 
Austin  and  Fredericksburg.  In  this  latter  portion  of  the  belt  the  red  lands  are 
not  as  prominent  as  farther  north  and  west,  and  are  associated  with  gray  sandy 
soils  from  the  granites  and  other  rocks  that  occur  to  a  large  extent.  The  entire 
region  covers  an  area  of  about  27,012  square  miles,  and  embraces  25  organized 
counties,  besides  those  that  have  as  yet  been  only  outlined  and  named. 

The  surface  of  the  eastern  counties  of  the  region  is  hilly  or  "mountainous" 
and  broken,  and  is  well  supplied  with  timber.  These  hills  are  usually  long,  high 
and  narrow  ridges  or  divides,  generally  not  more  than  100  feet  high,  with  rather 
abrupt  sides,  are  covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  post  and  black-jack  oaks,  and 
have  a  sandy  soil.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  southern  part  of  Brown  County,  the 
summit  is  broad  and  comparatively  level,  with  only  a  low  and  stunted  oak  growth. 
The  valley  lands  between  these  hills  are  broad  and  open  prairies,  with  red  soils 
and  occasional  clumps  of  mesquite  bushes,  interspersed  with  motts  of  live  oak. 
In  the  low  flats,  where  limestone  is  often  found  outcropping,  the  soil  is  a  dark 
stiff  or  waxy  clay,  very  productive. 


TEXAS.  329 

The  surface  of  the  country  in  the  western  part  of  .the  region  is  little  else  than 
a  high  rolling  prairie,  somewhat  hilly  on  the  north,  but  more  and  more  level  on 
the  southwest,  where  with  a  gradual  rise,  it  merges  into  the  Great  Plains,  or 
southern  part  of  the  Llano  Estacado.  The  surface  is  covered  with  grass  and  fre- 
quent chaparrals,  and  in  localities  with  mesquite  trees  and  motts  of  live  oak. 
Red  sandstone  is  perhaps  the  most  prominent  rock  of  the  region  (except  on  the 
south),  and  is  found  capping  the  great  majority  of  the  hills  in  ledges  and  broken 
masses  of  sometimes  many  feet  thickness.  Blue  crystalline  limestones  (Palaeozoic) 
also  occur  abundantly. 

On  the  prairies  and  in  the  valleys  the  greater  part  of  tlie  lands  of  the  region 
are  of  a  red  loam  character,  more  or  less  sandy  and  quite  deep.  In  some  of  the 
low  mesquite  flats  in  Brown,  San  Saba,  Stephens  and  other  counties  on  the  east 
are  found  areas  of  stiff  black  clays  with  a  growth  of  live  oak,  while  the  summits 
of  the  hills  are  sandy  and  often  covered  with  a  low  scrubby  undergrowth.  The 
streams  are  usually  bordered  with  a  timber  growth  of  elm,  pecan,  cottonwood, 
etc.  Their  valleys  on  the  west  are  very  narrow,  but  widen  eastward  to  some 
extent,  and  are  covered  with  rich  and  productive  soils  from  the  red  clay  hills  of 
the  gypsum  formation  and  bluffs  of  the  Llano  Estacado. 

The  yield  of  fresh  lands  is  about  800  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre,  but 
durability  can  hardly  be  expected  in  these  uplands  without  the  application  of 
phosphates  after  a  few  years. 

The  region  is  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  stock  raising,  for  which  purpose 
the  excellent  grasses  are  well  adapted.  The  long  droughts,  and  consequent  lack 
of  water  in  the  streams  and  wells,  is  the  chief  evil  to  contend  with  in  all  the 
various  interests  in  which  the  people  are  engaged;  but  with  an  increased  popula- 
tion and  a  development  of  the  resources  of  the  country,  this  lack  in  water  will, 
in  part,  probably  be  overcome. 

WESTERN   AND  NORTHWESTERN  TEXAS. 

The  country  lying  west  and  southwest  of  the  northwestern  red  loam  region, 
and  forming  the  unpopulated  portion  of  the  State,  is  as  yet  comparatively 
unknown,  especially  so  with  regard  to  its  agricultural  features.  It  embraces  63 
counties  (unorganized),  which,  though  having  a  name,  have  virtually  no  inhabi- 
tants, and  lie  in  a  wild  and  desolate  region,  including  what  is  known  as  the  Pan- 
handle of  Texas.  The  great  extent  of  its  territory,  the  lack  of  M'ater  and  fuel  on 
the  plains,  and  the  many  other  difficulties  attending  travel  and  explorations,  make 
its  examination  a  matter  of  much  time  and  expense,  as  well  as  danger.  At  present 
we  are  largely  dependent  upon  the  reports  of  the  United  States  exploring  expedi- 
tions, made  many  years  ago,  for  the  little  that  is  known  regarding  the  great 
western  plains. 

Three  important  divisions  are  represented  in  this  region,  viz :  The  gypsum 
formation  of  the  northwest  and  the  plains,  including  the  celebrated  Llano  Esta- 
cado or  Staked  Plain,  the  southern  plain,  and  the  moantainous  region  west  of  the 
Pecos,  embracing  in  all  111,500  square  miles,  or  42.51  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the 
State.  The  three  divisions  will  be  considered  separately. 

Gypsum  Region. — One  of  the  most  interesting  as  well  as  valuable  features  of 
the  western  region  is  the  great  area  of  gypsum  lands,  covering  in  Texas,  as  far  as 
can  be  determined,  about  17,500  square  miles.  Dr.  George  G.  Shumard,  who 
explored  this  region  with  Captain  Pope,  reports  that  on  Red  River  the  gypsum 
beds  are  from  a  few  inches  to  30  feet  thick.  On  Delaware  Creek  a  few  miles  below 
its  source  they  are  60  feet,  while  between  the  Big  Wichita  and  Brazos  Rivers  there 
are  hills  nearly  700  feet  high  composed  almost  entirely  of  this  material.  It  occurs 
in  its  many  different  forms  of  granular,  massive,  fibrous,  and  in  large  plates  of 
transparent  selenites,  and  is  associated  with  heavy  beds  of  red  clays,  and  overlaid 


330  TEXAS. 

by  sandstones  and  drift  deposits.  The  exact  limits  of  the  region  have  not  as  yet 
been  determined.  The  best  sources  of  information  are  United  States  Pacific 
Railroad  Survey  Reports. 

The  Llano  Estacado,  or  the  Staked  Plain. — The  northwestern  and  the  extreme 
western  part  of  the  State  is  part  of  what  is  known  as  the  "Llano  Estacado,"  or 
the  "  Staked  Plain,"  the  name  being  given  to  it  from  the  tradition  "  that  in  1734, 
when  the  fathers  from  Santa  Fe  visited  San  Saba  to  establish  a  fort  and  a  mission, 
they  set  up  stakes  with  buffalo  heads  on  them,  so  that  others  might  follow  their 
route."  The  name  is  usually  given  only  to  that  portion  lying  east  of  the  river 
Pecos,  in  both  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  but  the  plains  proper  extend  westward  to 
the  Rio  Grande.  From  the  northern  limit  of  the  State  it  reaches  southward 
nearly  to  the  29th  parallel,  its  eastern  border  lying  along  the  101st  meridian, 
through  five  degrees  of  latitude;  thence  turns  eastward  to  McCulloch  County, 
and  south  to  Bandera.  The  area  embraced  in  Texas  is  about  74,500  square  miles, 
or  about  28  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  of  the  State.  On  the  north  the  eastern 
limits  of  the  plains  are  strongly  defined,  and,  according  to  Captain  Marcy,  are 
marked  by  vertical  bluffs  about  800  feet  above  the  country  or  gypsum  formation 
on  the  east.  These  bluffs  consist  of  red  and  yellow  clays  overlaid  by  10  or  15  feet 
of  sandstone  and  a  heavy  deposit  of  drift  pebbles,  the  whole  capped  by  a  sandy 
soil  and  subsoil.  Southward,  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Colorado,  the  bluffs  are  not 
so  high,  a  descent  of  only  50  feet  being  noted  by  Captain  Marcy,  and  limestone 
(probably  cretaceous)  is  found  at  its  foot.  This  rock,  as  reported,  seems  to  under- 
lie the  entire  plains  south  of  the  32d  parallel,  and  is  almost  absent  in  the  Panhandle 
region,  appearing  only  in  thin  seams  in  beds  of  sandstone.  Throughout  the  rest 
of  the  border  on  the  east  and  south  the  line  marking  the  limit  between  the  plains 
and  the  regions  east  can  hardly  be  defined;  the  country  is  broken  and  hilly,  with 
valleys,  canons  and  isolated  ridges,  in  which  rotten  limestone  (cretaceous)  occurs 
abundantly. 

The  surface  of  the  plains  presents  a  vast  and  level  prairie,  "  as  smooth  and 
firm  as  marble,"  apparently  boundless.  The  soil  is  chiefly  a  brown  loam,  some- 
times sandy,  and  with  no  vegetation  other  than  gamma  and  mesquite  grasses  and 
small  mesquite  shrubs,  which  appear  a  few  inches  above  the  surface  and  serve  the 
purpose  of  a  guide  to  the  large  roots  below — the  firewood  of  the  plains.  Alkali 
ponds  or  lakes  occur  frequently,  especially  in  the  southern  half,  and  also  a  number 
of  springs  whose  waters  are  suitable  for  use.  Some  gypsum  is  said  to  occur 
around  the  edges  of  the  lakes.  The  height  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  plains  was 
estimated  by  Captain  Marcy  to  be  2,450  feet  above  the  sea.  Westward  the 
country  gradually  rises  203  feet,  and  reaches  its  maximum  near  the  103d  degree 
of  longitude. 

On  this  line,  near  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Panhandle,  there  is  a  range  of 
sand  hills  rising  from  20  to  100  feet  above  the  plain,  occupying  a  region  50  miles 
long  (north  and  south)  and  about  15  miles  wide.  The  hills  are  conical  in  shape 
and  utterly  destitute  of  vegetation,  and  the  section,  because  of  the  deep  beds  of 
sand,  is  hardly  passable  with  wagons. 

From  this  point  westward  the  country  falls  some  200  feet  to  the  Pecos,  whose 
banks  are  without  timber  growth.  A  person  may  come  very  near  to  the  edge  of 
the  gorge  without  becoming  aware  of  its  presence.  From  the  river  still  westward 
to  the  foot  of  the  Guadalupe  Mountains  the  country  rises  200  feet,  and  thence  to 
the  Rio  Grande,  at  El  Paso,  again  gradually  falls. 

The  Mountainous  Region. — Westward  from  the  Pecos  River  to  the  Rio  Grande 
the  broad  undulating  plains  continue,  not  continuously  as  on  the  east,  but  inter- 
rupted by  several  high  and  broken  ranges  of  mountains  rising  suddenly  several 
thousand  feet  above  the  general  surface.  The  plains,  having  widths  of  20  or  30- 


TEXAS.  331 

miles  between  these  mountains,  are  covered  largely  with  mesquite  bushes,  cactus 
and  thorny  chaparrals,  and  are  interspersed  with  large  salty  depressions.  Gamma 
grass  occurs  in  localities,  sometimes  plentifully;  but  water  suitable  to  drink  is 
very  scarce.  The  soil  is  usually  very  sandy  and  often  covered  with  incrustations 
of  salt.  The  area  comprised  in  this  region  is  about  19,5CO  square  miles. 

The  Sierra  Blanco  Mountains  on  the  south,  near  the  Rio  Grande,  is  near  the 
point  of  union  of  the  Southern  Pacific  and  Texas  Pacific  Railroads,  and  is  said  to 
be  the  highest  point  in  the  State,  the  plains  themselves  being  about  4,500  feet 
above  the  sea. 

ALLUVIAL   OR   RIVER   LANDS. 

The  river  lands  form  an  important  division  in  the  agricultural  features  of  the 
State,  more  from  their  richness  and  consequent  high  productiveness  than  from 
the  area  comprised  by  them.  They  are  all  but  lightly  timbered  on  the  west  of  the 
central  black  prairie  region,  but  thence  to  the  coast  the  timber  growth  becomes 
larger,  more  dense  and  of  greater  variety.  The  bottom  lands  also  widen  out 
toward  the  coast.  The  most  important  of  the  rivers  described  are  the  Red  and 
the  Brazos,  and  with  the  latter  are  tiie  smaller  streams,  Oyster  and  Caney  Creeks, 
which  are  included  in  the  region  of  its  "  sugar-bowl"  or  delta  lands.  These  are 
looked  upon  as  representing  the  highest  type  of  fertility,  and  but  for  the  malarial 
character  of  the  densely  timbered  portions,  would  be  mostly  under  cultivation 
and  more  highly  valued.  The  lands  of  the  rivers  are  considered  separately. 

Red  Ewer  Lands. — Red  River  forms  in  part  the  boundary  between  Texas  and 
the  Indian  Territory.  Its  course  is  eastward,  for  the  most  part  across  the  head  of 
the  other  large  rivers  of  the  State,  until  it  passes  into  Louisiana. 

In  the  black  prairie  region  the  valley  of  the  river  is  very  narrow,  the  high 
limestone  bluffs  often  approaching  near  the  water's  edge.  In  Cooke  County  these 
bluffs  are  275  feet  high,  and  are  formed  of  the  rotten  limestone  (cretaceous)  of  the 
central  prairie  region.  On  the  north  side  of  the  river,  in  the  Indian  Territory, 
the  river  lands  are  broader  and  are  partly  under  cultivation  by  whites ;  but  to  the 
west,  on  either  side  of  the  river,  scarcely  any  cultivated  lands  are  found.  From 
the  "lower  cross  timbers,"  in  the  eastern  part  of  Cooke  County,  eastward  to  the 
Louisiana  line,  the  bottom  lands  increase  in  width  and  are  among  the  richest  in 
the  State.  They  are  heavily  timbered  with  cottonwood,  pecan,  walnut,  black  oak, 
hackberry,  mulberry  and  white  hickory,  and  have  a  dense  undergrowth  of  cane. 

Besides  the  low  sandy  overflowed  lands,  there  are  two  general  classes  com- 
prising the  bottoms  and  occupying  terraces  above  each  other,  viz:  First  bottom 
of  red  sandy  or  clayey  land,  and  second  bottom  of  dark  or  black  loam  lying  about 
10  feet  above  the  first  and  at  the  foot  of  the  bluff  or  uplands.  These  two  bottoms 
are  peculiar  only  to  those  Texan  rivers  whose  sources  are  in  the  region  of  the 
Llano  Estacado  on  the  northwest,  viz:  Colorado,  Brazos  and  Red  Rivers,  as  well 
as  the  Canadian,  North  Fork  and  Arkansas  Rivers  of  the  Indian  Territory.  The 
soil  characters  mentioned  by  Michk-r  continue  down  the  river,  the  red  sands  and 
clays  of  the  first  bottom  being  derived  from  the  red  sandstones  and  red  lands  of 
the  northwest  region.  This  first  bottom  soil  is  of  two  varieties — a  deep  red  sandy 
loam  overlying  a  red  clay  subsoil,  and  a  red  waxy  clay  with  a  subsoil  of  the  same 
character.  Both  are  highly  productive  and  subject  to  occasional  overflow,  being 
from  10  to  20  feet  above  low  water.  This  red  land  terrace  is  at  first  rather  narrow, 
but  becomes  wider  toward  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  State. 

The  black  loam  terrace,  about  10  feet  above  the  first,  is  known  as  the  second 
bottom,  and  is  very  level.  Its  soil  is  of  a  light  and  loose  nature,  rather  silty,  and 
darkened  by  the  long  accumulation  of  decayed  vegetation.  At  the  foot  of  the 
limestone  bluff  in  Grayson  County  it  is  stiff  and  rather  waxy,  but  this  is  a  local 
feature  only.  The  entire  bottom  of  the  river  is  from  one  to  two  miles  in  width, 


332  TEXAS. 

and,  though  comprising  some  of  the  finest  lands  of  the  State,  a  large  proportion 
is  still  covered  with  its  original  timber  growth.  Cotton  is  one  of  the  chief  crops, 
growing  from  four  to  six  feet  in  height,  and  yielding,  under  proper  management, 
a  bale  of  500  pounds  of  lint  per  acre,  even  after  many  years'  cultivation. 

Sabine  River  Land*. — The  bottom  lands  of  Sabine  River,  from  its  headwaters 
as  far  cast  as-  Cass  County,  are  of  a  dark  and  heavy  waxy  nature,  quite  wide  and 
well  timbered,  but  subject  to  overflow,  and  are  not  under  cultivation.  Thence  to 
its  mouth  this  waxy  feature  is  destroyed  by  the  intermixture  of  sand,  a  dark  sandy 
loam  covering  the  wide  undulating  bottoms,  which  are  here  above  overflow,  and 
are  timbered  with  post  oak  and  short-leaf  pine.  Cotton  is  largely  planted  on 
these  lands  (except  in  the  extreme  southern  counties),  grows  to  a  height  of  from 
five  to  seven  feet,  and  yields,  it  is  claimed,  1,500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

Trinity  River  Lands. — The  extreme  headwaters  of  the  Trinity  River  are  in 
Jack  County,  but  a  short  distance  west  of  the  central  black  prairie  region.  The 
lands  of  the  river  bottoms  are  therefore  derived  chiefly  from  the  sandy  uplands 
adjoining  the  streams,  and  are  of  a  dark  loamy  or  silty  character  until  near  the 
eastern  limit  of  the  black  prairies,  from  which  point  southward  there  is  a  thick 
deposit  of  black  waxy  clay  over  the  silt.  The  bottoms  of  the  upper  division  of 
the  river  are  well  timbered  with  oak,  elm,  pecan,  black  walnut,  bois  d'arc  (known 
also  as  Osage  orange),  honey  locust,  hackberry  and  cottonwood. 

The  lands  are  rich,  but  are  not  very  generally  under  cultivation,  being  more 
or  less  subject  to  overflow.  They  are  said  to  produce  in  ordinary  seasons  1,000 
pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

In  this  part  of  the  State  there  are  broad  prairie  valley  lands  on  either  side  of 
the  Trinity  bottom  several  miles  in  width,  bounded  by  the  high  bluff's  of  rotten 
limestone.  At  the  foot  of  the  ridges  the  soil  is  usually  stiff  and  waxy,  but 
becomes  more  and  more  sandy  toward  the  river,  with  heavy  beds  of  sand  in  some 
places.  The  valley  lies  beautifully  for  agricultural  purposes,  is  gently  undulating, 
and  is  apparently  easy  of  cultivation.  A  growth  of  mesquite  occurs  occasionally 
on  the  prairie.  Very  little  of  the  valley  is  in  actual  cultivation. 

The  bottoms  of  the  middle  and  southern  portions  of  the  river  have  widths 
varying  from  one  to  five  miles,  and  are  heavily  timbered  with  red,  burr  and  pin 
oaks,  pecan,  ash  and  cottonwood,  with  cypress  on  the  south. 

The  lands  immediately  adjoining  the  river  are  light  and  silty  in  character, 
but  further  back  they  are  a  heavy  and  waxy  black  clay  several  feet  in  depth,  and 
are  underlaid  usually  by  sand.  They  are  very  difficult  to  till  in  wet  wreather,  and 
produce  excellent  crops  of  corn,  cotton  and  sugar-cane.  Cotton  grows  six  or 
eight  feet  high,  and,  it  is  claimed,  produces  from  1,500  to  2,000  pounds  of  seed 
cotton  per  acre. 

Brazos  River  Lands. — The  lands  of  the  Brazos  River  are  considered  the  best 
and  most  valuable  in  the  State,  and  are  the  most  extensive  of  the  river  lands. 
The  source  of  the  river  is  at  the  foot  of  the  Llano  Estacado,  and  for  a  distance  of 
300  or  400  miles  the  river  cuts  its  way  among  the  gypsum  beds,  sandstones  and 
limestones  of  the  northwestern  region,  carrying  down  with  its  waters  the  red 
sands  and  clays  which  go  to  form  the  first  bottom  lands  along  its  entire  course  to 
the  coast. 

The  bottom  lands,  before  the  river  enters  the  black  prairie  region,  are  rather 
narrow,  the  bluff's  often  coming  to  the  bank  of  the  stream.  They  are  not  gener- 
ally heavily  timbered,  mesquite  trees  being  the  prevailing  growth  in  many  places. 
The  soil  is  a  red  sandy  loam,  except  near  the  gypsum  beds,  where  it  is  said  to  be 
whitish  in  color.  The  water  of  the  river  in  this  northwest  region  is  somewhat 
salty,  and  salt  incrustations  are  frequently  found  on  some  of  the  rocks  in  the 
streams. 


TEXAS.  333 

The  bottom  lands  of  the  river,  after  leaving  this  region,  may,  for  description, 
be  conveniently  divided  into  two  sections — the  first  extending  to  Richmond,  in 
Fort  Bend  County;  the  second  thence  to  the  coast,  and  known  as  "  the  sugar- 
bowl." 

The  bottoms  of  the  first  division  have  a  width  of  from  one-half  to  two  miles, 
and  are  covered  with  a  heavy  timber  growth  of  cottonwood,  poplar,  black  walnut, 
pecan  and  elm,  and  a  dense  undergrowth  of  cane,  etc.  The  soil  of  the  first  bottom 
is  a  red  alluvial  loam,  quite  deep,  overlying  a  red  clay.  At  30  feet  a  bed  of  "  white 
and  round  quartz  pebbles"  occurs.  That  of  the  second  bottom  is  usually  a  dark 
sandy  loam. 

In  some  of  the  counties  the  red  lands  of  the  first  bottom  are  most  prominent 
and  extensive,  but  both  seem  to  be  equally  productive,  and  are  considered  the 
best  cotton  lands  of  the  State.  A  large  proportion  of  these  bottoms  is  under  cul- 
tivation, but  their  unhealth fulness  hinders  their  settlement.  Cotton  grows  to  a 
height  of  from  six  to  eight  feet,  yielding  about  a  bale  of  lint  or  1,500  pounds  of 
seed  cotton  per  acre.  Corn  also  is  very  productive,  yielding,  it  is  claimed,  as 
much  as  40  or  60  bushels  per  acre. 

Brazos  Delta,  or  "  tlie  Sugar-bowl" — The  lower  division  of  these  alluvial  lands 
is  the  sugar-producing  region  of  the  State.  It  covers  an  area  of  about  9CO  square 
miles,  and  embraces,  besides  the  lands  of  the  Brazos,  those  of  Oyster  and  San 
Bernard  Creeks  on  either  side. 

The  region  is  perfectly  level,  heavily  timbered,  has  a  dense  undergrowth,  and 
lies  from  20  to  30  feet  above  the  common  water-level  of  the  river. 

The  soils  of  the  region  present  three  different  varieties,  viz :  The  red  alluvial 
loam,  immediately  adjoining  the  river  and  the  two  creeks ;  ash  and  elm  flats  lying 
next  to  this ;  and  finally,  the  black  wild  peach  lands. 

The  red  loam  lands  are  considered  the  best,  because  of  their  excellent  drain- 
age, easy  tillage  and  great  fertility.  They  occur  in  belts  from  one-half  to  a  mile 
in  width,  or  in  bodies  containing  from  100  to  1,000  acres  each.  They  have  a  depth 
of  about  30  feet,  the  color  of  the  soil  changing  somewhat  at  18  inches. 

Canebrakes  cover  the  land,  the  timber  growth  being  cottonwood,  ash,  elm, 
pecan,  sycamore,  hackberry,  and  a  variety  of  oaks.  Cotton  grows  to  a  height  of 
from  five  to  ten  feet,  and  yields  about  2,000  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre,  botli 
when  fresh  and  after  50  years'  cultivation. 

The  ash  and  elm  lands  have  a  stiff  black  soil,  and  are  18  inches  deep,  with  a 
dark  subsoil  not  so  stiff.  The  timber  growth  is  principally  elm  and  ash.  The 
lands  are  flat  and  poorly  drained,  and  do  not  seem  to  be  much  under  cultivation, 
though  producing,  it  is  claimed,  as  much  as  1,500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

The  black  peach  lands,  while  black  in  color,  are  sandy  in  character,  and  occur 
interspersed  in  small  areas.  They  have  a  soil  18  inches  in  depth  and  a  lighter 
subsoil,  and  are  easily  tilled  and  best  adapted  to  sugar-cane.  They  have  a  growth 
of  wild  peach,  pecan,  live  oak  and  hackberry,  and  are  in  part  prairie.  Cotton 
grows  very  high  on  these  lands,  and  it  is  claimed  will  produce  as  much  as  2,500 
pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

Sugar  is  the  chief  production  of  the  sugar-bowl  region,  the  yield  upon  5,340 
acres  for  the  year  1879,  according  to  the  census  returns,  being  4,443  hogsheads, 
with  355,573  gallons  of  molasses.  The  average  yield  per  acre  was  eight-tenths  of 
one  hogshead  of  sugar  and  66.5  gallons  of  molasses. 

Colorado  River  Lands. — The  sources  of  the  Colorado  and  of  its  western  tribu- 
tary, the  Concho,  are  among  the  western  hills  and  broad  plains  and  table-lands  of 
the  Llano  Estacado.  For  a  distance  of  several  hundred  miles  its  waters  flow 
among  the  sandstones  and  limestones  of  the  western  region  with  an  easterly 


334  TEXAS. 

course  to  the  black  prairie  region,  then  turn  southward  along  its  border  to  the 
lower  edge  of  Burnet  County,  and  thence  east-southeast  to  the  coast. 

The  bottom  lands  of  the  river,  from  its  source  to  the  black  prairie  region,  are 
narrow,  with  many  and  frequent  high  bluffs  near  the  stream. 

On  entering  the  more  level  lands  of  the  prairies  the  bottom  lands  become 
wider,  and  thence  to  the  coast  have  widths  varying  from  one-half  to  a  mile  or 
more.  This  includes  the  valley  or  second  bottom  lands,  the  first,  or  bottoms 
proper,  being  narrow  and  more  or  less  subject  to  overflow  in  high- water  seasons. 
The  bottoms  have  a  large  timber  growth  of  white  and  pin  oaks,  elm,  ash,  cotton- 
wook,  sycamore,  pecan  and  hackberry,  with  usually  a  dense  undergrowth  of  cane, 
etc.  The  lands  are  for  the  most  part  a  reddish  loam  or  silt  several  feet  in  depth, 
underlaid  by  clay.  Near  the  uplands  on  either  side  the  lands  are  darker,  and  in 
the  black  prairie  region  stiffer  and  more  clayey  in  character.  South  of  Columbus, 
in  Colorado  County,  they  resemble  the  lands  of  the  sugar-bowl  or  Brazos  allu- 
vium, and  properly  belong  to  it.  Cotton  is  the  chief  crop  on  the  bottom  lands  of 
the  river,  the  stalk  growing  from  five  to  seven  feet  high,  and  yielding  from  1,500 
to  2,000  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

San  Saba  River  Lands. — The  lands  of  the  San  Saba  River,  a  tributary  of  the 
Colorado,  comprise  narrow  and  timbered  bottoms  along  the  banks  of  the  stream — 
mesquite  valleys,  with  both  red  gravelly  soils  and  black  loamy  and  clayey  soils, 
reaching  back  to  the  hills.  These  valleys  afford  the  chief  farming  lands  of  that 
section. 

Guadalupe  River  Lands. — The  bottom  lands  of  the  Guadalupe  River  are  not 
very  extensive  or  wide,  and  have  a  timber  growth  of  cottonwood,  pecan,  ash, 
oaks,  mulberry  and  hackberry,  with  a  variety  of  undergrowth.  The  soil  is  mostly 
a  sandy  loam  from  10  to  15  inches  deep;  the  subsoil  a  yellow  clay,  sometimes 
jointed  in  character.  The  valley  lands  are  in  some  places  broad  and  open,  with  a 
mesquite  growth  and  a  dark  calcareous  soil.  Cotton  grows  from  five  to  seven 
feet  high,  and  yields  about  1,500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

San  Antonio  River  Lands. — The  bottom  lands  of  the  San  Antonio  River  are 
narrow  and  unimportant.  Its  valleys  have  in  some  counties  a  width  of  one  and 
a-half  miles  and  a  growth  (in  Wilson  County)  of  elm,  hackberry,  pecan,  ash  and 
mesquite.  In  the  counties  near  the  coast  the  river  flows  between  high  banks  of 
white  clay-stone,  or  adobe,  along  which  there  is  usually  a  growth  of  pecan  trees 
and  mesquite. 

Nueces  River  Lands.— The  Nueces  River  is  mainly  confined  to  the  thinly 
inhabited  southwestern  section  of  the  State.  In  San  Patricio  County  its  bottoms 
have  a  growth  of  live  oak,  cottonwood,  ash,  elm,  hackberry  and  willow,  and  a 
blac-k  alluvial  soil.  Its  valley  lands  seem  to  be  preferred.  They  have  a  growth  of 
mesquite  and  "  wesatche,"  and  a  light  sandy  soil,  which  is  easily  tilled. 

Rio  Grande  River  Lands. — The  bottom  and  valley  lands  of  the  Rio  Grande 
River,  from  its  headwaters  southward  to  Edinburg,  Hidalgo  County,  are  narrow, 
and,  so  far  as  known,  are  unimportant,  the  hills  of  the  uplands  coming  to  the 
river  banks  very  often.  From  Edinburg  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  these  lands 
wriden  out  rapidly,  and  embrace  those  of  the  Sal  Colorado,  which  stream  is  said  to 
be  but  an  outlet  of  the  Rio  Grande  in  high  water,  and  runs  off  almost  at  right 
angles  to  it. 

The  valley  from  Brownsville  northward  has  a  width  of  50  miles. 

The  soil  of  the  Rio  Grande  valley  contains  an  extraordinary  percentage  of 
potash,  a  large  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  and  a  very  large  amount  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  The  percentage  of  humus  is  also  great,  and  the  soil  has  a  large  retentive 
power  for  moisture.  Altogether,  this  soil,  which  is  easily  tilled,  seems  to  be 
nearer  what  may  be  thought  to  be  a  "  perfect  soil "  than  any  other  in  the  State. 


TEXAS.  33i 

PRODUCTIONS. 

COTTON. — Texas  now  stands  at  the  head  of  the  cotton-growing  States,  having 
produced  in  1883  1,326,000  bales,  against  1,064,000  bales  raised  in  Mississippi,  the 
next  highest  State. 

CORN  is  the  next  most  important  crop  in  Texas.  In  1879  that  crop  occupied 
2,468,587  acres,  or  32  per  cent,  of  the  lands  under  cultivation,  and  exceeding  the 
area  of  cotton  by  130,017  acres.  In  1884  the  acreage  of  corn  was  3,752,700  and 
the  number  of  bushels  raised  60,290,000.  The  lands  of  Western  Texas  seem 
specially  adapted  to  the  growth  of  corn,  and  under  a  proper  system  of  cultivation 
the  present  average  yield  per  acre  could  probably  be  more  than  doubled. 

WHEAT. — Texas  is  destined,  for  many  reasons,  to  play  a  great  role  as  a  wheat- 
growing  State.  Her  area  is  large,  her  soil  fertile,  the  product  earlier,  the  quantity 
good,  and  raised  in  a  climate  that  will  enable  her  flour  to  defy  Western  competi- 
tion in  future  markets  of  large  consumption.  An  Ohio  paper  says  on  this  point: 

"  That  West  Texas  will  be  an  important  wheat  and  other  grain-producing 
district  we  feel  assured  by  two  facts:  The  adaptability  of  its  soil  and  the  growing 
demand.  The  profitableness  of  wheat  growing  in  Texas  is  evidenced  by  several 
considerations.  The  price  of  wheat  in  Europe  in  some  measure  fixes  the  price  in 
New  York,  and  the  price  there  determines  the  price  in  Chicago,  St.  Louis  and 
other  Western  centers.  From  any  railroad  point  in  Texas  the  farmer  can  ship  his 
-wheat  to  New  Orleans  or  Galvoston  for  five  or  ten  cents  less  per  bushel  than  he 
can  send  it  from  Iowa  or  Illinois  to  New  York,  and  when  at  New  Orleans  or 
Galveston  the  rate  per  ton  is  as  cheap  as  from  New  York  or  Baltimore  to  Liver- 
pool, thus  giving  the  Texas  wheat  raiser  an  advantage  of  five  to  ten  cents  per 
bushel  on  the  price  of  his  wheat  over  the  States  now  regarded  as  the  great  wheat- 
producing  districts.  Then  the  wonderful  immigration  creates  a  local  demand  for 
wheat  that  sustains  a  good  price.  It  is  just  that  we  state  that  the  rainfall  is 
increasing  annually,  and  this  question  of  irrigation  may  be  regarded  as  a  very 
temporary  one." 

The  acreage  in  wheat,  according  to  the  last  census,  was  373,570,  and  the  yield 
5,567,760  bushels.  In  1884  the  acreage  was  556,600,  and  5,560,600  bushels  were 
raised. 

The  fact  that  the  product  per  acre  of  cereals  is  lower  in  Texas  than  in 
Western  or  Northern  States  is  not  because  Texas  is  less  fertile  than  they,  or  less 
adapted  to  these  cereals ;  it  is  the  fault  of  the  prevailing  system  of  farming.  As 
a  recent  writer  has  said : 

"  The  farmers  of  Texas  are  too  prodigal  of  the  broad  acres  of  rich  soil  they 
possess.  They  lay  out  farms  of  unreasonable  width ;  skim  over  them  with  imple- 
ments that  are  not  suited  to  thorough  cultivation ;  scatter  seed  without  order  and 
cultivate  without  system ;  so  that,  with  few  exceptions,  the  farms  are  overgrown 
with  weeds  and  grass  that,  of  course,  greatly  impair  the  growth  of  crops,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  want  of  deep  plowing  and  thorough  tillage.  Put  this  soil,  with 
its  extraordinary  adaptation  to  the  growth  of  such  a  great  variety  of  crops,  and 
this  climate,  so  congenial  to  the  growth  of  all  kinds  of  stock,  into  the  hands  of 
New  England  or  Pennsylvania  farmers,  who  would  at  once  subdue  and  eradicate 
all  vegetation  but  the  crops  that  are  planted ;  who  would  plow  deep  and  thor- 
oughly pulverize  the  soil,  and  such  crops  would  be  raised  as  are  not  to  be  found 
in  countries  where  millions  are  annually  expended  for  commercial  fertilizers. 

"  The  wheat  fields  of  Texas  are  replacing  those  which  are  being  exhausted  in 
the  North,  and  the  steady  movement  towards  the  region  where  it  can  be  the  most 
cheaply  produced,  and  to  a  perfection,  because  of  the  long  and  uniform  seasons,  is 
daily  increasing." 


^36  TEXAS. 

OATS. — The  significance  of  the  growth  in  the  production  of  oats  will  not  be 
understood  unless  it  be  remembered  that  this  cereal  is  largely  dip-placing  corn  as  a 
food  for  stock,  thus  leaving  the  latter  to  enter  the  market  more  as  a  money  pro- 
ducer— an  article  for  sale  rather  than  consumption  on  the  farm.  Again,  the 
expansion  in  the  production  in  hay  and  the  increasing  area  given  to  the  cultivated 
grasses  are  factors  for  which  due  appreciation  is  hard  to  elicit,  and  about  which 
we  cannot  get  satisfactory  statistics. 

Oats  are  worth  from  50  to  75  cents  per  bushel.  The  red  rust-proof  is  the 
common  one — very  superior  in  every  respect.  From  30  to  100  or  more  bushels 
per  acre  are  raised,  varying  with  soil,  season,  culture,  etc. 

The  area  cultivated  in  oats,  as  shown  by  the  census  of  1880,  was  238,010 
acres,  and  the  yield  4,893,359  bushels.  In  1884  this  had  grown  to  478,510  acres 
and  10,527,000  bushels. 

BARLEY  and  RYE  are  raised  to  some  extent. 

SUGAR  CULTURE. — The  sugar  belt  proper  of  Texas  embraces  the  counties  of 
Brazoria  and  Matagorda,  both  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  Fort  Bend 
and  Wharton  Counties,  lying  immediately  north.  These  counties  contain  not  less 
than  2,000,000  acres  of  choice  alluvial  cane  lands,  with  an  abundance  of  timber 
for  fuel  to  use  in  sugar  manufacturing  purposes. 

In  the  last  census  Texas  was  credited  with  4,951  hogsheads  of  sugar  and 
810,605  gallons  of  molasses.  Of  this,  Brazoria  County  produced  of  the  former 
2,440  hogsheads;  of  the  latter  175,530  gallons.  As  sugar-cane  is  not  "a  principal 
crop,"  according  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  nothing  is 
found  for  1884.  Of  course,  the  product  has  increased. 

RICE  is  another  product  not  a  "  principal  crop  "  either ;  so  no  figures  can  be 
given  as  to  it  since  1880.  The  total  crop  then  was  62,152  pounds  for  the  census 
year.  There  can  be  no  good  reason  why  much  of  the  Texas  coast  region  will  not 
prove  a  superb  rice  area ;  and,  indeed,  a  very  large  area  elsewhere  will  certainly 
produce  fine  upland  rice. 

TOBACCO. — In  the  Agricultural  Report  for  1884  no  statement  is  made  of  the 
tobacco  crop  of  Texas.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  State  does  not  or  cannot 
raise  tobacco — only  that  it  is  not  an  article  of  commerce.  It  is  raised  only  in  a 
small  way  and  for  family  use.  The  soils  and  climates  of  many  of  the  counties  of 
the  State  are  adapted  for  tobacco,  and  the  wonder  is  more  is  not  raised,  especially 
considering  that  there  is  so  much  fresh  soil  in  the  State.  The  crop  for  the  census 
year  was  221,283  pounds. 

FRUIT  CULTURE. 

Under  this  head  I  quote  the  following: 

"In  that  portion  of  Texas  lying  within  50  miles  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
known  as  the  coast  region,  tropical  and  semi-tropical  fruits  may  be  grown. 
There  are  occasional  years  when,,  even  at  Galveston,  damage  is  done  by  frost,  but 
a  very  little  protection  will  suffice  to  carry  trees  through.  Upon  the  northern 
edge  of  this  coast  belt  the  orange  is  longer  in  coming  to  bearing,  but  after  it  has 
reached  this  ripe  age,  say  eight  to  ten  years,  it  will  stand  the  coldest  weather. 
The  25th  and  26th  of  December,  1879,  are  among  the  coldest  days  known  to  the 
oldest  inhabitants  of  Houston,  and  certainly  the  severest  in  the  suddenness  of  the 
changes;  yet  but  few  orange  trees  were  killed.  Bananas  that  had  been  stripped 
of  leaves  and  covered  with  a  sack  of  Canton  flannel  or  cotton  cloth,  came  out  at 
the  top  with  the  first  days  of  spring,  and  were  bearing  by  the  first  of  June. 
Immediately  upon  the  coast  the  grape  bears  as  luxuriantly,  but  is  not  as  long 
lived  as  further  north.  The  White  and  Golden  Chasseles  and  Hamburg  come  to 
perfection  in  the  open  air.  The  native  varieties  which  are  common  to  all  Southern 
Texas  bear  abundantly.  Strawberries  thrive  well,  especially  upon  the  bays  near 


TEXAS.  337 

the  coast.  Peaches  of  very  early  bearing  kinds  are  grown  upon  the  shell  lands, 
but  have  not  proven  reliable  fruit,  even  within  50  miles  of  the  coast.  The  native 
plum  never  fails.  The  pomegranate  thrives  and  bears  well.  Almonds  and  dates 
are  in  good  state  of  growth.  There  is  one  date  tree  in  Houston  now  bearing.  In. 
all  that  portion  of  Texas  lying  south  of  30°  north  latitude  the  tropical  fruits  are 
possible  if  protected  during  the  cold  months,  but  it  is  only  south  of  the  latitude 
of  Houston  that  they  can  be  grown  with  profit. 

"In  the  whole  region  south  of  the  parallel  of  30°  30',  lying  between  the 
Trinity  and  San  Antonio  Rivers,  except  south  of  the  latitude  of  Houston,  all 
fruits  common  to  the  temperate  zone  do  well,  except  apples,  cherries,  gooseberries 
and  currants.  Apples  are  grown,  but  mainly  summer  varieties. 

"  Central  and  Northern  Texas,  embracing  the  region  lying  between  the  par- 
allels of  30°  30'  and  34°  north  latitude,  and  between  the  eastern  border  and  Colo- 
rado River,  is  as  fine  a  fruit  region  as  the  sun  shines  upon." 

GRASSES. 

The  following  on  "Grasses  and  Forage  Plants"  of  Texas  is  part  of  a  paper 
read  before  the  Southern  Immigration  Association  at  its  annual  meeting  in  March, 
188-"),  and  is  from  the  pen  of  J  F.  Joor,  M.  D.,  of  Texas,  an  eminent  scientist: 

"  In  this  line  the  Texas  State  exhibit  far  surpasses  that  of  any  other  one  State, 
although  the  collection  is  very  incomplete,  there  being  only  30  or  40  specimens 
from  the  vast  region  west  of  the  Colorado  River.  We  have  on  exhibit  218  species, 
and  named  varieties  of  graminecB,  76  of  cyheraceal  and  six  of  forage  plants.  The 
most  important  of  these  are : 

"  Texas  millet  (Panicum  Texanunx),  of  which  we  have  a  bundle  6  feet  3  inches 
high;  goose  grass  (P.platyTiyllum)-,  crab  grass  (P.  sanguinale),  5  feet  10  inches 
long;  barn-yard  grass  (P.  Crus-galli),  7  feet  2  inches;  Milo  grass  (Paspalum  com- 
presmm);  Bermuda  (Cynodon  Dactylori),  6  feet;  Johnson  grass  (Sorghum  Hala- 
pense),  8  feet  2  inches;  marsh  grass  (Spartina  rolystachya),  11  feet;  reed  grass 
(Phragmites  Communis\  17  feet  4  inches;  red  clover  (Trifolium prateme),  38  inches; 
alfalfa  (Medicago  sativa),  30  inches;  Japan  clover  (Lespedeza  striata). 

u  Texas  blue-grass  undoubtedly  affords  the  best  winter  and  spring  pasturage, 
remaining  fresh  and  green  throughout  the  cold  season.  Accounts  differ  as  to  its 
endurance  of  the  summer  sun.  Some  assert  that  it  dies  down  in  hot  dry  weather, 
while  others  claim  that  it  does  not  even  wilt  when  nearly  everything  else  is  in  a 
dying  condition  from  drouth;  and  one  farmer  affirms  (I  quote  his  exact  words): 
'After  hard  trying  40  years,  this  is  the  first  and  only  grass  I  ever  had  that  I  would 
recommend  as  a  winter  grass  that  (does)  not  die  out  in  summer.'  I  mj^self  have 
seen  very  little  of  it. 

"  Red  and  white  clover  do  well  on  the  clay  soils  of  Southern  Texas,  and 
afford  fine  grazing  in  late  winter  and  spring,  but  die  down  in  summer.*  They  do 
not  succeed  well  on  sandy  lan<Js. 

"Japan  clover  is  naturalized  in  Eastern  Texas.  Mr.  Winstead  says  that  it 
'will  propagate  on  rich  or  poor  uncultivated  land,  stands  drouth  well,  bears  con- 
tinuous grazing  without  injury,  spreads  rapidly,  and,  when  it  may  be  desirable  to 
cultivate  the  land,  is  easily  gotten  .rid  of.'  My  own  somewhat  limited  observations 
go  to  confirm  these  statements. 

"For  summer  growth  in,  drouthy  regions  the  best  grasses  undoubtedly  are 
Bermuda,  Johnson  and  Milo.  The  two  first  named  are  liable  to  the  serious  objec- 
tion that,  when  once  established,  it  is  nearly  or  quite  impossible  to  get  rid  of 
them.f  This  does  not  apply  to  the  Milo  grass.  This  resembles  Bermuda  in  its 

*A  common  matter  in  most  of  the  South. — M.  B.  H. 

flf  one  wants  to  get  rid  of  Bermuda, ^sow  the  seed  of  Lespedeza.  striata — Japan  clover — and 
refrain  from  pasturing  two  or  three  years.  The  soil  will  be  incredibly  enrichedtand  the  Bermuda 
eradicated.— M.  B.  H. 


338  TEXAS. 

running  habit,  but  1ms  a  much  wider  leaf.  It  is  scattered  pretty  well  tli rough 
Southeastern  Texas,  though  very  few  farmers  or  stockmen  seem  to  have  noticed 
it,  and  I  do  not  know  of  any  one  who  can  supply  seed  or  roots. 

"  Johnson  grass  yields  an  immense  amount  of  hay,  but  unless  cut  veiy  young 
it  is  coarse.  It  may  be  cut  live  or  six  times  a  year. 

"The  best  pasture  for  the  whole  year  that  I  have  seen  was  clover  sown  (in 
the  fall)  on  broken  up  Bermuda  sod.  The  clover  remained  green  pretty  much  all 
winter  and  spring,  and  by  the  time  it  died  down  the  Bermuda  w;is  ready  to  take 
its  place,  lasting  till  the  clover  sprang  up  again.  (In  the  article  on  Mississippi 
much  can  be  found  of  the  way  these  two  grasses  supplement  each  other. — M.  B.  H.) 
Clover  and  Texas  millet,  crab  grass  and  Texas  blue-grass,  and  Japan  clover,  are 
combinations  worth  trjang  for  this  purpose. 

"  On  the  gulf  coast  the  immense  thickets  of  rank  marsh  and  reed  grasses 
(Spartina  and  Phragmites),  afford  fine  pasturage  the  year  round.  They  are  very 
coarse,  but  our  Texas  cattle  relish  them  and  thrive  on  them. 

"The  most  abundant  prairie  grasses  in  Eastern  Texas  are  the  species  of 
Andropogon,  MiMeribergia,  Setaria  and  (in  poor  soils)  Aristida,  Further  west 
Beuchloe  and  Boutelona  are  frequent.  In  the  wooded  districts  the  numerous 
species  of  Panicum  constitute  a  large  percentage  of  the  grasses." 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  United  States  Agricultural  Reports: 

"For  a  permanent  pasture  grass  the  Texas  blue-grass  (Poa  arachntfera) 
promises  to  be  one  of  the  very  best  grasses  yet  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
South.  It  is  a  strong,  deep-rooted  grass,  with  an  abundance  of  foliage,  and 
seems  to  possess  all  of  the  characteristics  necessary  for  a  grass  to  be  successful 
in  most  parts  of  the  South.  It  grows  in  woods  or  open  prairie,  and  thrives  upon 
a  variety  of  soils,  poor  as  well  as  rich,  but  has  not,  so  far  as  reported,  been  tried 
upon  a  dry,  sandy  soil.  This  grass  seems  worthy  of  earnest  consideration  by  all 
interested." 

"I  call  it  Texas  blue-grass,  and  if  it  were  possible  to  patent  it,  I  would  not 
give  it  for  all  the  mineral  wealth  or  Texas.  I  find  it  is  spreading  rapidly  over  the 
country,  and  I  claim  for  it  all  and  more  in  Texas  than  is  awarded  to  the  Poa 
pratensis  in  Kentucky.  It  seems  to  be  indigenousj  to  all  the  prairie  -country 
between  the  Trinity  River  and  the  Brazos  in  our  State.  It  blooms  here  about  the 
last  of  March  and  ripens  its  seeds  by  the  15th  of  April.  Stock  of  all  kinds,  and 
even  poultry,  seem  to  prefer  it  to  wheat,  rye,  or  anything  else  grown  in  the  winter. 
It  seems  to  have  all  the  characteristics  of  the  Poa  pratensis,  only  it  is  much  larger, 
and  therefore  affords  more  grazing.  I  have  known  it  to  grow  10  inches  in  10  days 
during  the  winter.  The  coldest  winters  do  not  even  nip  it,  and  although  it  seems 
to  die  down  during  summer,  it  springs  up  as  soon  as  the  first  rains  fall  in  Septem- 
ber and  grows  all  winter.  I  have  known  it  in  cultivation  some  five  years  and 
have  never  been  able  to  find  a  fault  in  it.  It  will  be  ready  for  pasture  in  three  or 
four  weeks  after  the  first  rains  in  the  latter  part  of  August  or  first  of  September. 
I  have  never  cut  it  for  hay.  Why  should  a  man  want  hay  when  he  can  have  green 
grass  to  feed  on?  With  a  pasture  well  set  in  this  grass  you  cannot  run  after  your 
cows  fast  enough  to  get  them  to  eat  hay  in  our  coldest  weather.  Very  few  of  our 
farmers  are  paying  any  attention  to  grass,  but  most  of  them  are  raising  cotton  to 
the  exclusion  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  &c.,  and  I  am  convinced  it  will  take  some  very 
severe  lessons  in  experience  to  teach  them  that  grass  is  the  main  stake  in  agricul- 
ture, either  as  hay  or  pasture." 

STOCK  RAISING. 

CATTLE. — A  rapid  revolution  is  taking  place  in  cattle  raising  in  the  State  of 
Texas.  There  are  many  aspects  in  this  change.  One  feature  obtaining  more  and 


TEXAS  339 

more  is  the  grading  up  of  cattle.  This  is  becoming  quite  common.  Large 
numbers  of  thoroughbred  Short  Horn  and  Hereford  bulls  have  been  introduced 
within  the  last  few  years.  Their  value  is  up  in  the  millions  of  dollars.  The 
Hereford  is  preferred  as  being  a  better  "  rustler."* 

The  narrowing  of  the  range  by  fencing  and  the  encroachments  of  population 
are  other  great  changes  in  the  cattle  business. 

The  "  drive"  will  most  probably  be  a  thing  of  the  past  in  a  few  years.  The 
trouble  on  the  trail,  quarantine  and  other  matters  will  soon  end  the  ''drive"  busi- 
ness. The  Texas  people  will  soon  learn  the  folly  of  sending  their  young  cattle  to 
Kansas,  Colorado,  etc.,  to  be  fed  on  corn,  and  to  permit  the  farmers  of  the  latter 
States  to  make  the  bulk  of  the  money.  They  will  keep  at  home  their  steers,  and 
fatten  them  on  home-raised  corn,  hay,  and  wild  and  cultivated  grasses. 

What  seems  to  the  writer  one  of  the  most  significant  factors  in  the  swiftly 
changing  aspects  of  the  Texas  cattle  business  is  the  comparatively  new  movement 
of  sending  cattle  from  Texas  by  rail  to  St.  Louis,  Chicago  and  Kansas  City  (lately 
to  some  extent)  via  New  Orleans.  A  cheap  through  rate  is  made;  the  cattle  are 
fed  and  watered  at  proper  times,  and  reach  market  in  far  better  condition  than  by 
the  "drive."  I  say  that  the  movement  is  very  portentous,  and  is  believed  to  be 
the  beginning  of  a  revolution. 

First,  it  will  strike  a  great  blow  at  Kansas  as  the  cattle  fattener  of  Texas, 
thus  depriving  the  former  State  of  a  large  source  of  revenue,  and  a  large  and 
profitable  way  in  which  to  dispose  of  her  cheap  corn  and  hay. 

Next,  it  will  bring  into  competition  with  Kansas  States  nearer  the  great 
markets  for  fat  steers.  Cattle  dealers  will  repair  to  St.  Louis  and  Chicago  to  buy 
these  young  steers  to  raise  and  fatten.  They  wTill  hire  the  blue-grass  pastures  of 
Missouri,  Illinois  and  other  States  upon  which  to  fatten  and  raise  them.  As  they 
can  buy  them  so  much  more  cheaply  than  they  can  similar  animals  at  home,  they 
will  soon  compete,  in  a  lively  manner,  for  them,  and  enhance  their  value. 

The  farmers  of  these  States  will  enter  the  market.,  too,  to  buy  arid  fatten,  and 
will  diminish  the  supply,  j>/'0  fan-to,  of  these  cattle,  which  would  else  have  come 
from  Kansas  fat. 

And  the  demand  will  enlarge.  Cattle  dealers  from  Ohio  and  Indiana  will  be 
in  the  field.  These  cattle  will  move  farther  east.  The  owners  of  blue-grass  pas- 
tures in  these  last  two  States  will  enter  the  market  to  buy  these  Texas  cattle. 

Bye  and  bye,  cattle  dealers  and  the  owners  of  broad  acres  of  clover  and  blue- 
grass  in  the  States  of  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio,  will  repair  to  Texas  to 
buy  these  cattle  on  the  soil  of  Texas,  and  their  competition  will  enhance  the 
prices  of  cattle  greatly  in  the  last  State;  and  as  the  best  cattle  will  be  most 
.sought  after  by  these  purchasers  from  these  States,  great  improvement  in  cattle 
will  be  more  rapidly  promoted,  until,  in  a  few  years,  a  genuine  Texas  steer  will  be 
a  curiosity  and  found  only  in  museums. 

The  Texas  cattle  raisers,  seeing  the  point,  will,  more  and  more,  "  ripen  "  their 
own  steers — high  grades — at  home,  on  their  own  cheap  lands,  with  home-raised 
corn,  home-made  hay,  and  broad  acres  of  one  and  another  of  the  cultivated 
grasses,  to  send  by  cheap  rate  to  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Indianapolis,  Cincinnati  and 
other  markets. 

Very  soon  these  Texas  cattle  raisers  will  befinvading  the  European  markets 
with  their  cattle,  for  there  are  Galveston  and  New  Orleans  right  at  their  doors, 
and  no  long  railroad  trips,  as  to  New  York  and  Boston,  from  the  far  West.  And 
then  will  come  the  era  of  dressed  beef  for  Europe  in  refrigerators  from  these 


*The  Hereford  has  an  aptitude,  too,  to  fatten  on  grass  without  other  food;  has  great  hardihood, 
activity  and  self-reliance  in  time  of  need.  I  do  not  undertake  to  say  that  he  will  surpass  the  Short 
Horn  where  both  are  largely  corn  fed ;  his  superiority  is  on  the  "  range." 


840  TEXAS. 

ports  of  Galveston  and  New  Orleans  for  these  "ripened"  Texas-raised  cattle. 
And  this  will  make  possible  another  great  epoch— beef  canning  in  Texas.  The 
best  beef  being  sent  to  Europe  in  refrigerators,  the  other  portions  can  be  canned 
in  Texas.  How  can  a  beef  canner  in  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis  or  Chicago  compete 
with  one  in  Texas  who  buys  the  cheaper  steers  of  Texas,  when  the  latter  is  so 
near  to  the  ocean  with  his  refrigerated  beef?  Need  one  figure  on  higher  cost  of 
buildings  in  these  cities  as  compared  with  Texas;  of  lo\ver  price  of  cattle  in 
Texas  with  their  lower  price  of  land;*  milder  climate;  proximity  to  sea? 

Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  see  why,  when  Texas  shall  raise  her  high  grades ; 
raise  her  corn  and  cultivated  grasses  to  "  ripen"  them,  she  cannot  send  her  choice 
parts  of  these  steers  in  refrigerated  cars  to  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  etc.,  and  can  her 
inferior  parts  of  the  animals  on  the  soil  of  Texas.f 

I  have  spoken  theoretically  of  the  tendency  and  effects  of  the  shipping  of 
cattle  to  St.  Louis  and  Chicago.  It  has  become  quite  a  business  for  Western  cattle- 
men to  repair  to  Texas  and  buy  for  the  drive,  and  something  considerable  has 
been  done  in  shipping;  and,  as  has  been  said,  as  the  "  drive"  seems  doomed,  ship- 
ping will  be  the  only  way  out,  except  canning  and  refrigeration  become  partners. 
It  may  be  that  Kansas,  Colorado  and  other  States  will  see  the  detriment,  and 
quarantine  be  lifted ;  but  I  think  the  revolution  is  inaugurated. 

'  These  "drives"  are  affairs  of  magnitude.  Last  year,  for  one  of  45,000  head 
into  Colorado,  a  force  of  40  men  and  400  horses  was  required.  The  journey  takes 
from  60  to  90  days. 

In  Caldwell,  Kansas,  last  year,  "  through  "  Texas  cattle  sold  as  follows : .  For 
good  straight  steers,  $16  for  "ones,"  $20  for  "twos"  and  $26  for  "threes,"  and 
upwards.  Prices  in  Texas  this  year  were  very  low  and  the  stockmen  discouraged 
by  quarantine,  but  are  now  better.  Good  yearlings  could  be  had  on  the  ranch  at 
$8 ;  in  instances,  in  bunches  of  50  and  75,  they  could  be  had  at  $6  to  $7  each.  A 
sale  of  2,500  3-year  olds  and  up  was  made  to  a  party  from  Kansas  City,  Missouri, 
at  $22  each,  to  be  delivered  at  Wichita  Falls.  Another  sale  was  made,  delivered 
near  Lockhart,  of  "  ones  "  and  "  twos  "  at  $8  and  $11.  At  Sherman,  a  sale  of  2,000 
"  threes "  and  "  fours,"  one-half  each,  was  effected  at  $20.  At  San  Antonio,  fat 
"  two,"  in  car-load  lots,  were  selling  at  $10.  They  were  shipped  to  New  Orleans. 
At  Victoria,  1,000  head  of  fat  cows  and  100  beeves  were  purchased  and  sent  to 
Chicago,  the  prices  being  $16  for  former  and  $20  for  latter. 

The  fluctuations  in  prices  for  the  past  few  years,  the  quarantine,  the  trail 
troubles,  should  teach  the  Texas  stockmen,  and  will,  to  grade  up  more  and  more, 
get  in  cultivated  grasses,  and  ripen  their  own  cattle. 

The  cattle  business  in  Texas  is  scattered  over  the  vast  prairies  of  the  Pan- 
handle, in  the  prairies  of  the  coast  counties,  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rio  Grande, 
the  Conchos  and  the  Pecos  Rivers.  A  few  years  ago  the  cattle  ranges  almost 
covered  the  State,  but  the  influx  of  population  has  pushed  the  business  westward 
into  the  less  populated  portion.  The  fencing  furore  is  a  recent  affair,  and  at  one 
time  threatened  to  be  a  very  serious  matter,  but  is  now,  happily,  about  settled. 

In  stating  that  the  cattle  business  is  scattered  over  the  prairies  of  Western 
Texas,  this  is  said  only  by  way  of  eminence  It  is  quite  certain  that  Texas  con- 
tains a  very  respectable  number  of  herds  of  thoroughbred  registered  cattle  that 

*It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  grazing  only  pays  a  low  rate  of  interest  on  the  investment  in  high- 
priced  lands  in  many  of  the  States  North,  and  yet  it  is  considered  one  of  the  best  uses  to  which  to  put 
these  lands. 

t"  It  is  estimated  that  during  the  year  1884  about  300,000  cattle  were  driven  from  Texas  to  Northern 
ranges,  to  be  there  matured  for  marketing,  and  that  about  625,000  beef  cattle  were  shipped  from  Texas 
to  the  markets  of  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis,  Chicago  and  New  Orleans." — Joseph  Nimmo,  Jr.  Of  these, 
many  were  slaughtered  for  canning  in  the  former-named  cities.  The  reason  why  Texas  can't  kill  and 
can  profitably  in  competition  is  because  she  has  no  large  demand  for  the  best  part  of  the  beef  at  high 
prices,  as  have  Chicago  and  the  others.  Were  she  to  refrigerate  her  best  beef,  however,  this  difficulty 
would  be  measurably  obviated. 


TEXAS.  341 

are  disseminated  through  the  more  populous  parts,  and  receive  a  treatment  the 
very  reverse  of  the  rovers  of  the  range.  It  would  be  hazardous  to  give  a  conjec- 
ture as  to  the  relative  standing  in  point  of  numbers  of  these  thoroughbred  herds 
in  Texas.  It  is  quite  certain  that  there  is  large  room  for  thoroughbred  herds  of 
Herefords  and  Short  Horns  for  grading  up  the  Texas  natives  for  beef,  and  for 
Jerseys,  Holsteins  and  Ayrshires  for  butter  and  cheese.  Nor  do  I  mean  to  offer  a 
slight  to  the  polled  Angus  and  the  Galloway.*  It  seems  to  the  writer  that  there 
must  be  a  great  chance  for  the  crosses  of  these  breeds  with  native  stock,  more 
particularly  as  the  cultivated  grasses  come  in  and  the  necessity  for  "  rustlers " 
diminishes;  and  it  would  seem  that  there  must  be  an  opening  to  originate  distinct 
breeds  by  crosses  of  these  last  two  with  the  natives — breeding  out  the  horns  of 
the  last,  and  embodying  their  hardiness  and  aptitude  to  fatten  on  grass,  and  incor- 
porating the  "  chunkiness  "  and  beef  quality  of  the  Angus  and  Galloways. 

Undoubtedly,  dairying  is  yet  to  be  a  very  considerable  and  lucrative  industry 
in  Texas.  It  is  quite  a  reproach  to  a  State  in  which  cattle  raising  is  such  a  pro- 
digious vocation  that  in  many  places  a  glass  of  milk  is  a  curiosity  and  good  butter 
unattainable.  However,  the  largeness  of  the  opportunity  will  offer  such  incen- 
tives to  embarking  in  the  industry,  that  it  will  soon  be  considerable. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  seriously  misleading  not  to  mention  that  one  great  reason 
why  the  raising  of  thoroughbred  cattle  in  Texas  offers  such  opportunities  for 
lucrativeness  is  in  the  fact  that  such  cattle,  unless  acclimated,  incur  awful  deci- 
mation. Acclimated  thoroughbreds  of  the  beef  breeds  are  near  the  great  market 
of  demand,  affording  two  greatest  advantages — largeness  of  demand  and  incon- 
siderable cost  of  transportation ;  and  there  is  this  novel  feature— that  for  a  long 
time  to  come  increased  supply  will  create  increased  demand,  for  the  reason  that 
increased  confidence  in  the  success  of  acclimated  thoroughbreds  will  incite  to 
their  use.  There  is  a  wise  and  pervading  dread  of  unacclimated  cattle  of  this 
character,  because  of  the  great  losses  incurred  in  them  by  pioneers;  but  as  pro- 
gressive breeders  and  those  who  are  opposed  to  change  see  the  good  results  from 
the  use  of  thoroughbreds  acclimated,  they  will  more  and  more  adopt  the  latter. 

Acclimated  thoroughbreds  of  the  milk  strains  will  be  in  demand,  because 
butter  and  cheese  must,  for  many  years,  find  in  Texas  one  of  the  best  markets  in 
the  world,  because  it  is  one  of  the  most  rapidly  populating  localities  in  the  world, 
is  susceptible  of  such  multifarious  industries,  and  will  some  day  become  the 
theatre  of  such  vast  consumption  of  the  products  of  such  vocations,  in  being 
largely  a  mining  area  and  engaged  in  manufacturing  textiles. 

As  to  the  quality  of  the  Texas  beef  and  the  characteristic  of  the  native  cattle, 
I  learn  that  the  Chicago  market  will  show  that  1,000  pony  Texas  steers  have 
brought  a  higher  price  per  pound  and  realized  as  large  a  gross  sum  as  did  1,200 
pound  "half-breeds"  on  the  market  the  same  day,  taken  from  the  same  range  the 
same  day.  The  reason  is  said  to  be  that  the  Texans,  with  one-eighth  Short  Horns 
or  Herefords,  take  on  fat  and  "ripen,"  while  the  others  only  grow. 

The  following  extracts  are  from  a  "Report  in  Regard  to  the  Range  and 
Ranch  Cattle  Business  of  the  United  States,"  by  Joseph  Nimmo,  Jr.,  and  just 
issued  by  the  Treasury  Department  of  the  United  States : 

"The  total  number  of  cattle  in  the  State  of  Texas  is  the  result  of  a  careful 
estimate  upon  the  subject  by  Mr.  George  B.  Loving,  of  Fort  Worth,  and  Mr.  D. 
W.  Hinkle,  of  San  Antonio,  Tex.  The  assessment  rolls  of 'the  State  for  1884  give 
as  the  total  number  6,517,524  cattle,  valued  at  $81,052,616;  but  the  gentlemen  just 
named  agree  in  the  belief  that,  owing  to  unavoidable  errors  in  the  report  of  the 
comptroller  of  public  accounts,  the  total  number  may  be  stated  at  9,000,000,  and 
their  value  at  $153,000,000.  *  *  * 

*An  occasional  Brahma  bull  has  been  introduced  to  cross  on  the  native  cattle  for  beef. 


342  TEXAS. 

"  The  total  number  and  value  of  cattle  in  the  United  States,  in  the  State  of 
Texas,  and  in  the  range  and  ranch  cattle  area  north  of  Texas,  is  therefore  as 
follows : 

NO.  OF  CATTLE.     VALUE  OF  CATTLE. 

The  United  States 49,417,782  $1,189,577,000 

The  State  of  Texas 9,000,000  1 53,000,000 

The  range  and  ranch  cattle  area  north  of  Texas 7,5oo,ooo»  187,500,000 

"About  half  of  the  area  of  the  State,  including  the  eastern  portion  not 
embraced  in  the  range  and  ranch  cattle  area,  has  been  taken  up,  and  is  now  being 
cultivated  as  farms.  In  this  part  of  the  State  cattle  are  raised  as  domestic 
animals,  being  generally  provided  with  food  and  shelter  in  the  winter.  The 
range  and  ranch  portion  is  also,  to  a  considerable  extent,  settled  up  by  farmers, 
especially  the  eastern  and  southern  portions  of  the  State." 

The  range  and  ranch  cattle  area  starts  on  the  coast  a  few  miles  east  of  Mata- 
gorda,  trending  northeast  with  a  semi-circular  sweep  a  feyv  miles  east  of  San 
Antonio;  thence,  with  a  reversing  curve,  trending  north-northeast  a  few  miles 
west  of  Austin,  a  few  miles  east  of  Lampasas,  a  few  miles  west  of  Waco,  a  few 
miles  west  of  Dallas,  and  sweeping  nearly  east,  just  beyond  the  river,  to  Denison, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  State. 

"The  distinction  between  the  'range'  and  the  'ranch'  cattle  business,  herein 
observed,  is  that  the  former  designation  applies  to  the  raising  and  fattening  of 
cattle  upon  public  lands,  or  upon  unfenced  lands  generally,  where  the  herds  of 
different  proprietors  freely  range  and  intermingle;  whereas  the  'ranch'  cattle 
business  is  carried  on  within  inclosures  belonging  to  cattlemen,  on  which  only 
their  own  cattle  graze. 

"  The  State  of  Texas  is,  in  a  marked  degree,  a  cattle-breeding  State.  Its 
climate  is  well  suited  to  that  industry,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
calves  of  range  cows  are,  under  the  prevailing  custom  as  to  breeding,  dropped  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year.  Not  only  do  the  cows  of  Texas  have  more  calves  during 
their  lifetime  than  cows  upon  the  ranges  of  the  Northwestern  Territories  of  the 
United  States,  but  of  the  total  number  of  cows,  a  larger  proportion  have  calves 
each  year ;  also,  of  the  calves  dropped,  a  larger  proportion  survive  in  Texas  thap 
upon  the  more  northerly  ranges  and  ranches.  Differences  of  opinion  exist,  how- 
ever, as  hereinbefore  mentioned,  as  to  the  relative  advantages  of  Texas  as  v 
breeding  State  for  cattle.  *  *  *  It  is  asserted  that  the  State  of  Texas  hae 
to-day  as  many  breeding  cows  as  all  the  other  States  and  Territories  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River  together. 

"  The  capacity  of  the  range  and  ranch  lands  of  the  United  States  for  grazing 
cattle  differs  widely  in  the  several  States,  Territories  and  sections,  as  the  result  of 
differences  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  nutritious  grasses  produced,  the  water 
supply,  and  the  extent  to  which  natural  shelter  is  available  for  cattle  during 
storms.  In  Texas  from  five  to  thirty  acres  of  land  per  head  are  required,  and 
on  the  Northern  ranges  almost  the  same  differences  are  observable  in  different 
localities. 

"  The  ultimate  limit  of  the  capacity  of  the  entire  range  and  ranch  cattle  area 
of  the  United  States  for  grazing,  and  the  magnitude  of  its  possible  annual  pro- 
duct, can,  of  course,  only  be  ascertained  from  the  results  of  experience.  It  is 
evident  from  the  best  available  information  that  the  number  of  cattle  on  ranches 
and  ranges  in  Texas  might  be  greatly  increased.  Mr.  George  B.  Loving,  of  Fort 
Worth,  Tex.,  in  reply  to  inquiries  addressed  to  him  by  this  office,  expresses  the 
opinion  that  by  providing  reservoirs,  sinking  artesian  wells  and  destroying  the 
prairie  dogs,  which,  in  certain  parts  of  the  State,  consume  a  larger  quantity  of 
the  nutritious  grasses  than  is  consumed  by  cattle,  the  number  of  range  and  ranch 
cattle  pastured  in  that  State  might  perhaps  be  doubled. 


TEXAS.  343 

"  The  Texas  fever,  its  cause  and  its  pathology,  are  yet  involved  in  mystery. 
*  *  *  Its  cause,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  undoubtedly  persistent,  and  yet  it  is 
not  invariable  as  to  the  circumstances  attending  its  appearance.  It  is  endemic 
rather  than  epidemic.  The  lowlands  bordering  upon  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are 
undoubtedly  the  locality  of  its  origin.  This  infected  area  is  believed  to  embrace 
somewhat  more  than  one-half  of  the  State  of  Texas.  *  *  * 

"  So  long  as  cattle  born  and  raised  in  this  gulf  section  remain  there,  Texas 
fever  is  unknown  among  them ;  but  when  they  are  driven  or  transported  to  the 
northern  part  of  Texas,  or  to  the  States  and  Territories  of  the  Northwest,  they 
communicate  the  disease  to  the  cattle  of  these  more  northern  latitudes.  Such 
infection  of  Northern  cattle  appears  to  be  invariably  the  result  of  their  walking 
over  or  feeding  upon  the  trails  along  which  Texas  cattle  have  passed.  The 
Southern  Texas  cattle  on  their  way  North,  in  most  cases,  suffer  a  constitutional 
disturbance  apparently  attributable  to  change  of  food  and  climate,  but  it  is  said 
that  usually  they  are  not  affected  by  what  is  distinctively  known  as  'Texas'  fever. 
This  appears  to  involve  the  apparent  paradox  of  their  imparting  a  disease  which 
they  themselves  do  not  have.  Nevertheless,  there  is  a  consensus  of  opinion  among 
careful  observers  indicating  that  this  is  really  the  case,  and  the  opinion  appears  to 
command  popular  belief. 

"The  theory  now  generally  held  is,  that  the  cause  of  the  disease  exists  in  a 
latent  state  in  the  cattle  of  Southern  Texas,  under  conditions  of  climate  and  food 
which  produce  no  impairment  of  the  health  of  the  animal,  but  that  during  migra- 
tion towards  the  North,  such  latent  cause  of  disease  passes  off  in  fecal  matter,  and 
is  inhaled  or  taken  into  the  stomachs  of  the  Northern  animal^  when  they  feed 
upon  the  ground  over  which  the  Texas  cattle  have  passed.  In  other  words,  the 
disease  is  believed  to  be  an  incident  of  a  changed  condition  in  Texas  cattle  by 
acclimatization.  It  is  also  a  pretty  well  established  fact  that  it  is  not,  at  least  to 
any  great  extent,  contagious.  It  is  held  by  many  that  no  animal  which  has  taken 
the  disease  from  the  trail  can  communicate  it  to  his  fellows  who  have  not  been 
upon  the  trail. 

"The  general  testimony  appears  to  be  to  the  effect  that  Texas  cattle  driven 
North  have  never  communicated  the  disease  to  other  cattle  north  of  the  South 
Platte  River,  nor  to  cattle  in  the  State  of  Colorado.  It  has  been  assumed  there- 
fore that  the  disease  is  limited  as  to  the  sphere  of  its  manifestation  both  by 
latitude  and  elevation.  It  is  also  the  accepted  theory  that  the  cause  of  the 
disease  is  eliminated  from  the  systems  of  the  Southern  Texas  cattle  while  'on  the 
trail'  from  their  place  of  nativity  to  the  ranges  of  the  North.  It  is  also  a  well- 
established  fact  that  herds  driven  slowly  are  Very  much  less  likely  to  communicate 
the  disease  to  the  cattle  in  the  northern  part  of  Texas  and  to  other  Northern 
cattle  than  when  driven  rapidly.  Experience  also  proves  that  the  disease  is  much 
more  likely  to  manifest  itself  during  the  months  of  June,  July,  August  and  Sep- 
tember than  during  the  other  months  of  the  year.  That  cattle  driven  from  the 
State  of  Texas  gradually  lose  the  power  of  imparting  disease  as  they  proceed 
North,  and  that  the  limits  of  the  area  of  infection  have  been  approximately  deter- 
mined, appear  to  be  facts  pretty  well  established. 

"  According  to  the  best  estimate  which  can  now  be  made,  there  have  been 
about  2,000,000  young  cattle  driven  from  Texas  to  Northern  ranges  during  the 
last  seven  years,  which  at  $15  a  head  would  amount  to  $30,000,000.  The  'drive' 
of  the  year  1884  was  about  300,000,  which  at  $17  a  head  amounted  to  $5,100,000. 
These  figures,  the  best  which  can  be  obtained,  are  of  course  only  rough  approxi- 
mations. They  clearly  indicate,  however,  a  large  demand  at  the  North  for  young 
Texas  cattle,  and  a  supply  adequate  to  meet  such  demand.  The  movement  has 
been  about  as  regular  as  commercial  movements  are  generally,  the  tendency,  on 


344  TEXAS. 

the  whole,  being  in  the  direction  of  progress.  It  is  asserted  upon  apparently  good 
authority  that  fully  one-half  of'the  blood  of  all  the  cattle  on  the  Northern  ranges 
to-day  is  of  the  Texas  strain.  Many  persons  largely  engaged  in  the  cattle  trade 
at  the  North  and  the  cattle  raisers  of  Texas  generally  maintain  that  Texas  must 
in  the  future  hold  the  position  of  a  breeding  ground,  and  the  Northern  ranges 
that  of  a  maturing  and  fattening  ground ;  but  that  view  is  controverted  by  a 
majority  of  the  herdsmen  of  the  North,  and  especially  by  those  engaged  in  the 
business  of  raising  cattle  and  of  improving  the  breed  of  Northern  range  cattle." 

SHEEP. — The  business  of  raising  sheep  in  Texas  has  become  one  of  great 
magnitude;  as  to  that  there  can  be  no  doubt.  As  to  its  profitableness,  that  is 
another  question.  It  is  quite  certain  that  heavy  losses  have  been  incurred,  and 
many  raisers  have  become  quite  dispirited.  It  is  certain  that  a  vast  improvement 
can  be  made  in  many  respects,  and  the  loose  mode  in  which  the  business  is  con- 
ducted is  an  explanation  of  many  of  the  great  losses.  Indifferent  herding, 
"  northers,"  scab,  lack  of  shelter,  poor  rams,  too  little  attention  to  grading,  too 
large  flocks,  non-selection  of  ewes,  failure  to  properly  select  wools,  twice-a-year 
shearing,  improper  shearing,  etc.,  etc.,  are  fruitful  causes  of  loss. 

The  sheep  common  to  Texas  now  is  a  grade  Merino.  The  Mexican  ewe,  a 
small,  hardy  sheep,  is  crossed  by  a  Merino.  The  "get"  is  a  greatly  improved 
animal,*  both  being  hardy  and  fine  rangers.  These  ewes  can  be  bought  at  from 
75  cents  to  $1.50  per  head. 

The  lands  upon  which  the  sheep  feed  generally  are  either  school  lands,  leased 
from  the  State  for  a  small  consideration  in  annual  rent,  or  lands  rented  of  the 
different  railroad»corporations. 

In  herds  not  too  large,  the  rate  of  increase  is  from  75  to  80  per  cent.  Flocks 
are  grazed  in  herds  of  from  1,000  to  5,000  head,  in  charge  of  a  shepherd.  Some 
flock-masters  build  corrals  of  brush ;  others  have  light  hurdles  into  which  they 
put  their  sheep  at  night.  The  former  is  the  better  mode.  No  feed  is  provided 
except  that  by  nature. 

The  mutton  feature  must  not  be  looked  to  as  a  source  of  much  revenue. 
When  Texas  becomes  populous  and  different  breeds  come  in,  (largely,  I  mean,)  or 
the  raising  of  early  lambs  for  market  becomes  a  business,  other  factors  than  wool 
will  change  the  face  of  affairs. 

Sheep  raising  has  undoubtedly  been  profitable,  but  with  increased  cost  of 
lands,  profits  will  be  largely  decreased,  especially  to  the  present  ownership. 
Then,  many  poor  people  owned  the  sheep,  and  did  not  or  could  not  buy  the  lands 
when  they  were  cheap.  Again,  the  sbeep  fever  prevailing  with  men  a  few  years 
ago  induced  them  to  buy  at  prices  far  in  excess  of  prices  of  to-day. 

A  brief  allusion  was  made  to  shearing  twice  a  year — in  the  spring  and  fall — 
as  being  one  reason  of  injury  to  the  sheep  business  in  Texas.  The  tendency  now 
is  to  one  shearing  a  year.  The  bad  effects  of  cold  weather  after  fall  shearing,  the 
length  of  the  fleeces — better  prices  for  long  fleeces — and  the  wealthier  condition 
of  the  wool  growers,  are  the  explanations  of  this  growing  determination.  The 
liability  to  a  "norther"  with  short  fleece  is  a  feature  not  common  to  the  rest  of 
the  South.  The  fibre  of  the  wool,  too,  is  changed  in  condition  by  the  impairment 
of  the  vigor  of  the  sheep. 

The  day  will  be  likely  to  come  when  the  great  struggle  for  the  woolen  mills 
for  the  New  England  market  and  of  the  country  generally  will  be  between  the 
South  and  Australia.  In  the  Introduction  the  ground  has  been  taken  that  the 
future  will  probably  see  the  South  raising  the  Saxony  sheep,  and  will  find  her  the 

*The  effect  of  crossing  a  Mexican  ewe  shearing  a  pound  of  wool,  if  bred  to  a  pure  Merino  buck, 
will  give  a  lamb  which,  at  a  year  old,  will  produce  "three  pounds  of  wool ;  and  the  produce,  if  an  ewe 
and  bred  to  a  pure  buck,  will  yield  four  and  one-half  to  five  pounds  of  finer  wool.  The  wool  charac- 
teristic in  a  pure  Merino  is  far-reaching  and  enduring. 


TEXAS.  345 

Beat  of  manufacture  of  the  finest  woolen  goods  of  the  world.  Texas  must  play 
her  part  in  this,  but  not,  of  course,  under  the  present  modus  operandi  in  sheep 
culture,  and  not  with  Merinoes.  But  Texas  already  is  a  great  wool  producer  for 
New  England  mills.  Boston  and  St.  Louis  and  Philadelphia  are  all  competitors 
for  Texas  wool,  and  purchasers  from  these  cities  are  to  be  found  in  numbers  at 
the  great  wool  marts  of  the  State.  Prices  at  Abilene,  Tex.,  only  recently  were 
from  12  to  18|  cents  per  pound. 

Texas  has  made  great  progress  in  grading.  It  is  estimated  that  90  per  cent, 
of  her  sheep  are,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  of  Merino  blood.  Some  superb  rams — 
the  highest  bred  from  the  stock  farms  of  Vermont,  New  York  and  elsewhere — 
have  been  introduced  year  by  year  for  some  time,  this  breed  being  adapted  to  the 
climate  and  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  soil,  bearing  extremes  of  weather,  enduring 
a  scarcity  of  food  with  comparative  impunity,  besides  its  great  wool  quality,  &c. 
Such  improvement  has  there  been  in  wool  within  a  few  years,  that  the  clip  of  this 
last  spring — 1885 — has  shown  samples  rated  by  experts  in  the  colonial  staple,  I 
am  informed,  as  Botany  or  Port  Philip  wools.  Time  was  when  Texas  wools  went 
into  Eastern  markets  in  such  condition  as  to  incur  a  shrinkage  of  75  to  80  per 
cent.  The  fleece  was  so  inferior  that  it  was  a  drug  in  the  market,  and  fit  only  for 
the  most  common  felting  purposes;  and  the  fleeces  were  made  up  in  the  most 
unshapely  ways  with  hemps,  "  tags,"  cotton  seed  and  other  trash. 

And  then  the  pasturage  is  being  improved,  and  this  will  obtain  more  and 
more  as  cultivated  grasses  are  introduced  and  areas  are  cut  up  into  small  tracts, 
and  better  care  given  sheep.  Shelters  are  more  and  more  coming  into  vogue, 
water  is  being  provided,  and  even,  in  parts,  hay  is  being  made  to  tide  over  a  short 
season,  where  no  natural  food  is  found,  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  State.  Associa- 
tions are  organizing  where  opinions  as  to  preventing  diseases  are  discussed — scab 
being  most  annoying — and  other  matters  pertinent  to  sheep  husbandry. 

Then,  as  a  most  material  matter,  shipping  facilities  are  being  increased,  and  it 
is  thought  that  through  rates  to  Boston  will  be  made  as  cheap  as  to  St.  Louis,  and 
markets  will  compete  with  each  other  in  offering  prices.  Home  speculators  are 
entering  the  field  to  bid  against  buyers  from  a  distance ;  and  the  raisers  are  get- 
ting wiser  than  to  slaughter  prices,  and  are  abler  to  hold  wool. 

Then,  the  literature  of  the  business  is  increasing  and  improving.  Journals 
devoted  to  pastoral  affairs  are  multiplying  and  receiving  patronage. 

Another  great  aspect  of  improvement  is  the  comparative  freedom  from  burs. 
This  has  been  a  great  pest,  and  the  absence  of  these  is  an  incontestable  proof  of 
the  improvement  in  pasturage. 

And  before  long  there  will  probably  be  great  union  wool  depots  or  exchanges, 
where  a  home  market  can  be  provided ;  where  the  manufacturer  can  deal  with  the 
flock-master  without  intermediates  sharing  the  profits.  At  such  places  the  manu- 
facturers can  send  their  experts  to  select  and  complete  purchases.  Experts  in 
packing  can  make  up  bales  at  the  points  of  these  exchanges  and  send  to  Galves- 
ton,  and  get  cheap  transportation  to  Boston,  Philadelphia  and  elsewhere.*  And 
then,  surely,  woolen  mills  will  multiply  in  the  State,  and  these  can  bid  higher  than 
Eastern  manufacturers  and  help  to  buoy  prices  of  wool. 

A  tendency  to  make  advances  as  a  business  on  wool  is  developing,  seemingly 
mainly  from  St.  Louis.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  may  fail,  in  the  interest  of  the 
State.  It  gives  the  opportunity  to  dictate  prices;  it  allures  to  improvidence;  it 
tends,  almost  inevitably  results,  in  paying  for  this  wool  with  Western  corn,  flour, 
hay,  pork,  lard,  etc.,  thus  discouraging  or  preventing,  pro  tanto,  the  production  of 
these  at  home ;  it  promises,  measurably,  a  continuance  or  restoration  of  all  the 


*Woc 
least,  one 


*Wool-scouring  mills  may  be  looked  for  in  the  future  as  a  help  to  the  wool-growing  interest.     At 
has  been  established,  and  it  is  said  to  be  very  profitable. 


346  TEXAS. 

pernicious  features  of  the  "advancing  system"  to  the  cotton  growers — a  system, 
that  lias  done  more  to  beggar  and  impede  the  material  progress  of  the  South  than 
aught,  possibly  all,  else.  Its  entire  tendency,  when  the  advances  are  made  in  dis- 
tant cities,  is  to  militate  against  the  erection  of  woolen  mills,  thus  discouraging 
the  most  potential  factor  possible  in  promoting  high  prices  for  wool,  and  forbid- 
ding consumers  of  mutton — a  virtual  drag  in  Texas  now — by  future  operatives  in 
the  mills.  Texas  ought  to  be  the  great  theatre  of  woolen  mills  in  the  United 
States;  everything  demonstrates  it.  Let  her  not  erect  a  system  most  vitally 
repugnant  to  it. 

Here  comes  to  mind  a  distinguishing  characteristic  in  the  economics  of 
Texas,  and  a  matter  of  vast  and  incomputable  value — that  is,  that  she  has,  in  her 
cattle  and  wool,  two  immense  sources  of  revenue  at  a  time  when  money  is  gener- 
ally very  "  tight "  in  the  South.  No  one  not  familiar  with  the  cotton  States  of 
the  South  can  appreciate  or  conceive  the  exceeding  scarcity  of  money  there  until 
cotton  comes  in.  Then  times  are  flush.  Money  is  abundant,  and  it  is  spent  like 
water.  It  is  a  freshet  of  funds,  and  soon  all  is  dry  again.  With  the  "  advance 
system"  on  cotton,  the  cotton  States,  in  large  agricultural  areas,  may  be  virtually 
said  to  have  no  money  from  February  to  September.  Everything  is  bought  on 
credit,  and  the  most  ruinous  prices  are  paid.  A  little  while  ago  one  could  buy 
corn  for  cash  in  the  cotton  States  for  90  cents  or  $1  per  bushel,  when,  on  credit,  it 
was  "  advanced  "  at  the  rate  of  $1.25  to  $1.50  per  bushel.  So  on  through.  Now,, 
the  disbursement  of  large  sums  of  money  in  Texas  for  wool  and  cattle  are  pre- 
ventives or  great  alleviatives  of  this,  and  tend  (what  is  of  inestimable  service  as  a 
business  principle)  to  establish  the  cash  system — a  method  of  business  so  badly 
needed  South — thus  inaugurating  and  maintaining  a  powerful,  invigorating  and 
fructifying  principle  in  an  enduring,  indestructible  and  enlarging  focus.  Texas 
thus  becomes  a  great  educator  to  the  rest  of  the  South  by  a  policy  broadly  benefi- 
cent in  its  illustrations  of  the  wisdom  of  diversified  industries,  as  well  as  invigor- 
ating the  body  politic  by  these  golden  currents  poured  through  her  veins — this 
blood  of  nations,  as  it  were. 

According  to  the  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Department  for  1884,  the  total 
number  of  sheep  in  the  United  States  in  January,  18S4,  was  50,626,620.  The 
average  value  of  them  was  $119,902,706.  The  average  price  each  was  $2.37. 

The  number  in  Texas  was  7,956,275;  the  value  was  $17,822,056;  the  average 
price,  $2.24.  California  had  6,203,064;  their  value  was  $11,785,822;  the  average 
price,  $1.90  each.  Ohio  had  5,000,036 ;  their  value  was  $14,650,105 ;  the  average 
price,  $2.93  each.  These  are  the  highest  States  in  the  industry. 

Texas  now  produces  more  wool  than  any  other  State  in  the  Union,  except 
California  and  Ohio.  Abilene,  Colorado,  Corpus  Christi  and  San  Antonio  are  the 
largest  wool  shipping  points,  some  of  them  handling  10,000,000  pounds  a  year. 

It  is  idle  to  attempt  an  estimate  of  percentage  of  losses.  The  Agricultural 
Report  for  1884,  while  computing  the  losses  in  cattle,  is  silent  as  to  sheep ;  and 
then,  such  a  computation,  if  exact,  would  afford  no  criterion  as  to  the  profitable- 
ness or  risks  of  the  business.  The  matter  would  be  perplexed  with  so  many 
obviable  or  varying  conditions,  that  the  naked  facts  of  the  loss  of  sheep  in  any 
given  year  would  be  next  to  valueless  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  fair  idea  of 
the  business.  Exceptional  shortness  of  pastures  in  fall,  severe  winter  weather, 
greater  prevalence  of  disease,  &c.,  all  together  or  separately,  enter  into  results. 
Then,  proper  shelter,  feed,  herding,  etc.,  alleviate  the  above  conditions. 

Texas  is,  in  its  main  area,  one  of  the  best  climates  and  soils  for  sheep.  The 
"  foot "  is  good,  the  food  nutritious,  the  sheep  generally  healthy,  and  as  some  of 
the  native  grasses  disappear  under  the  trying  pasturage  of  sheep,  the  invaluable 
mesquite  succeeds,  rendering  more  food  and  better. 


TEXAS.  347 

As  the  cattle  range  moves  further  north  and  west,  the  sheep  seem  to  succeed 
them,  and  sheep  raising  is  more  and  more  being  combined  with  ordinary  farming 
operations.  About  Midway,  for  instance,  they  are  raising  wheat,  pumping  water 
with  wind-mills,  raising  sheep,  etc.,  in  a  country  considered  almost  uninhabitable 
only  three  or  four  years  ago  for  want  of  water.  Along  through  that  country  and 
further  east — Colorado  City  and  elsewhere — the  ranges  were  covered  with  cattle 
that  have  gone  westward  and  northward  into  the  Panhandle,  and  their  places  are 
now  taken  by  sheep. 

There  is  one  condition  of  affairs  common  to  the  rest  of  the  South  from  which 
Texas  is  fortunately  comparatively  exempt — the  cur  is  not  master  of  the  situation 
in  Texas.  The  sparseness  of  population,  the  system  of  herding,  differentiate  the 
State,  in  the  main,  from  the  South  at  large. 

The  magnitude  of  sheep  husbandry  in  Texas,  the  possibilities  of  it  in  multi- 
fariousness  of  aspect,  are  temptations  to  conjecture.  The  clay  may  come  when 
Texas  will  raise  sheep,  become  the  sheep  nursery,  for  the  Western  States  and 
Territories,  as  she  is  now  their  cattle  nursery.  They  may  be  "drifted"  there 
without  any  trouble  as  to  trail  or  quarantine.  Or,  after  awhile,  Texas  may  get 
into  large  breeds  and  regard  "  muttons."  Then,  it  may  be  that  butchers  and  sheep 
dealers  will  go  there  to  buy  sheep  to  carry  through  the  winter,  and  to  fatten  for 
the  markets  of  the  populous  cities  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  &c. 
Surely,  the  day  will  come  when  it  will  be  a  large  business  to  send  refrigerated 
carcasses  of  fine  fat  sheep  to  these  markets,  and  early  lambs  in  the  same  mode,  as 
well  as  alive,  from  the  State.  And  we  may  hope  for  many  woolen  mills,  and  some 
of  them  making  finest  fabrics  from  the  future  Saxonys  raised  in  the  State. 

MULES  AND  HORSES. — I  have  said  that  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  raise 
fine  stock  in  Texas.  To  know  the  dimensions  of  this  is  impossible  It  may  be 
said  that  it  is  always  going  ahead  too  rapidly  to  keep  pace  with  it.  The  vicinity 
of  Fort  Worth  is  notable  in  this  regard.  Herefords  and  Durhams  are  there  being 
crossed  on  native  cattle.  Fine  jacks  are  being  imported  there  and  elsewhere.  At 
various  points  cheap  pasture  lands  are  inducing  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  mule 
raisers  to  establish  ranches. 

The  large  breeds  of  horses  are  being  introduced.  The  Northwest  Texas 
Norman  Company  are  raising  Normans  on  the  grasses  of  a  good  pasture  as  a 
principal  feed,  and  their  success  demonstrates  the  feasibility  and  profitableness  of 
the  business.  The  Champion  Cattle  Company  of  Texas,  some  time  ago,  bought 
the  noted  Casey,  Adair  and  Salmon  herd  of  cattle  and  horses,  about  32,000  head, 
for  $1,000,000.  Individuals  are  bringing  in  Norman  Percherons  and  fine  Ken- 
tucky saddle  stallions. 

A  moment's  reflection  upon  the  enormous  demand  for  saddle  horses  and 
mules  in  Texas  will  show  the  opportunities  for  those  phases  of  live-stock  breed- 
ing. Men  on  the  ranch  will  want  saddle  horses;  negroes  and  Southern  men  will 
want  mules ;  the  demand  for  large  horses  will  be  active  in  the  towns  and  cities 
for  draft  horses;  and  Western  farmers,  who  are  accustomed  to  large-bodied 
horses,  will  constitute  for  a  long  time  a  great  element  of  demand  for  such 
animals.  The  bare  mention  of  the  fact  of  the  formerly  immense  herds  of  mus- 
tangs in  Texas  subsisting  in  a  state  of  nature,  demonstrates  how  considerable  an 
element  of  sustenance  the  native  grasses  of  the  State  furnish  to  horse-flesh. 

The  Agricultural  Report  of  1884  shows  the  number  of  horses  in  the  State  to 
be  889,063,  and  of  mules  149,121.  The  reader  will  observe  the  number  of  mules, 
and  see  how  it  enforces  the  assertion  as  to  the  demand  for  them  from  Southern 
white  men  and  negroes.  Very  few  of  these  mules  are  home-bred ;  nor  is  it  pos- 
sible to  estimate  how  many  of  them  were  imported  by  the  Southern  white  men 
and  negroes  who  migrated  to  Texas  to  raise  cotton  on  the  fresh  lands  of  the- 


348  TEXAS. 

State.  It  is  a  clear  demonstration,  however,  of  the  use  of  and  demand  for  this 
animal  by  so  large  a  percentage  of  the  population  of  the  State,  and  a  clear  indi- 
cation of  the  large  opportunity  for  breeding  mules  there.  It  must  be  understood 
that  the  horses  are  largely  mustangs,  a  breed  that,  as  valuable  as  it  is  for  frontier 
life,  must  pass  away  with  more  agricultural  methods,  thus  all  the  while  offering 
the  very  best  opportunity  for  raising  horses  of  a  different  type. 

HOGS.— The  last  census  credits  Texas  with  1,950,371  head  of  swine;  her 
population  was  then  1,591,749.  Tennessee,  of  States  considered  in  this  work, 
alone  surpassed  her  in  the  number  of  swine,  possessing  2,160,495.  The  popula- 
tion of  Tennessee  at  the  last  census  was  1,542,359. 

The  number  in  Texas  in  1884,  as  shown  by  the  United  States  Agricultural 
Report,  was  2,011,785.  It  is  probable  that  the  number  has  not  increased  in  pro- 
portion to  population,  for  so  rapid  is  the  influx  of  people,  that  supply  does  not 
keep  pace  with  demand.  But  this  shows  the  opportunity  the  State  offers  to  the 
business,  for  a  large  proportion  of  her  population  are  pork  consumers,  the  census 
of  1880  showing  nearly  20  per  cent,  colored ;  and  as  she  has  a  large  population  of 
Southern  native  whites,  the  demand  for  pork  will  be  very  considerable,  in  propor- 
tion to  population,  for  years  yet.  It  is  also  true  that  much  of  her  population  of 
late  years — Western  farmers  and  Europeans — are  shrewd  enough  to  see  how  great 
is  the  demand  in  the  State  for  pork,  and  will  address  themselves  to  the  oppor- 
tunity of  such  a  demand  and  raise  hogs. 

Outside  of  the  question  of  demand  and  supply  comes  the  query:  "  Is  Texas 
adapted  to  hog  raising  ?"  And  this  question  seems  answered  by  the  fact  of  her 
production.  If  it  were  not  a  practicable  and  profitable  industry,  it  would  not 
have  been  such  a  considerable  one  as  in  1880 ;  would  not  have  progressed  as  in 
1884. 

The  inducements  to  hog  raising  in  Texas  ought  to  be  greater  than  West. 
There  is  the  home  demand,  greater,  out  of  all  comparison,  in  Texas,  in  proportion 
to  population,  than  at  the  West.  The  vast  quantities  of  oak,  hickory,  pecan, 
beech,  "  post-oak  grapes',"  etc.,  in  Texas  offer  great  inducements  to  hog  raising; 
and  as  the  Berkshire  and  grades  of  it  are  excellent  rangers,  hogs  can  be  raised  in 
the  rich  Texas  bottoms,  where  those  trees  abound,  for  nothing  or  next  to  it.  It 
is  admitted  that  these  facilities  are  not  diffused  over  the  whole  State;  but  one 
must  never  forget  the  vastness  of  area  of  Texas,  and  her  hog  ranches  would 
probably  make  as  great  an  area  as  almost  any  State  in  the  Union  in  its  territory 
for  all  purposes.  Some  day  this  great  natural  mast-ground  will  be  well  utilized 
in  hog  raising. 

There  can  be  no  good  reason  why  Texas  should  not  raise  and  market  hogs 
more  cheaply  than  any  Western  or  Northwestern  State.  She  has  already  sent 
some  hogs  to  New  Orleans  and  St.  Louis.  Even  West  and  Southwestern  Texas 
is  being  considered  by  capitalists  as  a  proper  theatre  for  raising  hogs  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  converting  them  into  lard,  not  handling  the  carcass  at  all.  It  is 
claimed  that  there  are  sites  there  that  will  pay  300  per  cent,  on  the  investment. 
And  I  cannot  see  why  the  day  of  pork  packing  may  not  come,  or  the  refrigerator 
system  for  handling  them,  as  beef  is  now  done  in  the  Western  cities. 

THE  ANGORA  GOAT. — This  animal  is  beginning  to  excite  interest  in  the 
South.  Considerable  money  has  been  spent  in  experimenting  with  it,  and  with 
great  success.  Dr.  John  L.  Hays,  whose  name  is  familiar  to  all  readers  of  litera- 
ture on  sheep  husbandry,  has  written  a  work  on  the  topic  of  this  article.  One  of 
the  best  and  largest  herds  of  Angoras  is  in  the  South,  in  Georgia,  and  the  owner 
of  it  has  paid  very  high  prices  for  imported  animals.  This  herd  I  have  visited. 
There  are  one  or  more  considerable  herds  of  thoroughbreds  in  Texas,  and  the 
same  of  grades.  In  Parker  County  there  is  a  herd  of  the  former  of  over  500,  and 


TEXAS.  349 

in  another  part  of  the  State  there  is  a  herd  of  1,500  or  more  of  grades.  Doubtless 
there  are  a  number  of  small  flocks  of  both  thoroughbreds  and  grades  scattered 
over  the  State.  The  Texas  live-stock  journals  are  commending  the  animal  to  the 
public.  The  animal  is  hardy,  thrives  well  in  the  rough  country,  protects  itself 
well,  but  needs  to  be  watched,  as  it  is  a  great  rambler.  With  fifteen-sixteenths  of 
pure  blood,  the  fleece  will  sell  at  from  40  to  62  cents  per  pound,  and  they  will 
shear  six  or  seven  pounds  each. 

The  Angora  goat,  at  its  best,  is  said  to  be  the  most  valuable  of  the  lanigerous 
animals.  The  skin  is  the  Turkey  morocco  of  ancient  commerce,  or,  finished  with 
the  hair  on,  furnishes  mats,  rugs,  robes,  etc.,  of  great  durability  and  beauty,  taking 
all  dyes,  as  do  the  fleeces,  with  the  facility  of  silk.  Its  product  in  fleeces  is  one  of 
the  leading  four  or  five  raw  fibres  of  the  world.  The  future  of  mohair  would 
seem  to  be  very  important.  There  is  great  demand  for  it,  and  if  sufficient  could 
be  had,  many  mills  to  use  it  would  spring  up. 

The  climate  of  Texas  is  said  to  be  favorable  to  the  propagation  of  the  goat, 
and  it  is  credibly  alleged  that  in  certain  localities  in  Texas  the  growth  of  the 
fabric  in  texture  cannot  be  excelled  in  the  native  haunts  of  the  animal. 

The  breed  is  very  prolific — a  characteristic. 

The  flesh  of  the  pure  Angora  is  said  to  be  most  delicious,  upon  a  very  high 
authority  in  the  South. 

With  the  demand  for  hides  for  leather,  and  that  of  the  fleece  for  purposes 
above  enumerated,  it  would  seem  that  there  is  great  scope  for  goat  raising  in  the 
State,  and  the  interest  in  the  business  is  considerable  there.  Western  Texas 
would  seem  to  be  quite  as  eligible  as  California,  and  the  Angora  succeeds  well  in 
the  latter  State.  Indeed,  Texas  has  been  tried  well  enough  to  demonstrate  the 
success  of  the  business. 

As  the  Angora  will  live  in  a  country  where  sheep  will  not ;  as  they  seldom 
die  except  from  old  age ;  as  they  do  not  conflict  with  cattle ;  as  they  are  so  fecund 
and  their  fleece  worth  so  much ;  as,  for  many  years  yet,  there  will  be  a  great 
demand  for  fleeces,  the  business  is  just  waiting  on  the  will,  ready  to  yield  a  most 
remunerative  return  to  those  who  will  engage  ia  it. 

I  have,  perhaps,  given  undue  space  to  this  subject,  but  stock  raising  is  asso- 
ciated with  Texas  in  the  minds  of  the  world  as  Florida  with  oranges  and  Alabama 
with  coal  and  iron.  She  is  par  excellence  the  grazing  State  of  the  Union,  and  it 
has  been  felt  that  much  would  be  expected  in  the  way  of  subject-matter  in  writing 
on  this  topic. 

FORESTRY. 

The  following  is  from  the  Report  of  the  Tenth  Census: 

The  most  important  forests  of  Texas  are  found  in  the  extreme  eastern  part 
of  the  State,  where  the  Maritime  Pine  Belt  of  the  South  Atlantic  region  extends 
to  about  midway  between  the  Trinity  and  the  Brazos  Rivers.  A  forest  of  long- 
leaved  pine  occupies  most  of  the  territory  between  the  Sabine  and  the  Brazos 
south  of  the  31st  degree  of  north  latitude,  reaching  south  to  within  20  miles  of 
the  coast.  Beyond  the  long-leaved  pine  forests,  forests  of  the  loblolly  pine,  mixed 
with  hard  woods,  stretch  westward  50  or  60  miles,  while  north  of  these  two 
regions  a  third  division  of  the  pine  belt,  composed  of  a  heavy  growth  of  short- 
leaved  pine  mingled  with  upland  oaks,  occupies  the  rolling  ridges  which  extend 
northward  to  beyond  the  Red  River.  The  swamps  which  line  the  larger  streams 
flowing  into  the  gulf,  especially  within  the  limits  of  the  pine  belt,  still  contain 
large  bodies  of  cypress.  The  quality  of  the  Texas  cypress,  however,  is  inferior 
to  that  grown  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  probably  one-third  of  the  timber 
growing  in  the  valleys  of  the  Sabine  and  the  Nueces  Rivers  is  "peggy"  or 
affected  by  dry  rot. 


350  TEXAS. 

West  of  the  pine  belt  open  forests  largely  composed  of  post  and  black-jack 
oaks  occur,  gradually  decreasing  in  density,  and  finally,  west  of  the  97th  degree 
of  longitude,  entirely  disappearing.  Farther  west,  however,  the  ''lower"  and 
"upper  cross-timbers,"  two  remarkable  bodies  of  timber  composed  of  small  and 
stunted  specimens  of  these  oaks,  extend  from  the  Indian  Territory  far  south  into 
the  prairie  region,  occupying  long,  narrow,  irregular  belts  where  sandy  or  gravelly 
alluvial  deposits  overlie  the  limestone  of  the  prairie  region.  A  belt  of  forest 
largely  composed  of  post  and  black -jack  oaks,  varying  from  20  to  50  miles  in 
width,  extends  southwest  of  the  Trinity  nearly  to  the  Nueces  River,  its  easte'rn 
border  following  generally,  at  a  distance  of  from  50  to  CO  miles  inland,  the  trend 
of  the  coast.  The  bottom  lands  east  of  the  100th  meridian  are  lined  with  the 
deciduous  trees  which  occupy  similar  situations  in  the  eastern  gulf  States.  Near 
the  coast  the  bottom  lands  of  the  large  rivers,  often  several  miles  in  width,  are 
covered  with  dense  forests  composed  of  enormous  trees.  Farther  west  the 
bottoms  gradually  narrow,  the  number  of  arborescent  species  covering  them 
decreases,  and  individual  trees  are  small  and  stunted. 

West  of  the  Colorado  River  the  forests  of  the  Atlantic  region  are  replaced 
outside  of  the  bottom  lands  by  Mexican  forms  of  vegetation ;  the  hills  are  covered 
with  a  stunted  growth  of  rnesquite,  Mexican  persimmon,  various  acacias,  and 
-other  small  trees  of  little  value  except  for  fuel  and  fencing. 

An  important  tree  in  the  forest  of  Western  Texas  is  the  cedar  covering  the 
low  limestone  hills  which  occupy  hundreds  of  square  miles  north  and  west  of  the 
Colorado  River,  in  Travis,  Bastrop,  Hays,  Comal  and  adjacent  counties.  West  of 
the  100th  meridian  all  forest  growth  disappears,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  scat- 
tered cottonwoods,  elms  and  hackberries,  confined  to  the  narrow  bottoms,  and  a 
shrubby  growth  of  mesquite,  which  covers  the  plains  of  Western  Texas,  furnish- 
ing the  only  fuel  of  the  region.  The  mountain  ranges — outlying  ridges  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains — which  occupy  the  extreme  western  part  of  the  State,  are 
covered  with  an  open,  stunted  forest  of  Western  pines  and  cedars,  with  which 
mingle  the  post  oak,  the  yellow  oak  and  other  species  of  the  Atlantic  region. 

The  pine  belt  covering  the  eastern  counties  of  the  State  is  alone  important  as 
a  source  of  lumber  supply.  Areas  of  river-bottom  land  covered  with  trees  are,  as 
compared  with  the  area  of  the  State,  insignificant  in  extent,  and  these  river  belts 
of  forest  are  entirely  insufficient  to  supply  even  the  mere  local  wants  of  the 
nearest  settlements.  The  oak  forests,  which  stretch  more  or  less  continuously 
between  the  eastern  pine  belt  and  the  treeless  western  prairies  and  plains,  are, 
except  along  their  extreme  eastern  borders,  composed  of  small  stunted  trees,  often 
hollow,  defective,  and  of  little  value  except  for  fuel,  fence  rails  and  railway  ties. 
The  forests  of  the  western  mountains  are  not  luxuriant,  and,  at  the  best,  can  only 
supply  a  limited  local  demand  with  inferior  lumber.  It  is  probably  no  exaggera- 
tion to  say  that  west  of  the  pine  belt,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  small  amount 
of  hard  wood  found  on  the  bottom  lands  near  the  coast,  the  forests  of  Texas  do 
not  contain  a  single  tree  fit  to  manufacture  into  first-class  lumber.  The  pine 
forests,  therefore,  of  Eastern  Texas  and  Western  Louisiana  are  important  factors 
in  the  future  development  of  Texas,  as  well  as  of  the  treeless  northeastern  prov- 
inces of  Mexico,  which  must  draw  their  building  material  from  these  pineries. 
The  position  of  these  forests,  therefore,  with  reference  to  an  enormous  territory 
destitute  of  timber,  although  adapted  to  agriculture  and  grazing,  and  which  must 
:BOon  be  covered  with  a  considerable  population  and  a  net-work  of  railroads,  their 
richness  of  composition  and  the  facility  with  which  they  can  be  worked,  give  to 
them,  perhaps,  a  greater  prospective  value  than  that  possessed  by  any  other  body 
of  timber  of  similar  extent  in  the  United  States. 


77vAM>.  351 

During  the  census,  year  599,359  acres  of  woodland  were  reported  damaged  by 
iire,  with  au  estimated  loss  of  $273,990.  Of  these  fires  the  larger  number  was  set 
to  improve  pasturage,  in  clearing  land  or  through  malice.  These  returns  do  not 
include  the  large  arfas  burned  in  Western  Texas  by  prairie  fires,  checking  the 
growth  of  the  mesquite  over  a  great  extent  of  territory. 

Small  amounts  of  cooperage  stock  and  woodenware,  principally  for  local 
consumption,  are  manufactured  in  the  eastern  courfties  from  oak  and  cypress. 
Manufacturers  report  an  abundant  supply  of  material. 

The  following  rough  estimates  of  the  amounts  of  the  three  kinds  of  pine 
standing  in  the  State  May  31,  1880,  were  made  by  multiplying  the  average  stand 
of  timber  per  acre  by  the  county  areas  occupied  by  the  pine  forests,  these  being 
obtained  by  deducting  from  total  areas  of  the  county  estimated  areas  covered  by 
clearings,  bottom  lands,  swamps,  etc.: 

Long-leaved  pine  (Pinus  Palmtris),  20,508,200,000  feet,  board  measure ;  short- 
leaved  pine  (Pinus  mitis),  20,093,200,000  feet,  board  measure;  loblolly  pine  (Pinus 
Tceda),  20,907,100,000  feet,  board  measure. 

The  principal  centers  of  lumber  manufacture  in  Texas  are  Orange  and  Beau- 
mont, on  the  Sabine  and  Nueces  Rivers,  above  Sabine  Pass.  Long-leaved  pine 
and  cypress  are  sawed  here  and  shipped  east  and  west  by  rail,  and  in  small  quan- 
tities by  schooner  to  Texan  and  Mexican  ports.  Loblolly  pine  is  sawed  at  a 
number  of  small  mills  upon  the  line  of  the  International  and  Great  Northern 
Railroad  in  the  counties  south  of  the  Trinity  River,  and  a  large  amount  of  short- 
leaved  pine  is  manufactured  in  the  mills  upon  the  line  of  the  Texas  Pacific 
Railroad  in  the  northeastern  counties,  Longview,  in  Gregg  County,  being  the 
principal  center  of  this  industry.  The  product  of  these  mills  is  shipped  west  by 
rail  to  supply  settlers  upon  the  prairies  of  Northern  Texas  with  building  material. 

MINERALS. 

Texas  has  been  known  principally  as  a  stock-raising  and  agricultural  State, 
and  the  importance  of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  State,  vast  and  varied,  has 
been  overshadowed  by  the  greater  magnitude  of  these  two  interests.  Now,  how- 
ever, the  value  and  extent  of  her  minerals  are  becoming  more  generally  known, 
and  they  are  receiving  constantly  increasing  attention. 

COAL. 

Coal  exists  in  inexhaustible  quantities.  Dr.  "Wm.  Deryee,  of  Corpus  Christi, 
Texas,  commissioner  in  charge  of  the  geological  and  mineralogical  exhibit  of 
Texas  at  the  New  Orleans  World's  Exposition,  writes: 

The  area  of  the  true  coal  measure  is  estimated  to  be  about  10,000  square 
miles,  and  the  coal  found  in  it  can  be  successfully  used  for  smelting,  for  genera- 
ting steam  and  for  manufacturing  gas. 

Young,  Jack,  Palo  Pinto,  Stephens,  Shackleford,  Eastland,  Callahan,  Brown, 
Comanche,  Coleman,  Taylor  and  portions  of  adjoining  counties  belong  to  the 
true  carboniferous  belt.  The  coals  found  in  more  recent  formations  in  eastern, 
southeastern  and  other  portions  of  the  State  have  less  fixed  carbon,  but  a  very 
large  amount  of  bitumen.  Coke  cannot  be  made  advantageously  from  such  coals, 
but  they  can  be  used  for  the  manufacture  of  gas,  and,  with  improved  furnaces, 
may  be  used  for  smelting. 

Brown  lignite  has  been  discovered  in  a  number  of  localities  in  Texas,  notably 
near  San  Antonio,  where  it  sold  last  year  at  $7  per  ton  retail. 

In  Young  County,  oft  the  line  of  the  Texas  and  Pacific  Railway,  about  three 
feet  of  good  bituminous  coal  has  been  found. 

A  good  bituminous  coal  seam  three  feet  three  inches  thick  has  been  opened 
at  Crystal  Falls,  30  miles  from  the  line  of  above  railroad. 


352  TEXAS. 

In  Wise  County,  10  miles  west  of  Decatur,  in  proximity  to  the  Fort  Worth 
and  Denver  City  Railway,  22  inches  of  clean,  pure  coal,  with  hard  black-slate  roof 
and  fire-clay  bottom,  has  been  fully  exposed.  It  is  reported  that  a  large  area  of 
coal  underlies  Wise  County.  Much  of  the  territory  lying  above  water  level  can 
be  mined  easily  and  cheaply  on  tunnel  plan. 

Coal  mining  has  been  in  progress  four  years  at  Laredo,  the  terminus  of  the 
international  and  Great  Northern  Railroad,  on  the  borders  of  Mexico. 

A  clean  4-foot  seam  of  very  good  coal  is  reported  in  the  precincts  of  Eagle 
Pass. 

There  is  also  coal  in  Jack  County  said  to  be  three  feet  thick.  It  will  need  to 
be  mined  by  either  shaft  or  slope. 

Coal  has  been  exposed  at  Colorado  City. 

IRON   ORES. 

There  are  vast  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  Texas.  The  exhibit  at  the  New  Orleans 
Exposition  included  hematite  and  limonite  from  Cherokee  and  Rusk,  magnetite 
from  Llano,  and  sphserosiderite  or  spatic  iron  from  Archer  County.  Dr.  Deryee 
writes  as  follows: 

In  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  State,  embracing  Cass,  Marion,  Bowie, 
Harrison,  Rusk,  Cherokee  and  other  counties,  the  iron  industry  has  been  in 
successful  operation  for  many  years.  The  Kellyville  Iron  Works  in  Marion 
County  are  an  example.  They  have  been  profitably  worked  for  nearly  20  years. 
The  pig  iron  turned  out  of  the  furnace  of  Wm.  Kelley  is  so  tenacious  that  horse 
shoes  and  horse-shoe  nails  have  been  hammered  out  of  it  by  blacksmiths.  John 
F.  Dickson,  of  Marshall,  Texas,  has  for  a  long  time  made  car  wheels  from  it,  and 
it  is  asserted  that  this  is  the  only  iron  in  the  United  States  from  which  a  market- 
able car  wheeLcan  be  made  without  the  admixture  of  other  ore.  The  belt  of  this 
iron  ore  is  computed  160  miles  long  and  of  an  average  width  of  two  miles.  The 
magnetite  or  magnetic  iron  ore  from  Llano  County  is  the  same  ore  worked  at 
Pilot  Knob,  Missouri,  and  the  ore  of  which  the  best  Swedish  iron  is  made.  It  is 
found  massive  in  the  counties  of  Llano,  Mason  and  Burnet. 

The  following  is  from  Williams'  "  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States," 
under  head  of  Texas : 

MINERAL- 
OGICAL  NAME.         COMMON    NAME.  RBMARKS. 

Limonite Brown  hematite Five  miles  east  of  Calvert,  Robertson  County,  appear  to  be  in 

large  beds ;  Milam  County,  opposite  coal  of  Herndon,  Robert- 
son County;  Young's  Iron  Works,  Cherokee  County,  both 
brown  and  red  hematites  abundant;  eight  miles  south  of  Rusk, 
Cherokee  County,  ore  inexhaustible;  near  McLain's  works, 
north  part  of  Nacogdoches  County;  Nash's  mine,  at  works, 
Cass  County ;  Kelley's  Iron  Works,  five  miles  north  of  Jeffer- 
son, Cass  County;  three  miles  south  of  Palestine,  Anderson 
County,  extensive  bed;  Whitesborough,  Grayson  County; 
Mount  Enterprise,  Rusk  County;  Jacksonville  to  Rusk,  in 
Cherokee  County.  Iron  ores  occur  in  nearly  every  county  in 
State  where  older  tertiary  rocks  prevail. 

Magnetite Magnetic  iron  ore Burnet,  Burnet  County,  thence  southwest  extend  into  Llano 

County,  occurring  in  thick  beds  in  granites;  largest  bed  12 
miles  west  of  Llano,  Llano  County ;  another  large  body  eight 
miles  northwest  of  latter;  none  of  these  deposits  developed  to 
any  extent. 

GRANITE. 

Red  and  gray  granite  is  found  in  abundance  in  several  counties.  Dr.  A. 
Gregg  says  of  the  red  granite  from  quarries  near  Burnet : 

It  has  been  submitted  to  the  severest  tests  and  the  most  critical  examination 
by  experts,  and  has  been  pronounced  first-class  as  to  durability,  strength  and 
adaptability  for  the  construction  of  large  edifices.  Its  color,  having  a  warm  and 
agreeable  dark  red  ground,  relieved  by  crystals  of  quartz,  feldspar  and  mica,  is 


.  TEXAS.  353 

much  in  its  favor.    The  supply  is  practically  inexhaustible.     Sufficient  could  be 
procured  from  this  quarry  to  build  a  city  equal  in  size  to  L.ondon. 

OTHER   MINERALS. 

Marble  is  found  in  large  quantities.  Limestone,  brown  and  gray  sandstone 
exist  in  exhaustless  quantities,  and  are  extensively  used  for  building.  Cement, 
salt,  gypsum,  copper  and  many  other  minerals  are  mined. 

MANUFACTURES. 

No  other  State  in  the  Union  is  making  more  rapid  progress  in  manufacturing. 
From  the  small  beginning  of  a  few  years  ago,  the  industrial  interests  of  the  State 
iave  grown  to  enormous  proportions.  And  this  development  is  in  many  lines  of 
industry.  Flour  mills,  brick  yards,  planing  and  saw  mills,  furniture  factories, 
machine  shops,  canning  factories,  ice  factories,  cottonseed- oil  mills,  handle  facto- 
ries, cotton  compresses — these  are  some  of  the  industries  recently  started.  The 
field,  however,  is  practically  unlimited,  and  there  is  room  for  the  investment  of 
millions  of  dollars  in  manufacturing  enterprises.  The  following  on  this  topic  is 
from  a  recent  issue  of  the  Galveston  News : 

Texas  has  come  to  be  a  great,  populous  State  of  intelligent,  prosperous  and 
progressive  people,  and  presents  the  widest  and  most  inviting  field  known  at  this 
time  for  emigrants,  and,  from  present  prospects,  will  double  her  population  in  a 
very  few  years;  and  with  such  a  vast  territory  of  productive  soil  suited  to  such  a 
great  variety  of  products,  including  a  few  of  the  most  important  minerals,  it  is 
not  at  all  likely  that  she  will  continue  the  great  folly,  the  prodigious  prodigality, 
of  shipping  her  products  over  2,000  miles,  and  even  across  the  ocean,  to  have 
them  manufactured,  and  to  find  a  market  for  the  surplus. 

Truly,  Texas  could  be  the  most  independent,  self-reliant  State  in  the  world  if 
she  could  only  have  any  reasonable  ordering  of  the  productive  system  and  the 
means  of  manufacturing  her  produce  at  home.  With  the  growth  of  population 
that  is  to  ensue  for  the  next  decade,  her  surplus  would  be  nearly  consumed  within 
her  own  borders,  and  as  a  sequence,  she  would  become  the  wealthiest  State  in 
this  inimitable  galaxy,  of  commonwealths.  Hence,  men  of  capital  should  see  and 
understand  all  possible  of  the  profits  to  be  realized  from  manufacturing  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  State  at  home,  that  they  may  be  induced  to  make  investments  in 
manufactories  at  an  early  day. 

While  the  cotton  crop  may  not  be  subject  to  a  heavier  loss  than  any  other 
product  of  our  State,  it  is  the  most  prominent  at  this  time,  and  may  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  nature  of  the  sacrifices  we  make  in  our  mode  of  handling  all.  The 
cotton  crop  may  now  be  averagely  put  down  at  1,200,000  bales  of  500  pounds 
each,  valued  at  $60,000,000.  The  cost  of  transporting  this  crop  to  Northern 
manufacturers  over  2,000  miles,  including  return  freights  on  manufactured  articles 
for  consumption,  is  not  less  than  $10,000,000,  while  the  manufacturers'  profits  may 
be  safely  put  down  at  $10,000,000  more.  These  items  are  approximately  correct — 
as  much  so,  perhaps,  as  round  numbers  may  be  made  to  subserve  the  purpose,  and 
sufficiently  so  to  indicate  pretty  clearly  the  losses  we  sustain  by  not  manufacturing 
our  great  staples  at  home.  The  estimates  show  a  sacrifice  of  33£  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  crop — $20,000,000,  a  sufficient  amount  to  erect  and  equip  all  the  mills  we 
need  for  the  manufacture  of  our  cotton  and  wool. 

The  production  of  wool  is  a  new  but  rapidly  growing  industry.  The  present 
crop  of  this  State  does  not  exceed  30,000,000  pounds,  but  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion on  it  exceeds  cotton  in  proportion,  and  the  manufacturers'  profits  are  greater. 

There  is  no  manufacturing  interest  in  Texas  of  more  importance,  to  the 
extent  of  it,  than  the  manufacture  of  wheat  into  flour  and  bran.  At  least  three- 


854  TEXAS. 

fourths  of  the  flour  consumed  in  the  State  is  imported  from  Kansas,  Missouri, 
California  and  other  States  North,  and  yet  the  annual  product  of  this  State  is 
about  20,000,000  bushels,  of  the  home  value  of  $16,000,000,  two-thirds  of  which  is 
shipped  North.  By  this  disposition  the  bran  and  coarser  grades  of  flour  are 
almost  an  entire  loss,  the  expense  of  transportation  being  nearly  equal  to  the 
market  value,  amounting  to  a  total  deprivation  of  our  people  of  the  articles.  The 
cost  of  shipping  our  wheat  and  reshipping  the  flour  for  consumption,  with  the 
profits  of  manufacturers,  amount  to  at  least  $5,000,000. 

There  are  mills  in  Texas,  but  they  are  .not  supplied  with  the  great  improved 
modes  of  making  flour,  and  they  are  by'no  means  of  capacity  to  manufacture  the 
crop  of  the  State.  What  Texas  wants  is  mills  of  the  highest  order;  mills  that 
can  turn  out  flour  of  the  finest  quality,  of  the  highest  grades,  and  of  capacity 
equal  to  the  manufacture  of  our  whole  crop. 

But  when  we  come  to  the  subject  of  hides,  figures  speak  in  thunder  tones  of 
reckless  waste  and  injudicious  management  of  a  great  staple  commodity;  the 
production  of  an  industry  that  stands  side  by  side  with  agriculture,  and  is  as  old 
as  the  earliest  inhabitants.  As  with  cotton,  on  our  30,000,000  pounds  of  hides  we 
are  subjected  to  the  ordinary  loss  by  expenses  of  transportation,  etc.,  of  3C£  per 
cent.,  to  which  we  may  add  16f  per  cent,  for  profits  secured  to  manufacturers  by 
the  raising  or  watering  process,  that  brings  the  hides  up  to  an  equality  in  value 
with  hides  of  cattle  of  the  most  expensive  rearing. 

But  this  hide  question  does  not  stop  with  manufacturing  them  into  leather. 
Another  profit  is  realized  from  manufacturing  them  into  shoes  and  boots,  and 
another  expense — the  cost  of  transporting  them  back  to  us  for  consumption.  But 
in  this  connection  must  also  be  considered  the  packing  of  beef.  While  the  loss- 
on  hides  manufactured  abroad  is  too  serious  to  be  tolerated,  the  shipping  of  cattle 
adds  to  the  quantity  of  hides  to  the  extent  of  those  thus  disposed  of,  and  if  prop- 
erly considered  in  connection  with  slaughtering  our  beeves  at  home,  we  are 
driven  to  the  conclusion  that,  with  the  increased  facilities  for  making  ice  and 
refrigerating  railroad  cars,  we  should  secure  to  ourselves  the  profits  of  all  this 
diversified  interest  by  establishing  beef  packeries,  putting  up  shoe  and  boot  facto- 
ries and  laying  down  tanneries,  that  we  may  no  longer  be  deprived  of  the  profits 
of  commodities  that  we  can  produce  so  much  cheaper  than'  they  can  be  produced 
in  any  other  State,  and  therefore  afford  better  profits. 

The  material  for  tanning  is  abundant.  The  oak  tree  of  many  species  is  to  be 
found  nearly  all  over  the  State.  The  mesquite  abounds  in  exuberance  in  all  the 
prairies  of  Central  and  Western  Texas,  and  the  sumach  is  very  abundant  in  some 
places. 

And  now  we  come  to  that  which  is  destined  at  an  early  day  to  become  the 
grandest  manufacturing  interest  of  the  State.  The  iron  interest  is  simply 
immense,  and  its  uses  are  daily  increasing.  The  amount  to  be  used  to-day  in  the 
construction  and  repair  of  railroads  and  the  rolling  stock  upon  them  is  enor- 
mous; and  when  we  consider  the  vast  quantities  required  for  agricultural 
building  and  other  purposes,  we  must  begin  to  realize  the  magnitude  of  the 
demand,  while  the  prospect  of  an  increase  of  our  population  must  assure  us  of  a 
great  increase  of  that  demand. 

Iron  is  doubtless  the  greatest  mineral  of  the  State — one  of  her  greatest 
sources  of  wealth.  Great  beds  of  the  richest  ore  are  to  be  found  all  over  the 
State  that  has  been  ascertained  by  tests  and  decided  by  experts  to  be  of  superior 
quality,  unsurpassed  by  any  known  in  Europe  or  America.  In  Eastern  Texas  it 
has  been  worked  for  a  number  of  years  and  proved  to  be  of  high  quality.  In 
Northern  and  Central  Texas  scraps  from  croppings  have  been  picked  up  on  the 
surface  and  hammered  into  bolts  and  nails  without  heating  that'  presented  as  fine 


TEXA8  355 

an  appearance  as  if  it  had  been  smelted.  The  iron  of  the  State  has  been  sub- 
jected to  the  process  of  converting  it  into  steel,  and  has  turned  out  specimens  of 
excellent  quality ;  and  yet  with  this  invaluable  treasure  at  our  doors,  at  our  com- 
mand, at  our  disposal,  nearly  all  the  iron  and  steel  that  have  been  used  in  building 
and  equipping  our  6,000  miles  of  railroad,  fencing  our  millions  of  acres  of  land, 
making  our  iron  fronts  and  ornamental  work,  together  with  our  agricultural, 
milling  and  other  machinery  and  implements,  are  imported,  much  of  it  irom 
Europe,  at  a  heavy  expense  of  freight  and  charges,  to  say  nothing  of  duties. 
The  iron  rails,  angles,  bolts  and  nuts  for  one  mile  of  road  foot  up  120  tons,  and 
the  freight  and  charges  on  it  from  New  York,  Pennsylvania  or  Missouri  amount 
to  about  $5,000.  The  iron  for  the  track  of  6,000  miles  of  road  amounts  to  over 
one  thousand  million  pounds — 500,000  tons,  upon  which  the  freight  and  charges 
are  about  $25,000,000.  We  presume  that  the  wheels,  springs,  axles  and  other 
iron  of  the  rolling  stock,  with  the  other  purposes  of  iron  in  the  State,  will  at 
least  equal  that  amount,  and  add  to  the  freights,  etc.,  of  obtaining  it  from  other 
States  and  countries  $2.~>,000,000  more,  making  the  ite.ni  of  freights  and  charges 
alone  $50,000,000 — an  amount  sufficient,  we  think,  to  induce  the  construction  of 
iron  works  at  an  early  day ;  and  we  hope  it  may,  that  this  great  mineral  resource 
of  our  State  may  be  developed.  It  seems  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  vigilant 
outlook  of  capitalists  and  men  of  enterprise  to  see  this  rich  mine  of  wealth,  this 
fine  opportunity  for  investment,  this  field  that  gives  such  high  promise  for  large 
profits,  overlooked,  while  an  extraordinary  outlay  of  money  is  made  for  the 
freights  alone  on  the  importation  of  an  article  with  which  the  hills  of  the  State 
are  teeming,  and  only  await  the  application  of  money  and  muscle  to  make  it  a 
source  of  profit  equal  at  least  to  the  outlay  that  has  been  made  for  transporting  it 
hither  from  other  States.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  too,  that  the  beds  of  ore  are  found 
mainly  upon  timbered  lands — large  bodies  of  timber  of  a  quality  fit  only  for  fuel ; 
and  besides  this,  there  has  come  to  be  no  question  of  the  existence  of  coal,  and 
that  in  abundance,  and  not  very  remote  from  where  iron  is  found. 

The  western  half  of  the  State  is  supplied  with  water-power  to  which  no 
exception  could  be  taken;  it  is  exceedingly  fine,  and  we  have  no  doubt  but  it 
may  be  found  profitable  to  improve  and  utilize  the  streams  of  the  eastern  half. 
"Wood,*  however,  is  abundant  and  cheap,  and  that  and  coal  may  be  had  for  steam- 
power. 

EDUCATION. 

The  provision  for  education,  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  is  simply  colossal, 
and  the  gigantic  scheme  is  a  towering  and  enduring  monument  to  the  wisdom 
and  beneficence  of  its  inventors.  According  to  the  best  information  my  research 
has  discovered,  the  educational  fund  will,  in  the  end,  be  not  less  than  from 
$80,000,000  to  $100,000,000— the  basis  of  one  of  the  grandest  educational  schemes 
in  the  world. 

"  In  nearly  all  the  recently  organized  western  frontier  counties  few  commu- 
nities are  found  without  their  school-houses  and  schools.  In  the  older  settled 
sections  of  the  State  ample  school  facilities  are  found,  and  many  of  the  larger 
towns  and  cities  can  boast  of  colleges  and  high  schools  approaching,  if  not  equal- 
ing, those  to  be  found  in  the  older  States. 

"For  the  preparation  of  teachers  to  conduct  her  public  schools,  Texas  has 
provided  and  maintains  two  normal  schools,  furnishing  both  board  and  tuition  to 
the  students  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  State;  has  an  agricultural  and  mechanical 
college  already  in  successful  operation.  Towards  the  buildings,  grounds,  appur- 
tenances, libraries  and  implements  the  State  appropriated  $250,000.  The  State 
University,  located  at  Austin,  the  capital  city,  has  been  recently  organized ;  exten- 
sive and  expensive  buildings  have  been  erected  and  a  faculty  selected,  wliich 


866  TEXAS. 

includes  some  of  the  ablest  instructors  in  the  land.  This  institution,  having 
ample  means  in  all  its  provisions  and  appliances,  will  be  commensurate  with  and 
equal  to  all  the  demands  of  modem  education,  whether  of  science  or  art,  of  liberal 
or  professional  instruction.  It  is  open  to  the  youth  of  both  sexes,  tuition  free. 
Surely  the  liberality  of  Texas  towards  the  rising  generation  must  commend  itself 
to  those  in  distant  States  seeking  new  homes  for  themselves  and  educational 
advantages  for  their  children." 


ARKANSAS. 


The  State  of  Arkansas  lies  between  parallels  33°  and  36°  30'  north  latitude, 
while  the  extreme  limits  east  and  west  are  89°  40'  and  94°  42'  west  longitude.  It 
covers  altogether  53,850  square  miles,  including  about  805  miles  of  water  surface, 
and  is  divided  into  74  counties,  whose  land  areas  vary  in  size  from  490  to  1,100 
square  miles.  Nearly  the  entire  surface  of  the  State  is  well  timbered  with  a  large 
variety  of  growth. 

Arkansas  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  imperial  State  of  Illinois,  the  latter  having 
56,650  square  miles  and  36,256,008  acres.  Doubtless  the  reader  will  be  surprised 
that  the  area  of  Arkansas  exceeds  either  that  of  New  York  or  Pennsylvania;  but 
the  population  and  wealth  of  these  have  so  long  dominated  the  statistics  of  the 
country,  that  we  are  apt  to  confound  these  with  area  of  territory. 

The  State  of  Arkansas,  with  much  of  the  richest  soil  of  the  continent,  her 
superb  river  system,  her  minerals,  her  vast  virgin  and  most  valuable  forests,  her 
climate,  and  her  immense  area,  will  soon  be  a  State  of  great  weight  in  the  great 
federation  of  the  Western  World. 

The  only  place  of  4,000  population  and  over  at  last  United  States  Census 
(1880)  was  Little  Rock,  the  capital,  in  Pulaski  County.  The  number  was  13,138. 

SURFACE  FEATURES. 

The  Mississippi  River  borders  the  State  on  the  east,  its  broad  bottom  lands 
on  the  north  reaching  far  westward  from  the  river,  some  60  miles,  to  the  foot  of 
Crow  ley's  Ridge,  beyond  the  St.  Francis  River.  On  the  south  these  lauds  are 
narrower,  and  near  the  Louisiana  line  they  are  interspersed  with  ridges  and 
upland  peninsulas.  Crowley's  Ridge  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  features  in 
this  region.  Lying  between  the  White  and  the  Mississippi  Rivers,  this  ridge, 
extending  from  the  extreme  northeastern  part  of  the  State  southward  to  Helena, 
in  Phillips  County,  with  an  elevation  of  from  100  to  150  feet,  forms  a  sudden  ter- 
mination to  the  low  swamps  of  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Francis  bottoms;  but  this 
elevation  rapidly  diminishes  westward,  with  flat  lands,  prairies  and  low  sandy 
ridges,  to  White  River,  at  the  border  of  the  hilly  and  mountainous  region  of 
Northern  Arkansas  and  the  prairies  of  the  South.  Another  broad  alluvial  region, 
bordering  the  Arkansas  River  on  the  north  side,  extends  from  near  Little  Rock 
(on  the  line  of  the  rocky  and  hilly  region)  southeastward,  and,  embracing  all  the 
country  lying  between  the  river  and  Bayou  Meta,  becomes  again  narrow  at  the 
junction  of  the  two  streams.  Its  width  in  one  place  is  said  to  be  as  much  as  30 
miles,  and  the  region  presents  very  much  the  same  features  as  that  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Broad  alluvial  bottom  lands  also  border  that  portion  of  the  Red  River 
embraced  in  this  State,  and  the  southern  portion  of  Ouachita  County,  near  the 
State  line. 

A  view  of  the  State  northward  from  the  line  of  Louisiana  to  Missouri  pre- 
sents the  following  general  topographical  features  in  addition  to  those  already 
given :  Along  the  southern  border  the  country  is  undulating  and  somewhat  hilly, 
and  is  timbered  with  a  prominent  growth  of  short-leaf  pine,  with  oak  and  hick- 


358  ARKANSAS. 

ory — the  continuation  of  the  tertiary  yellow-loam  region  of  Louisiana  and  Texas. 
Northward  the  surface  becomes  more  and  more  hilly,  and  is  interspersed  with  red 
lands  and  tertiary  iron-ore  hills.  On  the  northeast  of  these,  after  passing  the 
wide  bottom  plain  lying  between  the  Arkansas  River  and  Bayou  Meta,  we  reach 
a  large  area  of  silty  prairies,  which  separate  this  region  from  the  Mississippi 
alluvial  and  Crowley's  Ridge  regions;  while  on  the  southwest  there  is  a  region, 
interspersed  with  small  black  cretaceous  prairies,  which  occupies  the  lowlands 
along  the  streams  and  at  the  foot  of  the  pine  ridges.  The  line  marking  the  limit 
of  this  pine-hill  country  would  pass  from  near  Des  Arc,  on  White  River,  in 
Prairie  County,  nearly  westward  to  Little  Rock;  thence  southwest  to  Arkadel- 
phia,  in  Clark  County,  and  westward  through  the  middle  of  Sevier  County  into 
the  Indian  Territory. 

Northward  from  this  line  we  enter  upon  a  hilly  and  broken  country,  with  a 
few  ranges  of  high  hills  and  mountains  composed  of  sandstones  and  mill-stone- 
grit,  the  valley  lands  being  derived  from  the  associated  red  shales.  The  surface 
of  the  country  is  well  timbered  with  oak  and  hickory  as  far  north  as  the  range  of 
mountains  lying  between  Polk  and  Scott  Counties  on  the  west.  Open  and  level 
prairies  are  found  interspersed  throughout  the  region  northward  to  the  Arkansas 
River,  in  the  counties  of  Scott,  Sebastian,  Logan  and  Yell,  but  occur  chiefly  in 
the  first  two.  North  of  the  river,  after  passing  a  timbered  belt. of  country  similar 
to  that  on  the  south,  we  reach  the  Ozark  Mountain  region  of  high  hills  and  ridges, 
which  increase  in  altitude  from  but  a  few  hundred  feet  on  the  south  to  1,COO  or 
1,500  feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  country  on  the  northwest,  where  they 
leave  the  State.  This  country  is  well  timbered  with  a  great  variety  of  growth, 
except  on  some  of  the  highest  ridges,  where  the  poor  sandy  and  cherty  soil  will 
support  little  else  than  grasses,  weeds  and  stunted  oaks.  Little  or  no  limestone 
has  been  observed  southward  from  the  Louisiana  line  to  these  mountains,  but  it 
now  appears  at  the  foot  and  on  the  sides  of  the  hills,  producing  lands  of  richness 
and  fertility.  The  hilly  and  broken  character  of  the  country  continues  to  the 
Missouri  line,  and  in  the  extreme  northern  tier  of  counties  we  find  a  region  of 
cherty  limestone  hills  and  small  open  prairies  and  barrens,  the  latter  having  often 
a  soil  rich  in  potash,  lime  and  phosphoric  acid.  In  the  middle  of  this  region  the 
prairies  are  less  extensive  than  on  the  extreme  west,  where,  in  Benton  County, 
they  open  out  into  the  broad^  and  more  level  prairie  region  of  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory. The  hills  are  from  400  to  600  feet  high,  and  are  largely  timbered  with  pine 
and  other  growth,  except  in  places  where  the  soil  is  too  thin  for  anything  else 
than  scrub  oaks. 

CLIMATE. 

The  records  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  a  period  of  man}r  years,  as 
summed  up  in  the  Smithsonian  Contribution  to  Knowledge,  Vol.  XXI,  place  the 
annual  mean  temperature  of  that  part  of  the  State  lying  south  of  the  Ozark 
Mountains  (or  a  line  from  the  junction  of  White  and  Black  Rivers,  in  Independ- 
ence County,  westward  to  Fayetteville,  in  Washington  County)  at  from  60°  to  64°, 
and  thence  to  the  Missouri  line  at  56°  F.  For  the  wrinter  months  during  this  time 
the  average  temperature  in  the  northern  counties  was  from  28°  to  40°,  and  in  the 
southern  counties  from  40°  to  52°.  The  annual  mean  at  Helena,  in  Phillips 
County,  was  61.1°;  at  Little  Rock,  62.3°;  Fort  Smith,  G0.1°,  and  at  Washington, 
on  the  southwest,  61.5°.  For  the  summer  months  the  mtian  temperature  for  the 
time  mentioned  was  from  76°  to  80°  over  all  of  the  State,  except  in  the  extreme 
southeastern  counties,  where  the  mean  was  from  80°  to  88°.  July  is  generally  the 
hottest  month,  the  thermometer  sometimes  rising  as  high  as  100°.  The  nights  are 
said  to  begin  to  grow  cool  about  the  middle  of  August,  and  the  first  "  black  "  frost 
appears  about  the  last  of  October. 


ARKANSAS.  359 

RAINFALL. 

The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  south,  and,  charged  as  they  are  with  the 
vapors  of  the  gulf,  we  find  the  greatest  condensation  or  rainfall  in  the  southern 
half  of  the  State.  As  the  result  of  many  years  of  observation,  the  following  facts 
have  been  brought  out  by  Mr.  Schott  in  a  late  publication  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution:  The  average  number  of  rainy  days  in  each  year  for  15  years  has 
been  75.  The  highest  annual  rainfall  occurs  in  the  southwestern  counties,  and 
averages  56  inches.  From  Louisiana  northward  to  a  limit  marked  by  a  line  from 
the  northeastern  corner  in  Mississippi  County  to  the  lower  part  of  Sebastian 
County,  on  the  west,  an  average  of  from  44  to  53  inches  falls  yearly,  while  north- 
ward over  the  rest  of  the  State  a  38-inch  fall  is  reported. 

During  the  winter  months  the  greatest  fall  (16  inches)  occurred  in  the  south- 
.  western  counties  and  along  the  Mississippi  River  from  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas 
River  northward  to  Cross  and  Crittenden  Counties.  There  was  a  fall  of  12  to  15 
inches  in  the  southeastern  region,  which  miy  be  bounded  west  by  a  line  from  the 
lower  part  of  Poinsett  County  to  Jacksonport,  at  the  bend  of  White  River; 
thence  southward  with  a  curve,  passing  south  of  Little  Rock,  west  to  Mount  Ida, 
Montgomery  County,  and  south  to  Red  River.  Over  the  rest  of  the  State  on  the 
north  and  west  the  rainfall  for  the  winter  was  from  six  to  eight  inches.  These 
estimates  include  the  snow  that  falls  during  these  months,  sometimes  to  a  depth 
of  several  inches.  During  the  spring  months  the  southern  counties  were  favored 
with  over  15  inches  of  rain,  while  north  of  a  line  from  Sevier  County  to  Little 
Rock,  Ark.,  and  Memphis,  Tenn.,  the  fall  was  from  12  to  15  inches,  except  on  the 
extreme  northwest,  where  it  was  less  than  12  inches. 

During  the  summer  months  the  rainfall  was  more  evenly  distributed  over  the 
State,  and  averaged  from  10  to  14  inches,  a  maximum  of  18  inches  occurring  at 
Helena,  in  Phillips  County,  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and  a  minimum  of  less  than 
10  inches  in  the  northwestern  counties  of  the  State.  The  autumn  months  were 
drier,  the  heaviest  rains,  more  than  12  inches,  occurring  along  the  Red  River,  on 
the  southwest.  From  10  to  12  inches  was  reported  over  the  rest  of  the  State, 
except  on  the  northwest  and  in  the  St.  Francis  bottom  lands,  on  the  northeast, 
where  it  was  less  than  10  inches. 

DRAINAGE. 

Apart  from  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Francis  Rivers  on  the  east  and  northeast, 
the  northern  part  of  the  State  is  drained  by  White  River,  the  middle  by  the 
Arkansas,  the  south  by  the  Ouachita,  and  the  southwest  by  Red  River. 

Arkansas  River,  which  is  next  in  size  to  the  Mississippi,  divides  the  State 
into  two  almost  equal  parts.  Entering  on  the  west  from  the  Indian  Territory,  its 
course  is  very  irregular,  at  first  mostly  eastward,  and  then,  turning  to  the  south- 
east, its  waters  flow  into  the  Mississippi  in  Desha  County.  Its  basin,  covering  an 
area  of  11,270  square  miles,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Ozark  Mountains,  and 
has  an  average  width  of  from  20  to  30  miles.  On  the  south  its  width  along  the 
line  of  the  Indian  Territory  is  about  50  miles,  bounded  by  the  range  of  Rich  and 
Fourche  La  Fave  Mountains,  which  have  an  east  and  west  trend,  and  approach 
near  the  river  in  Perry  County.  Thence  southeastward  the  river  basin  becomes 
quite  narrow,  its  southern  rim  lying  very  near  the  river, 

White  River  is  the  most  important  stream  in  the  northern  part  of  Arkansas, 
draining,  with  its  tributaries,  about  17,400  square  miles — an  area  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  river  within  the  State.  This  river  rises  in  the  southern  part  of 
Washington  County,  flows  northward  into  Missouri,  whence  it  soon  turns  south- 
eastward to  the  lowlands  of  the  Mississippi  River,  where,  after  its  junction  with 
the  waters  of  the  Black  River  from  the  north,  it  continues  southward,  and  uniteg 
with  the  Arkansas  River  near  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi. 


360  ARKANSAS. 

The  Ouachita  River  basin  includes  very  nearly  the  entire  country  south  of 
the  Arkansas  basin — an  area  of  about  11,800  square  miles;  while  that  of  Red 
River,  on  the  southwest,  has  only  an  area  of  about  4,500  square  miles. 

The  other  principal  rivers  are  the  St.  Francis,  Little  Missouri,  Black,  Little 
Red,  Moro  and  Bayou  Bartholomew. 

It  is  claimed  that  there  are  between  five  and  six  thousand  miles  of  navigable 
water  in  the  State. 

Many  streams  are  beautifully  pure  and  clear  and  never  failing,  and  almost 
everywhere  fine  fish  are  found.  Shad  are  found  in  the  Ouachita,  and  bass,  pick- 
erel, wall-eyed  pike,  silver  perch,  cat  and  buffalo  are  common. 

Of  course,  springs  are  exceedingly  numerous,  some  of  them  of  wondrous 
beauty  and  in  most  charming  scenery.  One,  the  Mammoth  Spring,  in  Fulton 
County,  is  70  feet  deep,  190  feet  in  diameter,  and  flowing  a  volume  of  65,000  cubic 
feet  of  water  per  minute.  It  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  remarkable  springs  in 
the  world. 

No  locality  on  earth  is  more  famous  than  Arkansas  for  springs.  At  the  city 
of  Hot  Springs  are  the  renowned  springs  of  that  name,  so  wonderfully  curative 
of  so  many  diseases.  There  are  between  70  and  80  springs  there. 

At  the  Eureka  Springs  there  are  over  40.  These  springs  are  wonderful  in 
restoring  sight. 

It  follows,  of  course,  with  such  wonderful  streams,  that  Arkansas  is  not  only 
most  remarkably  well  watered,  but  that  there  is  a  vast  deal  of  water-power  in  the 
State.  According  to  the  best  information,  this  is  estimated  at  1,500,000  horse- 
power. To  mention  one  or  two,  there  is  a  superb  water-power  at  the  falls  of  the 
Ouachita,  near  Rockport;  then  there  is  Mammoth  Spring,  above  mentioned.  It 
is  said  that  for  45  miles  of  Spring  River  there  is  to  be  found  for  every  half  mile 
1,000  horse-power.  The  fall  of  the  river  for  the  first  mile  is  22  feet ;  126  feet  fall 
in  10  miles,  and  in  17  miles,  153  feet.  The  flow  of  water  is  not  affected  by  drouth 
or  long  continued  rain,  and  for  12  miles  on  either  side  there  are  no  obstructions 
of  any  kind  to  interfere  writh  putting  in  machinery.  Of  course,  Arkansas,  in 
common  with  many  of  the  Southern  States,  has  her  streams  unobstructed  by  ice 
all  winter. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  oldest  occurring  rocks  of  the  State  are  probably  those  of  the  Lower 
Silurian  age  in  the  northern  counties,  embracing  a  few  outcrops  of  the  Potsdam 
sandstone  and  large  areas  of  later  cherty  magnesian  limestones.  With  a  broad 
base  resting  against  Black  River  north  of  its  junction  with  White  River,  covered 
eastward  by  quarternary  deposits,  the  triangular  area  of  this  formation  extends 
westward,  with  narrowing  limits  in  this  State,  until  it  passes  out  near  the  western 
boundary.  Dipping  toward  the  south,  it  is  overlaid  by  the  sub-carboniferous 
Archimedes  limestones,  chert  and  sandstones,  which  form  the  southern  border  of 
the  Ozark  Mountains  in  the  northern  portions  of  Stone,  Searcy,  Newton,  Madison 
and  Carroll  Counties.  So  far  as  known,  the  Upper  Silurian  and  the  Devonian 
formations  are  not  represented  in  the  State,  except  perhaps  in  very  small  areas. 
A  southern  dip  carries  the  sub-carboniferous  under  the  coal  measures,  which  con- 
stitute the  most  extensively  developed  geological  region  in  the  State.  This  is 
represented  by  the  sandstones  and  red  shales  of  the  millstone  grit,  which  form 
the  hills  and  high  ridges,  its  shales  also  underlying  much  of  the  valley  land. 
Coal  beds  appear  in  many  of  the  counties.  The  rock  strata  are  generally  regular, 
except  in  the  lower  part  of  the  region,  where  the  effects  of  granitic  disturbance 
are  seen  in  upturnings  and  contortions  and  the  presence  of  many  mineral  veins. 

The  next  older  formation  represented  is  the  cretaceous,  and  this  occurs  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  State.  It  enters  the  State  from  the  Indian  Territory 


ARKANSAS.  361 

with  a  width  of  about  30  miles,  reaching  from  Ultima  Thule,  in  Sevier  County,  to 
Red  River,  but  gradually  narrows  eastward  to  a  point  at  Arkadclphia,  on  the 
Ouachita  River,  in  Clark  County.  Characteristic  fossils  of  this  formation  are 
abundant  in  localities,  and  are  probably  of  the  rotten  limestone  group.  This  is 
the  northeastern  termination  of  the  great  cretaceous  belt,  that,  extending  west- 
ward through  the  southern  part  of  the  Indian  Territory,  turns  southward  through 
the  central  part  of  Texas  to  the  southern  foot  of  the  table-lands  and  the  Llano 
Estacado,  which  are  also  but  a  continuation  of  the  same  formation  northwestward 
into  New  Mexico. 

The  black,  waxy  and  open  prairies  that  form  so  prominent  a  feature  of  the 
formation  elsewhere,  are  in  this  State  found  only  in  small  patches  in  the  lowlands, 
the  formation  being  covered  in  the  uplands  by  the  quaternary  sands  and  clays, 
which  form  hills  bearing  a  short-leaf  pine  and  other  timber  growth.  Salt-licks 
are  a  feature  of  the  cretaceous  lands  of  this  State,  especially  in  Sevier  County  (as 
well  as  of  Louisiana). 

During  or  immediately  after  the  cretaceous  period  there  seems  to  have 
occurred  a  great  disturbance  or  upheaval,  bringing  to  the  surface  the  granitic 
and  metamorphic  rocks  which  cover  large  areas  of  country  in  Saline  and  Pulaski 
Counties,  with  also  a  small  outcrop  in  Hempstead  County.  At  the  same  time  the 
shales  and  sandstones  of  the  region  southwestward,  in  Garland,  Hot  Spring,  Pike, 
Polk,  and  the  northern  portion  of  Sevier  Counties,  were  upturned,  contorted,  and, 
in  some  instances,  broken  and  altered. 

On  the  northwest  of  Little  Rock  the  continuation  of  the  line  of  disturbance 
is  observed  in  the  upturned  or  folded  strata  of  the  Ozark  Mountains,  which  pass 
into  Missouri  from  Carroll  County.  Argentiferous  galena  ores,  in  veins,  are  an 
accompaniment  of  this  formation  in  Arkansas,  tlie  Kellogg  silver  mines,  a  few 
miles  north  of  Little  Rock,  being  the  most  noted  occurrence.  Novaculile  (whet- 
stone) and  sandstone,  filled  with  crystals  of  quartz,  are  among  the  most  commonly 
occurring  metamorphic  rocks,  the  former  being  found  in  abundance  chiefly  around 
the  celebrated  Hot  Springs,  in  Garland  County. 

The  tertiary  formation  is  represented  in  this  State  only  by  the  marl  beds  and 
limestones  of  the  eocene,  which  extends  southward  into  Louisiana.  Marl  beds, 
with  characteristic  tertiary  fossils,  occur  at  the  foot  of  Crowley's  Ridge,  in  St. 
Francis  County,  and  also  in  the  counties  lying  south  of  Little  Rock.  Thick  and 
extensive  beds  of  lignite  are  said  to  be  found  in  Ashley,  Union,  Bradley  and  Cal- 
houn  Counties,  exposed  in  the  banks  of  the  streams.  The  tertiary  is  all  overlaid 
by  beds  of  quarternary  sands,  pebbles  and  clays,  which,  by  erosion,  have  been  left 
as  irregular  hills  and  ridges,  capped  with  ferruginous  sandstone  formed  from  these 
materials.  Crowley's  Ridge,  which  forms  so  prominent  a  feature  of  the  country 
lying  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  White  Rivers,  is  made  up  almost  entirely 
of  the  material  of  this  last  group  nearly  to  its  entire  height  of  from  100  to  150 
feet,  and  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  its  length,  from  the  chalk  bluffs  of  St. 
Francis  River,  in  the  extreme  northeastern  corner  of  the  State,  to  Helena,  on  the 
Mississippi  River,  it  is  underlaid  by  Silurian  and  carboniferous  beds  on  the  north, 
and  by  tertiary  marls  and  limestones  on  the  south. 

AGRICULTURAL  FEATURES. 

The  lands  of  the  State  may  be  grouped  in  two  grand  divisions,  separated  by 
a  line  from  the  western  part  of  Clay  County,  on  the  northeast,  along  Black  and 
White  Rivers  to  Des  Arc,  in  Prairie  County,  and  thence  to  Little  Rock  and  Arka- 
delphia,  on  the  southwest ;  thence  west  to  Ultima  Thule,  on  the  line  of  the  Indian 
Territory,  in  Sevier  County.  Westward  and  northward  of  this  line  lie  the  rocky, 
Mlly  and  mountainous  lands,  or  "up  country;"  but  on  the  east  and  south  the 


362  ARKANSAS. 

lands  are  more  generally  rolling,  or  level,  sandy,  and  sometimes  gravelly  in  char- 
acter, and  almost  entirely  free  from  roeks  on  the  surface,  excepting  some  scattered 
pieces  of  ferruginous  sandstone.  This  southern  region  also  includes  those  river 
alluvial  lands  whose  extensive  areas  make  them  of  great  agricultural  value. 

SOILS. 

It  seems  almost  superfluous  to  say  much  about  the  fertility  of  Arkansas  soils. 
Numerous  analyses  might  be  given  to  show  how  rich  they  are.  She  divides 
honors  with  Mississippi  and  Louisiana  in  having  considerable  of  the  Mississippi 
bottom  lands,  and  surely  that  is  enough  panegyric  on  the  score  of  fertility;  and 
the  Arkansas  and  Red  River  lands  are  very  fertile.  Cotton  from  Arkansas  took 
the  prize  at  the  Atlanta  Exposition  in  1831,  the  Louisville  Exposition  in  1883,  at 
the  World's  Industrial  and  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  in 
1885.  The  cotton  taking  the  premium  was  raised  in  Chicot  County.  "  it  is  one 
of  a  group  of  three  counties  in  adjoining  States,  and  also  adjoining  each  other, 
(East  Carroll,  of  Louisiana;  Chicot,  of  Arkansas,  and  Issaquena,  of  Mississippi,) 
that  form  the  center  of  maximum  cotton  production  per  acre  on  natural  soils  in 
the  United  States,  and  probably  in  the  world." 

Dr.  David   Dale   Owen,  an   eminent  authority,  says:     "A  comparison   or 
Arkansas  soils,  so  far  as  made  with  a  few  soils  collected  in  Iowa,  Wisconsin  and 
Minnesota,  shows  that  her  soils  generally  are  equally  rich  in  fertilizing  ingre- 
dients with  those  of  the  said  States,  and  that  her  bottom  lands  are,  in  truth, 
richer." 

At  the  Atlanta  Exposition  in  1881  Arkansas  received  the  first  premium  for 
corn  and  cotton,  competing  with  all  the  States,  including  Kansas.  Every  one 
conversant  with  expositions  knows  how  Kansas  competes  in  agricultural  pro- 
ducts. Arkansas  a'so  received  the  sweepstake  premium  at  the  World's  Industrial 
and  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition  at  New  Orleans. 

Recently,  at  the  Tri-State  Fair,  Toledo,  Ohio,  (embracing  portions  of  Ohio, 
Indiana  and  Michigan,)  a  collection  of  grains,  fruits,  &c.,  from  the  line  of  the  Fort 
Smith  Railroad  was  awarded  a  diploma  for  the  best  display  of  corn  and  fruit,  over 
all  competitors. 

The  geographical  position  of  Arkansas  is  such  that,  with  her  topography,  she 
produces  a  wonderful  variety  of  crops.  With  an  altitude  of  nearly  3,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  nearly  three  and  a  half  degrees  of 
latitude,  she  yields  the  products  of  nearly  ten  degrees.  There  can  be  produced 
the  buckwheat  of  New  England  and  the  rice  of  South  Carolina;  the  corn  of 
Iowa  or  Illinois — only  better — and  the  sugar-cane  of  Louisiana;  the  wheat  of 
Minnesota  and  the  spelts  of  Germany;  the  flax  and  hemp  of  Europe  and  her  own 
unsurpassed  cotton ;  the  fig  of  the  semi-tropics  and  the  apple  of  the  temperate 
zone;  rye,  barley  and  oats  as  good  as  anywhere,  and  the  last  pre-eminently; 
clovers,  red  top,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  and  other  favored  grasses  of  the  North 
and  West,  equal  if  not  superior  to  those  of  the  latter  two  areas,  and  many  grasses 
these  cannot  produce;  superb  Irish  and  sweet  potatoes,  turnips,  cabbage,  beets, 
peas,  beans,  onions,  radish,  celery,  oyster-plant,  egg-plant,  squash,  pumpkin,  okra, 
lettuce,  tomatoes,  etc.;  melons  of  most  delicious  quality  and  great  size — even, 
becoming  celebrated  for  these ;  tobacco,  hops ;  fruits  away  beyond  enumeration — 
hereafter  touched  upon.  What  an  array  of  products  is  this  only  cursory  enumer- 
ation 1  There  the  grasshopper  and  locust  come  not ;  the  potato-bug  is  unknown, 
and  the  chinch-bug  almost  a  stranger.  The  textile  fabrics — silk,  cotton,  wool, 
mohair,  flax,  hemp,  jute,  ramie — can  all  be  produced  there,  and  can  nearly  all,  if 
not  quite,  be  shown.  All  the  comforts  and  luxuries  needed  can  be  raised  in  the 
State. 


ARKANSAS.  365 

In  general  terms,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  length  of  the  planting  season  is 
from  the  middle  of  February  to  June  1st — an  advantage  much  of  the  South 
enjoys.  Garden  crops  ar£  planted  early — potatoes  and  peas  often  in  February, 
and  others  in  March.  Vegetables  are  plenty  in  market  in  April,  and  late  until 
Christmas.  Gardens  are  made  both  winter  and  fall.  The  rains  in  spring  are- 
generally  seasonable  and  propitious.  Early  vegetables  marketed  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  and  Chicago,  111., -mainly.  Two  crops  of  many  vegetables  are  easy  and 
common.  Oats,  rye,  barley  and  wheat  are  sowed  in  the  fall.  Two  crops  of  buck- 
wheat per  annum  can  be  made. 

FRUITS. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Arkansas  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  fruits, 
and  produces  many  of  rare  excellence.  The  laurels  won  by  her  at  the  recent  dis- 
play at  New  Orleans,  where  the  greatest  fruit  exhibition  the  world  ever  saw  was 
made,  attest  this.  The  first  grand  premium  of  gold  medal  and  $  IQ.)  were  accorded 
her,  and  this  was  the  result,  largely,  of  one  man's  exhibition — Mr.  E.  F.  Babcock. 
No  horticulturist  who  saw  the  display  could  but  be  enthused.  Her  apples,  par- 
ticularly, were  indescribable.  The  Arkansas  Valley  seems  to  be  conspicuous  as 
an  apple  region.  In  the  display  spoken  of  there  were  135  varieties  of  apples  and 
350  varieties  of  other  fruits — poaches,  pears,  grapes,  berries,  etc. 

Arkansas  can  grow  proba1  ly  200  varieties  of  grapes.  The  vine  floiirish.es  in 
parts  of  the  State,  growing  to  almost  incredible  proportions.  In  her  mountains 
some  day  will  probably  be  great  revelations  in  the  products  of  her  vineyards  yet 
to  be.  These  mountains  run  east  and  west,  and  protect  from  strong  and  sudden 
cold  winds,  and  the  soils  seem  especially  adapted  to  the  grape.  Some  vineyards 
have  reached  the  size  of  15  acres. 

The  strawberry  business  is  well  advanced.  Judsonia,  Cabot,  Beebe,  Austin's 
Station  and  Malvern  are  prominent  points.  Judsonia  shipped  in  1884  from  250 
acres  of  this  fruit;  this  year,  1885,  from  300  acres.  There  are  nearly  or  quite 
2,000  acres  in  fruits  and  vegetables  there.  Last  April  there  were  estimated  to  be 
at  Austin's  Station  over  200  acres  strawberries,  23  acres  raspberries,  blackberries 
12  acres,  gooseberries  4  acres,  grapes  18  acres,  plums  43  acres,  pears  7  acres, 
peaches  229  acres,  apples  95  acres,  cherries  8  acres — nearly  600  acres  in  fruit 
at  this  one  station.  Whortleberries  figure  among  the  shipments  from  Cabot. 
Beuton  has  for  a  number  of  years  shipped  the  first  strawberries — early  in  April. 
It  is  in  Saline  County. 

In  justice  to  the  railroads  it  should  be  said  that  they  are  offering  inducements 
to  fruit  growing  in  rates  and  cars  especially  adapted  to  carriage  of  fruits. 

Arkansas  has  some  large  peach  orchards  and  produces  superb  peaches.  This- 
fruit  shows  immense  size  there  in  some  seasons,  and  always  a  long  season.  Near 
Hot  Springs,  peaches  have  been  picked  as  late  as  November  17.  Hon.  Thomas 
Essex,  Land  Commissioner  of  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern  Rail- 
road, received  peaches  this  season  as  early  as  May  15.  Peaches  have  been  raised 
near  Conway,  Faulkner  County,  weighing  over  22  ounces.  Apples  and  pears 
weighing  over  21  ounces  are  by  no  means  rare,  raised  in  the  State,  and  the  former- 
fruit  is  sometimes  seen  over  15  inches  in  circumference. 

The  melon  and  vegetable  business  is  growing  to  considerable  dimensions  in 
the  State. 

Some  progress  has  been  made  in  canning  fruit  in  the  State.  This  ought  to 
and  must  increase,  to  make  fruit  raising  ultimately  profitable;  and  dessicating 
establishments  for  drying  both  fruits  and  vegetables  should  come  in  vogue. 

The  profits  in  trucking  and  fruit  raising  are  claimed  to  be  great;  but  every- 
where the  day  of  fortunes  in  a  year  have  gone  by  in  these  lines. 


~364  ARKANSAS. 

The  markets  are  St.  Louis  and  towns  and  cities  further  north  and  east.  The 
first  fruit  train  ever  run  out  of  the  State  was  started  from  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  on 
May  12, 1884,  to  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

STOCK  RAISING. 

A  finely  watered  country  very  naturally  suggests  stock  raising,  particularly 
where  rich  soil  and  the  success  of  the  most  prized  grasses  are  superadded. 

The  country  north  of  the  Arkansas  River  is  a  beautiful  variation  of  hill, 
plain,  prairie  and  woodland.  It  affords  a  fine  stock  range,  particularly  for  sheep. 
In  the  mountains,  hill  country  and  bottoms,  there  grow,  in  the  aggregate,  accord- 
ing to  Lesquereux,  155  native  grasses. 

The  bottoms  (and  how  many  there  are !)  abound  in  vast  canebrakes.  These 
grasses  will  keep  cattle  fat  summer  and  winter.  Every  one  who  has  had  any 
experience  knows  how  fat  cattle  will  keep  on  cane  the  year  round;  and  sheep  will 
live  on  it,  although  it  does  not  appear  much  out  of  bottoms. 

The  "mast"  of  the  bottoms  makes  Arkansas  certainly  equal,  if  not  superior, 
to  any  State  for  hog  raising.  The  bottoms  contain  pecans,  hickories,  oaks,  beech 
and  other  mast-making  trees,  and  are  particularly  rich  in  these  nut  trees.  Then, 
it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  dense  forests  of  the  bottoms  afford  protection 
from  the  very  little  cold  wind  to  which  winter  subjects  the  State.  Then,  the  trend 
of  her  mountains  breaks  off  the  high  cold  winds  prevailing  north  of  them,  and 
thereby,  with  their  latitude  and  elevation,  produce  a  very  remarkable  climate. 

But,  native  grasses  and  cane  aside,  there  is  no  trouble  with  the  popular  culti- 
vated grasses.  Arkansas  had  an  exhibit  at  the  World's  Industrial  and  Cotton 
Centennial  Exposition  last  year.  There  was  clover  to  be  seen  from  3£  to  7  feet 
long,  taken  from  fields  that  produced  from  2|  to  4  tons  per  acre;  there  was  timo- 
thy from  4  to  4£  feet  long,  with  many  heads  10£  inches  loug;  there  wrere  fine 
alfalfa  and  red  top,  too.  In  the  land  office  at  Little  Rock,  samples  of  clover  7  feet 
long,  and  of  timothy  5,  can  be  found.  Kentucky  blue-grass,  orchard  grass,  white 
clover,  Johnson  grass,  Texas  blue-grass,  and  California  or  Burr  clover,  have  all 
been  successfully  tried.  As  to  lespcdeza  (Japan  clover)  and  Bermuda  grass,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  they  are  all  that  could  be  asked. 

Pray,  why  should  any  one  doubt  that  cultivated  grasses  (who  knows  anything 
of  the  South)  would  succeed  ?  And  is  it  not  easy  to  see  that,  with  rainfall,  soils 
of  almost  incredible  and  inexhaustible  fertility,  and  the  most  bountifully  and 
beautifully  watered  country  almost  anywhere,  Arkansas  can  be  made  an  ideal 
stock-raising  country  ?  And  Arkansas  is  beginning  to  see  her  opening  as  a  stock- 
raising  State,  and  is  doing  something  (far  too  little)  in  that  line.  As  a  fact  to  be 
mentioned,  very  few  people  feed  their  stock  in  winter,  except  working  animals. 

Arkansas  is  marked  by  three  belts  of  rainfall  in  the  chart  in  the  last  census 
denoting  the  annual  rainfall  of  the  country.  The  lowest  rainfall  is  ample  for  all 
needs,  and  what  is  well  worth  remembering  is  that  in  the  area  of  lowest  rainfall 
of  spring  and  summer  the  precipitation  is  20  to  23  inches  per  annum.  This  well 
bears  out  the  language  of  another  volume  of  the  census,  where,  in  comparing  the 
summer  and  winter  rainfall,  it  is  said:  "During  the  summer  months  the  rainfall 
was  more  evenly  distributed  over  the  State."  The  crop-maker  and  the  stock- 
raiser  will  appreciate  the  benefits  of  this  summer  rainfall. 

TIMBER. 

The  following  on  this  topic  is  from  the  report  of  the  last  census  : 
Heavy  forests  cover  the  State  of  Arkansas,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  iso- 
lated prairies  principally  confined  to  Prairie  and  Arkansas  Counties,  north  of  the 
valley  of  the  Arkansas  River,  and  the  western  borders  of  the  State.    North  of  the 
Arkansas  River  the  forests  are  mostly  composed  of  the  deciduous  trees  of  the 


ARKANSAS.  365: 

Mississippi  basin,  through  which  isolated  belts  occur,  often  of  considerable  extent, 
in  which  the  short-leaved  pine,  the  only  species  found  in  Northern  Arkansas,  is 
mixed  with  the  hard  woods.  The  southwestern  part  of  the  State  south  of  the 
Arkansas  River  and  west  of  the  broad,  level  plain  of  the  Mississippi  is  covered 
outside  the  river-bottom  lands  with  an  almost  continuous  forest  of  pine,  in  which 
the  short-leaved  species  occupies  the  high,  dry  ridges,  and  the  loblolly  the  moist 
soil  above  the  bottoms.  Great  bodies  of  "cypress  cover  the  extensive  swamps  that 
stretch  along  the  eastern  border  of  the  State  or  line  the  bottoms  of  the  White, 
Arkansas,  Washita  and  Red  Rivers.  The  hard-wood  forests  of  the  State  are 
hardly  surpassed  in  variety  and  richness,  and  contain  inestimable  bodies  of  the 
finest  oak,  walnut,  hickory  and  ash  timber.  Black  walnut  of  large  size  is  still 
widely  scattered  over  the  State,  and  is  particularly  abundant  in  the  valley  of  the 
Red  and  other  Southern  rivers.  The  pine  forests  are  almost  intact.  Settlements 
made  for  agricultural  purposes  have  been  confined  to  bottom  lands,  and  only 
during  the  last  few  years  has  pine  lumber  been  manufactured  in  the  State,  except 
to  supply  a  very  limited  local  demand.  Recently,  however,  comparatively  small 
quantities  of  lumber  manufactured  at  numerous  railroad  mills,  principally  estab- 
lished south  of  the  Arkansas  River,  have  been  shipped  north  and  south  out  of 
the  State. 

The  forests  of  Arkansas  have  received  comparatively  little  damage  from  fire. 
Pine  generally  succeeds  pine,  even  on  burned  land,  although  upon  certain  gravel 
and  clay  soils  the  second  growth  is  largely  composed  of  black  and  red  oaks,  or,  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  State,  the  sweet  gum  replaces  other  trees  on  bottom 
lands.  During  the  census  year  858,115  acres  of  woodland  were  reported  devas- 
tated by  fire,  with  an  estimated  loss  of  $259,470.  The  largest  number  of  these 
fires  was  due  to  the  carelessness  of  farmers  in  clearing  land,  or  to  hunters  camp- 
ing in  the  forest. 

Industries  consuming  hard  woods  are  still  in  their  infancy  in  Arkansas, 
although  doubtless  destined  to  attain  an  important  development.  Rough  white- 
oak  staves  are  largely  manufactured  in  the  White  River  country  and  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  State  for  Eastern  and  European  markets. 

A  considerable  traffic  exists  in  the  southwestern  counties  in  the  wood  of  the 
Osage  orange,  used  for  wheel  stock,  and  more  recently  as  pavement  in  St.  Louis 
and  other  Northern  cities. 

MINERALS. 

The  mineral  resources  of  the  State  are  a  comparatively  "  sealed  book,"  because 
this  State  has  been  so  impolitic  and  remiss  in  not  having  had  long  ere  this  a 
thorough  geological  survey  of  the  State.  Other  Southern  States  have  been  wiser, 
and  millions  of  dollars  have  been  invested  in  mines  and  industries  cognate,  until 
industrial  revolutions  have  been  achieved  in  them,  and  enduring  advertisements 
of  their  resources.  Perhaps  no  better  proof  of  the  impolicy  of  not  having  had  a 
geological  survey  of  the  State  can  be  shown  than  by  the  silence  of  so  large  and 
special  a  work  as  the  volume  (X)  of  the  last  United  States  Census  so  largely 
devoted  to  "Building  Stones"  (a  special  report,  too,)  as  to  Arkansas  in  this 
respect,  when  the  State  has  some  beautiful  marbles  and  some  fine  limestones. 
And  Williams,  in  the  body  of  his  work  on  the  "  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United 
State,"  for  1883,  a  most  valuable  and  authoritative  work,  has  nothing  to  say  of 
fire-clays  in  the  State ;  and  John  C.  Smock,  who  proves  such  a  careful  enumer- 
ator, mentions  only  one  county  as  containing  it,  whereas  it  is  highly  probable  that 
these  are  abundant  in  the  extensive  coal  measures  of  the  State.  But  the  State, 
although  it  has  lost  such  valuable  opportunities  of  gratuitously  advertising  itself, 
is  winning  its  way  to  public  attention  in  spite  of  the  derelictness  of  public  senti- 
ment, and  because  of  the  revelations  made  by  the  most  shallow  and  intermittent 


366  ARKANSAS. 

exploitations  of  the  truly  wonderful  mineral  resources  of  the  State.  This  prefa- 
toriness  is  both  explanatory  and  apologetic.  The  reader  should  know  that  exten- 
sive and  scientific  information  is  not  accessible  in  the  premises. 

COAL. 

The  coal  area  is  estimated  at "  12,000  square  miles,  in  12  counties,"  in  the 
language  of  Williams  in  "  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,"  issued  in 
1884.  Whether  future  investigations  shall  enlarge  this  cannot  be  told.  Nor  is 
the  thickness  known;  but  estimating  only  at  superficial  area,  there  are  only  a  few 
States  surpassing  Arkansas  in  this  regard.  Kentucky  has  14,000  square  miles,  an 
area  of  most  superb  coking  coal  having  been  recently  discovered.  West  Virginia 
has  an  area  of  10,000  square  miles.  Pennsylvania  has  12,770  square  miles  of  coal 
of  all  kinds.  The  great  State  of  Ohio  is  next  to  Arkansas,  with  10,000  square 
.miles,  according  to  the  best  information  obtainable.  Indiana  has  6,450.  Illinois, 
^Kansas  and  Missouri  rank  higher  than  any  yet  stated.  All  the  other  States,  when 
possessing  coal,  are  far  below  Arkansas  in  area. 

It  will  be  seen  how  important  it  is  that  something  more  specific  could  be 
given,  and  many  will  be  surprised  to  learn  of  the  mineral  resources  of  this  State, 
which  are  go  great,  and  yet  so  little  known. 

In  general  terms,  a  mineralogist  holds  this  language : 

"  The  extent  and  area  of  the  coal-bearing  strata  have  been  generally  ascer- 
tained. Those  districts  have  been  pointed  out  which  are  most  likely  to  afford 
lead  ore.  Numerous  iron  regions  have  been  discovered.  Wide  belts  of  country 
have  been  indicated  where  marble  prevails.  Sources  have  been  pointed  out  where 
the  best  limestone  can  be  procured  for  lime,  for  hydraulic  cement,  for  mineral  fer- 
tilizers. Though  I  have  not  myself  seen  one  particle  of  gold,  I  have  no  reason  to 
disbelieve  the  statement  of  others.  Yet,  if  no  gold  should  be  found  profitable  to 
work,  there  are  resources  of  the  State  in  acres  of  zinc,  manganese,  iron,  lead  and 
copper,  whet  and  hone  stones,  rock-crystals,  paint  and  nitre  earths,  kaolin,  granite, 
freestone,  limestone-marks,  grindstones  and  slate,  which  may  well  justify  the 
assertion  that  Arkansas  is  destined  to  rank  as  one  of  the  richest  mineral  States  in 
the  Union.  Her  zinc  ores  compare  favorably  with  those  of  Silesia,  and  the  argen- 
tiferous galena  far  exceeds  in  percentage  of  silver  the  average  of  such  ores  of 
other  countries.  Her  novaculite  rock  cannot  be  excelled  in  fineness  of  texture, 
beauty  of  color  and  sharpness  of  grit.  Her  crystal  mountains  stand  unrivaled  for 
extent,  and  their  products  are  equal  in  brilliancy  and  transparency  to  any  in  the 
world." 

To  return  to  "  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States :" 

"  The  coal  found  is  semi-bituminous  or  semi-anthracite.  A  bed  of  semi-bitu- 
minous coal  9  feet  thick  is  reported  in  Sebastian  County.  The  Spadra  semi- 
anthracite  is  the  only  coal  that  is  known  in  market  to  any  extent,  and  an  account 
of  its  location,  etc.,  will  prove  interesting :  *  This  name  is  given  to  a  deposit  of 
semi-anthracite  coal  3  feet  thick  found  at  Spadra,  in  Johnson  County,  105  miles 
from  Little  Rock,  now  being  worked  by  the  Spadra  Coal  and  Iron  Company.  It 
lies  almost  horizontal,  with  a  slight  dip  to  the  north.  It  crops  out  on  the  river 
bank  and  is  traceable  along  the  river  front.  On  digging  anywhere  the  same  vein, 
from  3£  to  4  feet  thick,  IB  invariably  struck  within  55  feet  of  the  level  of  the  river 
.front.  The  product  is  about  5,000  tons.  The  existence  of  a  second  vein,  which 
is,  as  near  as  can  be  ascertained,  about  30  feet  below  the  one  now  working,  is  a 
matter  of  development.  The  coal  can  be  placed  at  Little  Rock  at  $3.25  a  ton;  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas  River,  $3.75  a  ton ;  at  New  Orleans,  $5  a  ton ;  at  St. 
Louis,  $6.75  per  ton.' 

"  The  only  coal  to  compete  with  on  the  lower  Mississippi,  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Arkansas  to  New  Orleans — 600  miles — which  section  of  country  consumes 


ARKANSAS.  367 

about  one  million  of  tons  per  annum,  is  the  bituminous  coal  principally  furnished 
by  Pittsburgh. 

"  The  mines  of  the  Ouita  Coal  Company,  producing  an  excellent  variety  of 
this  semi-anthracite,  are  72  miles  from  Little  Rock.  The  vein  is  32  inches  thick, 
Analysis  gave  80.46  fixed  carbon,  12.66  volatile  matter;  ash,  5.11;  water,  1.77; 
color  of  ash,  light  brown. 

"  Professor  Owen  gives  an  analysis  of  the  coal  in  the  First  Geological  Report 
on  Arkansas,  page  130.  It  was  also  analyzed  by  Mr.  I.  A.  Liebig  and  by  Mr.  L. 
C.  Bierwirth,  with  the  following  results : 

OWEN.  LIEBIG.  BIERWIRTH. 

Moisture 0.5  1-524  0.680 

Volatile  and  combustible  gases 7.9  7-527  10.521 

Fixed  carbon 85.6  85.481  83.719 

Ashes 6.0  5.468  5.080 


Total zoo. 


Specific  gravity i .  335 


Saward,  in  "The  Coal  Trade"  for  1884,  has  this  to  say: 

uThe  coal  region  where  it  enters  Arkansas  is  about  60  miles  in  width  north 
and  south,  25  miles  north  and  35  miles  south  of  Fort  Smith — that  is,  25  miles  on 
north  side  of  the  Arkansas  River  and  35  miles  on  south  side  of  Arkansas  River. 
The  outcrops  or  openings,  that  are  4  feet  to  7  feet  thick,  are  nearly  all  on  the 
south  side  of  the  river,  in  Sebastian  County,  and  are  12  to  18  miles  wide  cast  and 
west,  and  30  to  35  miles  north  and  south;  thence  east,  on  south  side  of  the 
Arkansas,  they  decrease  in  thickness  for  80  miles  or  such  a  matter,  and  are  lost  at 
or  east  of  Dardanelle. 

"  On  the  north  side  of  the  river  the  coal  so  far  does  not  show  a  thickness  of 
•over  a  foot  or  two  until  you  reach  Ozark,  30  miles  from  the  west  line  of  the  State. 
There  it  approximates  4  feet,  and  20  miles  east  of  that,  at  Spadra,  it  is  2  feet  6  or 
S  inches,  and  becomes  thinner  20  miles  east  of  that,  say  at  Ouita,  where  it  is  only 
20  inches,  and  runs  out  at  100  to  120  miles  east  from  the  Indian  border,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  river.  It  will  be  seen  that  its  thickness  (from  4  to  7  feet,  and, 
indeed,  it  may  be  found  10  feet  in  Sebastian  County)  continually  decreases  east  to 
.a  shell;  and  its  width  of  60  miles  at  the  west  side  of  the  State  becomes  less 
toward  the  east,  and  tapers  like  a  lady's  hand  to  hear  the  middle  of  the  State." 

From  a  respected  authority — a  pamphlet  issued  under  the  auspices  of  The 
Arkansas  Valley  Route — I  quote  as  follows: 

"This  coal  is  similar  in  structure  to  the  Lyken's  Valley  coal  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  its  quality,  by  analysis,  is  very  similar  to  that  famous  article  of  fuel,  and  it  is 
an  excellent  steam  and  manufacturing  coal.  The  Arkansas  River  runs  for  more 
than  150  miles  through  this  coal  formation." 

Arkansas  coal  is  now  used  by  "The  Arkansas  Valley  Route"  lines  and  the. 
44  Frisco  "  Railroad.  A  branch  line  has  been  built  from  the  main  line  of  the  Fort 
"Smith  Railroad  to  the  principal  mines,  which  facilitates  the  "  output." 

The  Johnson  County  coal  is  used  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  has  recently  been 
introduced  into  New  Orleans  by  rail.  The  coal  can  be  brought  by  river  to  New 
Orleans,  and  there  ought  to  be  a  great  business  in  it. 

IRON. 

This  metal  is  found  in  several  counties.  Exploitation  is  demanded  and  would 
richly  remunerate.  I  shall  only  specify  one  county,  because  of  the  meagreness  of 
«uch  information  as  is  desirable. 

Blow-up  Mountain,  in  Polk  County,  is  said  to  be  a  vast  deposit  of  brown 
hematite  ore.  This  analysis  is  imputed  to  Prof.  Charles  E.  Wait,  of  the  School 
of  Mines  of  Missouri : 


368  ARKANSAS. 

Silica 23 

Ferric  oxide 83.94 

Alumina 2.43 

Lime... 94 

Magnesia 01 

Phosphorus .08 

Water 12.24 

99.87 
Metallic  iron...   58.76 

Near  by,  it  is  said,  are  manganese,  limestone  and  good  coking  coal.  If  so,, 
here  should  be  steel  works  before  long.  It  is  off  the  line  of  railroad. 

In  this  same  county,  near  the  boundary  line  of  Howard  County,  are  found 
immense  deposits  of  the  so-called  "  white  iron."  It  is  said  to  be  so  pure  that 
horse-shoe  nails  have  been  forged  direct  from  the  ore.  Here  is  an  analysis  of  it 
by  Prof.  Wait: 

Water o .  94 

Silica ,6,27 

Ferric  oxide 69 . 69 

Ferrous  oxide i  .03 

Alumina 2  55 

Sulphur 03 

Phosphoric  acid trace 

Total 99. 51 

It  will  be  observed  that  it  is  essentially  a  very  silous  hydrated  oxide  of  ironr 
limonite,  containing  49.58  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron,  and  of  easy  reduction. 

Another  assay  made  in  the  United  States  Assay  Office  (branch  mint)  at  Char 
lotte,  N.  C.,  gave  a  large  proportion  of  oxide  of  manganese. 

Magnetite,  specular,  carbonate  and  limonite  are  found  in  the  State. 

SLATE. 

A  very  fine  roofing  slate  has  recently  been  found  15  miles  west  of  Little  Rock^ 
and  the  purchaser  will  open  a  quarry. 

ANTIMONY. 

In  a  pamphlet  entitled  *'  The  Antimony  Deposits  of  Arkansas,"  by  Chas.  E. 
Wait,  C.E.,  M.E.,  director  of  the  School  of  Mines,  Missouri  State  University,  it 
is  said :  "  This  is  one  of  the  few  localities  in  the  United  States  where  antimony  is 
found  in  workable  quantities.  I  say  workable  quantities,  because  two  different 
shipments  of  ore  have  been  made  to  English  reduction  works,  and  in  both  cases 
excellent  returns  were  made." 

The  discovery  of  these  deposits  will,  it  is  hoped,  give  rise  to  a  prosperous  and 
remunerative  industry  at  no  distant  day,  and  when  fully  developed  they  may  yield 
ore  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  regulus  for  the  home  demand,  thus  adding 
wealth  not  only  to  those  interested,  but  also  to  the  State  of  Arkansas. 

The  Stewart  Lode. — "  This  is  the  most  extensive  deposit  of  antimony  yet  found. 
in  Arkansas.  *  *  *  The  surface  indications  in  this  case  were  quite  interesting. 
The  vein  has  a  strike  about  N.  13°  E.,  with  dip  nearly  vertical.  The  ore  in  large 
pieces  was  exposed  to  view  in  several  places  within  the  distance  of  a  few  hundred 
feet.  In  many  places  in  this  distance  the  ore  and  quartz  seemed  to  be  a  solid  mass 
projecting  above  the  ground. 

"  Soon  after  this  discovery  was  made  mining  operations  were  commenced. 
The  vein  was  attacked  on  the  surface  for  several  hundred  feet,  and  was  removed 
to  the  depth  of  12  feet.  Some  fine  pieces  of  ore  were  taken  from  this  open  cut. 
One  piece  of  apparently  solid  stibnite  weighing  720  pounds  was  shipped  to  Little 
Rock.  Other  pieces  even  heavier  were  raised  to  the  surface.  One  other  piece 
furnished  1,250  pounds  select  ore." 

A  large  number  of  tons  of  antimonial  ore  from  Arkansas  have  been  shipped 
to  Messrs.  Geony,  Hallet  &  Co.,  London,  Eng.,  for  which  it  is  said  they  paid  about 
$60  per  ton. 


ARKANSAS.  369 

Sevier  County  claims  the  largest  body  of  antimony  ever  before  discovered. 

MANGANESE. 

The  deposits  of  manganese  in  the  State  are  very  great  and  important,  not  to 
say  startling.  It  is  a  genuine  "  find,"  in  mining  parlance.  Nothing  better  proves 
this  than  that  "the  manganese  deposits  of  Independence  County  have  been 
opened,  and  large  quantities  are  being  shipped  to  Pittsburgh  and  other  points;" 
and  that  "  the  Cambria  Iron  Works,  of  Pennsylvania,  have  made  large  purchases 
of  manganese  property  in  Independence  County,  which  they  propose  to  work  on 
an  extensive  scale ;"  and  that  prominent  capitalists  and  practical  men  are  pur- 
chasing and  working  mines  there.  Such  facts  are  their  own  commentary. 

It  is  said  that  in  Polk  County  there  is  a  vein  over  800  feet  wide  and  over  8 
miles  long.  The  following  quantitative  analysis  is  attributed  to  Prof.  Charles  E, 
"Wait,  of  Missouri : 

Manganese  oxide..... 62  196 

Free  oxygen "-S1? 

Silica 2  764 

Water 8. 344 

Copper  oxide 351 

Alumina  and  iron  oxide. , 7.222 

Nickel  oxide 3-872 

Cobalt  oxide , 1-457 

Baryta , 2.297 

Lime 080 

Total 100.097 

Prof.  Wait  says  the  occurrence  of  nickel  is  a  matter  of  special  interest.  The 
amount  present  is  as  large  as  in  some  ores  which  are  treated  for  nickel  in  con- 
nection with  other  metals. 

More  than  a  year  ago  over  100  mining  claims  were  recorded  in  Independence 
County,  and  over  4,000  tons  of  manganese  shipped  from  Batesville, 

BOAPSTONE. 

In  Arkansas  steatite  or  soapstone  has  been  found ;  it  is  in  Saline  County,  and 
a  Philadelphia  company  has  it  in  hand.  It  is  found  in  Pulaski  County,  too. 

WHETSTONE. 

This  stone  is  said  to  be  equal  to  the  Scotch,  and  is  shipped  in  large  quantity 
to  Germany  and  other  European  markets. 

KAOLIN. 

This  is  said  to  be  a  very  superior  article,  and  is  demanded  in  New  Jersey  and 
Pennsylvania. 

ALTJM. 

It  is  claimed  that  alum  exists  in  great  quantities  in  the  argillaceous  rocks  on 
the  Alum  Fork  of  the  Saline  River,  in  Saline  County. 

OTHER  MINERALS. 

A  most  remarkable  lithographic  stone  is  found  near  Batesville.  It  is  quite 
likely  that  all  along  the  range  of  the  Ozark  Mountains,  which  are  thought  to  be 
spurs  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  silver,  gold,  copper,  galena,  antimony,  granite, 
marble,  coal  and  slate,  and  other  stones  and  minerals,  will  all  be  found  in  abun- 
dance, as  some  of  them  are  now.  The  silver  of  the  State  has  been  for  some  time 
one  of  the  great  sensations  in  mining  circles.  The  antimony  is  a  witness  as  to 
silver. 

MANUFACTURING. 

Arkansas  is  coming  more  into  prominence  as  a  manufacturing  area  than  here- 
tofore. The  great  increase  in  lumbering  and  the  constantly  increasing  production 
of  corn  and  wheat  necessarily  involve  progress  in  saw  and  planing  mills,  woe 
working  establishments,  etc.,  and  grist  mills.  Arkansas  ought  to  be  one  of  ihi 
greatest  States  in  the  Union  for  manufacturing  furniture,  agricultural  implements, 
woodenware,  sash,  door  and  blinds,  wagons  and  carriages,  for  within  her  bound- 


370  ARKANSAS. 

ariea  are  the  greatest  hard- wood  treasures  almost  anywhere  to  be  found  in  the 
United  States,  to  say  nothing  of  poplar  and  cypress 

Of  course,  Arkansas  ought  to  be  a  great  cotton  manufacturing  State.  Her 
cotton  has  no  superior.  Her  water-powers,  abundant  coal,  cheap  wood,  climate, 
plenty  and  quality  of  raw  material,  water  for  cheap  transportation,  contiguity  to 
the  future  best  markets  for  the  fabrics,  etc.,  etc  ,  ail  plainly  point  the  way  to  the 
policy  and  profitableness  of  manufacturing  cotton 

RAILROADS. 

No  State  could  better  dispense  with  railroads  tiian  Arkansas,  because  of  her 
remarkable  river  system  and  her  number  of  miles  of  navigable  rivers.  Indeed,  it 
is  likely  that  this  great  gift  of  nature  has  been  a  retardation  to  railroad  construc- 
tion in  the  State,  as  it  has  been  one  great  cause  why  population  has  been  so 
persistent  of  the  great  streams.  But  Arkansas  is  now  very  well  furnished  with 
railroads. 

But  there  is  a  view  of  railroad  possibilities  for  Arkansas  which  is  new  and 
striking — that  in  the  near  future  she  may  be  a  great  highway  for  trans-continental 
travel  and  traffic.  In  this  day  of  breathless  hurry,  in  the  half-frenzied  utilitarian- 
ism of  Americanism,  the  proneness  is  to  short  cuts,  the  aspiration  being  crystal- 
lized in  the  phrase  "air  line."  Let  the  reader  take  a  map  and  glance  his  eye 
between  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Washington,  and  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  he  will  see  that  Arkansas  stands  right  in  the  track  of  the  nearest  Northern 
line  across  the  continent,  which  would  be  free  from  obstruction  in  winter  from 
snow  and  ice.  A  route  is  built  as  far  West  as  Fort  Smith,  near  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory, and  it  could  be  carried  on  up  the  valley  of  the  Canadian  River  away  over  to 
Los  Vegas,  New  Mexico,  or  nearly  so ;  thence,  doubtless,  a  way  could  be  found 
across  Arizona  to  California.  This  would  prove  one  of  the  best  routes  in  the 
country,  shorter  than  any  of  the  four  trans-continental  railroads.  A  company 
that  should  put  up  steel  works  and  make  its  rails  out  of  the  iron  and  manganese 
abundant  along  or  near  the  line,  with  abundant  coal,  cheapest  cross-ties,  easy 
grades,  would  find  such  a  line  cheap  and  profitable.  It  would  be  a  great  outlet 
for  Texas  cattle,  a  business  ready  made  and  bound  to  prove  enormous,  crossing, 
as  it  would,  the  "  Panhandle."  The  cotton  trade  would  be  large.  Cotton  and 
woolen  factories  would  spring  np ;  large  iron  and  steel  works  would  soon  appear. 
Furniture,  agricultural  implement,  wagon  and  carriage  factories  can  nowhere  find 
better  locations  than  Arkansas,  because  there  is  the  finest  raw  material  and  in 
greatest  abundance.  But  such  a  road  would  get  much  of  the  trans-continental 
travel,  in  the  winter  particularly,  and  ought  to  get  a  great  deal  of  trans-conti- 
nental freight.  Memphis,  already  quite  a  railroad  center,  would  be  on  the  track 
of  this  great  trade. 

It  seems  to  the  writer  that  this  scheme  will  be  one  of  the  most  eagerly  seized 
when  capital  shall  have  duly  investigated  it.  Such  a  road  would  be  placed 
between  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad  and  the  Southern  Pacific 
systems  for  quite  a  distance,  and  would  open  some  fine  territory. 

LAWS. 

Exemptions. — The  homestead  law  of  the  State  is  very  liberal.  The  homestead 
of  any  married  man  or  head  of  a  family  to  the  value  of  $2,500,  or  160  acres  of 
land  outside  of  a  city  or  village,  and  the  homestead  in  any  city  or  village,  not 
over  one  acre  of  land  and  improvements  of  that  value,  and  one-quarter  of  an  acre 
and  improvements  without  regard  to  value,  are  exempted  from  execution.  The 
benefits  of  this  exemption,  should  the  head  of  the  family  be  removed  by  death, 
inure  to  his  widow  while  she  remains  unmarried ;  also  to  his  children  during 


ARKANSAS.  371 

their  minority.  In  addition  to  his  wearing  apparel,  the  personal  property  of  any 
resident  citizen  of  the  State  to  the  value  of  $500,  to  be  selected  by  such  resident, 
Is  exempted  from  sale  or  execution,  or  other  final  process  of  any  court  issued  for 
the  collection  of  any  debt.  No  taxation  for  State  purposes  is  allowed  beyoncL 
one  per  cent. 

Education.— The  Constitution  of  this  State  provides  that  the  General  Assem- 
bly shall  require  by  law  that  every  child  of  sufficient  mental  and  physical  ability 
shall  attend  the  public  school  during  the  period  between  the  ages  of  5  and  18, 
unless  educated  by  other  means,  and  the  Legislature  has  provided  a  very  efficient 
school  law  to  secure  for  all  the  State  ample  school  privileges.  The  law  also  pro- 
vides that  the  white  and  colored  children  shall  be  educated  in  separate  schools. 
Section  16  of  land  in  every  township,  besides  certain  State  funds,  are  set  apart  for 
educational  purposes. 

Besides  public  schools,  there  are  a  large  number  of  private  schools,  semina- 
ries and  colleges,  a  blind  asylum  and  a  deaf  mute  institute. 

Temperance,  Prohibition. — This  is  a  question  most  warmly  agitated  in  the 
South,  generally,  and  prohibition  is  making  great  strides  in  popular  favor.  The 
following  from  a  noted  lecturer,  Mr.  Luther  Benson,  I  find  in  an  Arkansas  jour- 
nal. It  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  him  to  the  Indiana  Monitor-Journal  from 
Arkansas : 

"  Searcy,  the  capital  of  White  County,  has  no  saloon.  White  County  has  not 
a  saloon.  There  are  in  this  county  10  little  towns;  each,  one  of  them  had  two 
saloons,  and  this,  the  county  seat,  eight,  making  in  the  county  28  saloons.  The 
people  have  voted  and  petitioned  every  saloon  out  of  the  county,  and  about  67 
other  counties  have  done  the  same.  This  State  has  local  option.  They  vote  by 
counties  every  two  years  for  or  against  whiskey.  If  a  majority  vote  no  saloons, 
that  settles  it;  but  if  a  county  votes  for  license,  then  there  is  another  law  that 
provides  that  if  a  majority  of  men  21  years  old  and  women  18  years  old  in  three 
miles  of  a  church  or  school-house  will  petition  the  judge  not  to  grant  a  license, 
the  law  says  he  shall  not.  Whiskey  has  no  chance  down  there." 

GAME. 

Allusion  has  been  made  elsewhere  to  the  abundance  of  fish  in  the  numerous 
waters  of  the  State.  In  the  Mississippi  bottom  and  the  western  or  rougher  por- 
tion of  the  State  may  be  found  bear  in  plenty,  and  occasionally  panther.  Deer 
are  very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  State.  Squirrels,  rabbits,  turkeys,  ducks, 
quail,  snipe,  woodcock  and  pigeons  furnish  sport  to  the  huntsman  almost  every- 
where. Hardly  any  State  is  so  inviting  to  the  sportsman.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  best 
hunting  ground  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

This  faint  sketch  of  the  great  State  of  Arkansas  is  a  meagre  delineation  of 
Tier  claims  upon  capital,  enterprise  and  immigration.  She  is  great  in  her  area,  in 
her  quantity  of  virgin  and  most  fertile  soil,  in  her  vast  forests  of  most  valuable 
woods,  in  her  quantity  and  variety  of  minerals,  in  her  rivers  and  streams,  peerless 
for  navigation,  teeming  with  fish,  and  of  prodigal  water-power;  in  her  varied  cli- 
mate, adapted  to  such  a  range  of  cereals,  fruits,  vegetables,  grasses,  textiles,  and 
an  ample  rainfall.  There  one  finds  the  incomparable  advantages  of  the  richest 
soils  for  production  and  vast  mineral  riches  in  juxtaposition,  and  water  transport- 
ation—a combination  so  remarkable  that  it  beggars  panegyric.  The  millions  of 
idle  capital  in  money  centers  may  here  find  choicest  opportunities  in  numberless 
lines.  Her  cheap  lands,  and  millions  liable  to  homestead,  invite  the  immigrant. 
Her  location  will  be  apt  to  be  at  some  day  the  center  of  the  population  and 
greatest  enterprises  of  the  United  States.  She  is  on  the  future  highway  of  this 
continent. 


KENTUCKY. 


The  State  of  Kentucky  is  situated  between  latitude  36°  30'  and  39°  6'  north,, 
and  longitude  5°  and  12°  38'  west  from  Washington.  Her  area  is  40,000  square 
miles.  The  surface  of  the  State  is  an  elevated  plateau,  sloping  from  the  Cumber- 
land Mountains,  on  the  southeast,  to  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Rivers,  on  the 
north  and  west.  On  the  north  the  Ohio  River  is  the  boundary  of  the  State  for 
its  whole  length  from  east  to  west,  as  it  is  also,  in  part,  on  the  west,  the  Mississippi 
River  completing  the  rest  of  its  western  boundary.  On  the  east  the  Big  Sandy 
River  separates  the  State  from  West  Virginia  for  the  northern  area  of  its  eastern 
boundary,  and  for  the  balance  the  line  between  Kentucky  and  Virginia  follows 
the  top  of  Cumberland  Mountain  from  Cumberland  Gap  to  a  point  near  Crank's 
Gap,  about  40  miles  to  the  northeast,  where  the  mountain  bends  to  the  eastward 
and  extends  into  Virginia;  from  this  point  the  line  follows  the  top  of  the  Black. 
Mountains  until  it  reaches  the  Pine  Mountain,  near  Pound  Gap.  On  the  south, 
by  an  arbitrary  line,  the  State  is  bounded  by  the  State  of  Tennessee. 

The  reader  should  not  fail  to  note  the  fact,  the  advantages  of  which  may  be 
hereafter  enlarged  upon,  of  the  enormous  frontage  on  navigable  rivers  of  the 
State,  enjoying  almost  as  much  of  the  Mississippi  River,  in  this  regard,  as  the 
State  of  Missouri,  as  much  of  the  Ohio  River  as  the  State  of  Illinois,  as  much  of 
the  latter  river  as  the  State  of  Indiana — the  river  bordering  the  last  State  on  its 
entire  extent  from  west  to  east — and  half  as  much  of  the  same  river  as  the  State 
of  Ohio.  The  large  number  of  towns  in  the  State  of  Kentucky  enjoying  the 
facilities  of  navigation  on  these  two  noble  rivers  alone  add  large  store  of  savings 
in  diminished  cost  of  transportation  to  inter-State  commerce. 

The  population  of  Kentucky  by  the  last  census  of  the  United  States  was 
1,648,599,  of  which  1,589,131  were  native,  59,468  foreign  born,  271,522  colored. 
According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the  population  was  1,321,011.  The  census  of 
1880  shows,  therefore,  an  increase  of  over  24  per  cent.  By  this  time — September, 
1885— the  population  may  be  estimated  to  be  upwards  of  1,800,000. 

CLIMATE. 

The  following  is  taken  from  the  Report  of  the  Tenth  Census : 
"  The  climate  of  Kentucky  is  remarkably  pleasant,  though  variable.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  is  about  55°.  The  thermometer  often  falls  to  20°  in 
winter,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  goes  below  zero ;  in  summer  it  rises  to  90°, 
and  very  rarely  to  100°.  Winter  sometimes  continues  from  late  in  November 
until  the  last  of  March,  but  is  often  so  mild  that  good  grazing  for  cattle  and  sheep 
may  be  had  throughout  that  period.  The  prevailing  winds  in  spring  and  summer 
are  from  the  southwest ;  in  winter,  during  the  coldest  periods,  from  the  northwest. 
Rain  is  very  frequent  in  winter,  but  the  summers  are  sometimes  characterized  by 
protracted  droughts.  Observations  by  the  signal  service  at  Louisville  from  Sep- 
tember 11, 1871,  to  October  31, 1880,  show  a  mean  average  temperature  for  the 
seasons  as  follows :  Spring,  56.1  degrees ;  summer,  77.4 ;  autumn,  56.9 ;  winter, 


KENTUCKY.  373 

37.3;  average  mean,  56.9;  highest  temperature  recorded,  102;  lowest,  10  below 
zero  ;  mean  of  prevailing  winds,  south;  mean  annual  precipitation,  48.36  inches." 

COAL. 

The  greater  portion  of  Kentucky,  excepting  only  those  strips  of  territory 
contiguous  to  the  Louisville  and  Nashville,  Cincinnati  Southern  and  a  few  other 
roads  which  have  been  in  operation  for  some  time,  is  essentially  an  undeveloped 
wilderness,  but  one  which  contains,  perhaps,  greater  possibilities  than  any  other 
region  of  corresponding  area  in  the  United  States.  The  State  is  divided  naturally 
into  three  districts — eastern  or  mountainous,  the  central  or  blue-grass,  and  the 
western  or  Green  River.  The  eastern  district  contains  a  coal  field  over  10,000 
square  miles  in  area,  which,  with  the  western  field,  gives  the  State  a  coal  area  of 
over  12,700  square  miles,  exceeding  the  area  of  the  Pennsylvania  coal  fields,  or 
the  entire  coal  area  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  This  coal  is  mostly  bituminous 
and  is  considered  among  the  best  known  for  manufacturing  purposes.  In  addition 
to  the  bituminous  coal  in  the  eastern  district,  there  is  also  the  largest  area  of 
cannel  coal  in  America.  This  coal  is  from  three  to  four  feet  thick  and  of  superior 
quality.  There  was  very  little  coal  mining  done  in  Kentucky  before  the  war.  In 
1870  the  total  amount  mined  was  stated  in  the  census  report  for  that  year  to  be 
150,580  tons,  which  in  1875  was  increased  to  500,000  tons,  and  in  1882  to  1,260,300 
tons.  In  the  western  field  the  most  persistent  and  uniform  coal  of  the  series  is 
D,  or  No.  9.  It  is  from  four  to  six  feet  thick,  averaging  five  feet.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent coal  for  grate  and  furnace  and  gives  a  good  coke.  A  lot  of  slack  from  this 
vein  from  the  Saint  Bernard  Mines,  Earlington,  washed  and  coked,  gave  a  bright, 
firm  coke.  There  is  also  coal  sent  out  via  the  Kentucky  and  Cumberland  Rivers, 
and  the  Ohio,  from  Boyd  and  Lawrence  Counties,  besides  local  use. 

The  railways  are  becoming  large  carriers  of  coal,  and  they  are  tending  to 
greatly  enlarge  its  distribution.  This,  in  turn,  tends  to  develop  the  coal  resources 
of  the  State.  In  Greenup  County  are  valuable  coals  for  all  purposes.  A  few 
sample  analyses  are  appended : 

No.  i.  No.  2.  No.  3.  No.  4. 

Volatile  matter 39.00  47.36  36.90  33-48 

Fixed  carbon 56.00  50.64  58.30  60.52 

Mofsture 5.00  2.00  4.80  6.00 

The  first  and  fourth  are  valuable  for  steam,  and  the  second  and  third  are  good 
cannel  coals.  Prof.  J.  R.  Proctor,  State  geologist,  says:  "  The  Eastern  Kentucky 
coal  fields  are  even  superior  to  those  of  Western  Kentucky,  and  are  10,000  square 
miles  in  extent.  Coal  is  found  in  every  county  in  a  line  between  the  Ohio  River 
and  the  Tennessee  State  line.  The  thickness  varies  from  24  to  54  inches.  In  the 
northern  part  of  this  district  are  immense  deposits  of  iron  ore,  and  in  close  con- 
junction with  coal  beds.  The  completion  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Railroad, 
with  its  connections,  will  afford  greater  advantages  for  the  manufacture  of  iron 
than  are  possessed  by  the  corresponding  region  beyond  the  Ohio  River.  In  Bath 
County  and  farther  south  is  the  Red  River  car-wheel  iron." 

The  recent  survey  has  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the  valuable  deposits  of 
coking  coals  which  have  added  such  wealth  to  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia, 
have  been  traced  and  identified  in  the  valleys  of  the  Cumberland,  the  Kentucky 
and  the  Big  Sandy,  with  a  thickness  of  seven  or  eight  feet.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
analysis  of  the  State  chemist  shows  the  coal  to  be  equal  if  not  superior  to  that  of 
Connellsville  or  New  River,  and  this  will  give  a  great  impetus  to  the  development 
of  the  region  in  which  it.  lies.  The  following  figures  show  the  increase  in  coal 
production  in  Kentucky: 

GROSS  .TONS. 

1875 i 500,000 

l88o 1,000,000 

1884 1,550,000 


374  KENTUCKY. 

*'  In  the  western  coal  field  are  12  beds  of  coal  of  workable  thickness  of  good 
quality.  Associated  with  the  lower  coals  are  several  beds  of  limonite  and  car- 
bonate iron  ores,  all  above  drainage  and  situated  favorably  for  cheap  mining. 
One  ore  of  good  quality  has  an  extensive  area,  and  is  from  three  to  five  feet  in 
thickness. 

"  The  eastern  coal-field  area  is  over  10,000  square  miles ;  elevation  above  sea 
level,  650  feet  on  Ohio  River  to  1,300  feet  on  southwestern  border  and  3,500  feet 
on  the  southeastern  border.  *  *  *  The  western  coal  field  has  an  area  of  about 
4,000  square  miles;  elevation  of  400  feet  along  the  Ohio  River  to  850  feet  in  the 
southeastern  portion." 

The  eastern  coal  field  stretches  clear  across  the  State  from  north  to  south, 
and  from  the  extreme  eastern  point  to  where  it  terminates  west  is  quite  one-fourth 
the  width  of  the  State. 

The  western  coal  field  begins  on  the  Ohio  River  at  or  near  Weston  and  runs 
up  the  river  east  to  Cannelton.  Its  frontage  on  the  river  embraces  four  or  more 
counties.  It  runs  back,  or  south,  through  several  counties.  It  is  not  far  from 
exactitude  to  say  that  this  coal  field  lies  in  latitude  38  and  37.  Its  longitude  is 
about  two  degrees,  commencing  east  a  few  miles  west  of  9  and  extending  west  a 
few  miles  west  of  11  west  from  Washington.  It  is  superfluous  to  comment  upon 
this  advantage  of  distribution  of  coal  area  and  its  accessibility  by  water  for  cheap 
transportation  in  large  part. 

Prof.  John  R.  Proctor,  director  of  the  Kentucky  Geological  Survey,  in  a 
"  Report  on  the  Progress  of  the  Survey  from  January,  1882,  to  January,  1884," 
says: 

In  the  summer  of  1881  the  survey  discovered  a  very  thick  coal  of  great  purity, 
and  tests  in  the  laboratory  indicated  that  it  was  a  coking  coal  of  superior  excel- 
lence. During  the  summers  and  autumns  of  1882  and  1883  the  party  in  charge  of 
Prof.  Crandall  was  engaged  in  tracing  this  coal,  determining  its  area  and  thick- 
ness, and  making  practical  tests  of  its  coking  properties.  These  results  will  be 
shown  in  the  forthcoming  report  on  the  geology  of  that  region.  The  following 
facts  have  been  established:  This  coal,  which  has  been  named  for  convenience  of 
reference  the  "Elkhorn  coking  coal,"  has  been  identified  and  traced  over  a  large 
area  on  the  headwaters  of  the  streams  above  mentioned,  where  it  is  found  to  be 
from  eight  feet  to  nine  feet  thick,  with  conditions  favorable  for  cheap  mining.  On 
the  outer  rim  of  the  basin  of  thickest  coal  the  same  coal  is  found  extending  over 
a  considerable  area,  with  a  thickness  of  from  four  feet  to  eight  feet.  It  is  hoped 
to  extend  the  known  area  of  this  valuable  coal  during  the  coming  summer.  Mr. 
R.  C.  Ballard,  Prof.  Crandall's  principal  assistant  in  this  work,  has  been  engaged 
in  opening  up  coals,  sampling  the  same  for  analyses,  and  making  practical  tests  of 
the  coking  properties.  Many  tests  have  been  made  in  the  open  air,  and  coal  was 
sent  to  Cincinnati,  O.,  and  Connellsville,  Penua.,  where  it  was  coked  in  regular 
coking  ovens. 

The  following  analyses  from  carefully  averaged  samples  are  by  Dr.  Robert 
Peter  and  his  assistant,  A.  M.  Peter,  chemists  of  the  geological  survey,  compiled 
from  the  analyses  of  112  coals  in  the  forthcoming  chemical  report  of  the  geologi- 
cal survey: 


No.  in  chemical  report  

2403 

2404 

2266 
1-254 

1.  10 

36-44 
62.46 
59-66 
2.80 
0.613 

2352 
1.291 
3-26 
32.24 
64.50 
61.60 
2.90 
o.6«;6 

2356 
1.286 
1.46 
33-26 
64.90 

59-70 
5.20 
0.678 

2361 

1.319 
2.86 
3i-54 
65.60 
62.10 
3-50 
0.53S 

i  60 

i.  80 
26.80 
71  40 
67  60 
3.80 
0.067 

Volatile  combustible  matter.. 
Coke 

.  .  29.36 
69.04 

Ash   

i  .  64 

Sulphur.... 

KENTUCKY.  375 

Nos.  2403  and  2404  are  from  the  coal  in  the  basin  of  the  headwaters  of  the 
Big  Sandy  River;  No.  2266  from  the  upper  Cumberland,  and  Nos.  2352,  2356  and 
2361  from  the  upper  Kentucky  River. 

For  purposes  of  comparison,  I  give  below  analyses  of  the  celebrated  coking 

coal  of  Pennsylvania : 

123 

Water  at  225°, 1.260  .950  n.  e. 

Volatile  matter 30.107  29.662  31-36 

Fixed  carbon 59.616  55-901  59-62 

Sulphur 784  i-93i  7-84 

Ash 8.233  11-556  823 

Coke 68.633  69.388  68.00 

Nos.  1  and  2,  Connellsville  coking  coal;  analyses  by  McCreath,  from  Second 
Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  Vol.  "M.M."  page  22.  No.  3,  Connellsville 
coking  coal,  Pittsburg  seam;  Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  special 
report  L,  page  120. 

The  following  table  of  analyses  of  cokes,  compiled  from  the  forthcoming 
chemical  report,  will  show  the  excellent  character  of  the  coke  made  from  the 
Kentucky  coals.  Analyses  of  the  Pennsylvania  coals  are  given  for  purposes  of 
comparison : 

, KENTUCKY  CORK. ,    PENNSYLVANIA  COKE. 

1  2  3  4  5  6  7 

Moisture  expelled  at  red  heat 20  1.20  i.io  0.60  .460  6.10  .50 

Fixed  carbon 93-20  94.14  95-40  93.34  89.576  84.721  88.773 

Ash 6.60  4.66  3-50  6.00  9.113  12.636  9-512 

Sulphur 734  1.484  .517  1.335  -821  1.994  '-328 

No.  1,  from  Elkhorn  coal,  made  in  an  oven  in  Cincinnati;  No.  2,  from  Elk- 
horn  coal,  made  in  an  oven  in  Connellsville,  Penna.;  No.  3,  made  from  Elkhorn 
coal;  No.  4,  made  from  Bell  County  coal;  Nos.  5,  6  and  7,  Connellsville,  Penna., 
coke;  No.  6  used  at  iron  \vorks  of  New  Castle,  Penna.,  and  No.  7  used  by  the 
Cambria  Iron  Company,  Johnstown,  Penna. 

The  value  of  coke  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  is  demonstrated  by  the  rapid 
increase  in  the  production  of  coke  iron  in  the  United  States.  The  following  table 
will  show  the  increase  since  1873 : 

ANTHRACITE   IRON,       CHARCOAL   IRON,  COKE    IKON, 

TONS.  TONS.  TONS. 

1873 1,312,754  577»620  977,9°4 

1880 1,807,650  537,558  1,950,205 

The  value  of  the  Elkhorn  coking  coal  is  determined  by  the  following  condi- 
tions :  (1.)  Superior  quality  and  cheapness  by  which  it  may  be  mined.  (2.)  Ease 
by  which  it  may  be  brought  to  the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  furnaces  of  Eastern  Ken- 
tucky and  Western  Ohio  by  proposed  railways.  (3.)  The  nearness  to  cheap  iron 
ores  of  superior  quality.  (4.)  The  position  with  relation  to  the  South  Atlantic 
States,  there  being  no  coal  between  the  southeastern  border  of  this  coal  field  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  amount  of  transportation  necessary  to  bring  the  iron  ore  and  the  fuel  to 
the  furnaces  in  the  United  States  is  greater  than  is  generally  supposed.  Says  Mr. 
James  M.  Swank,  secretary  of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association,  and 
special  expert  of  the  Tenth  Census,  in  his  "  Statistics  of  Iron  and  Steel  Produc- 
tion in  the  United  States  for  1880,"  (page  168) : 

"  From  the  ore  mines  of  Lake  Superior  and  Missouri  to  the  coal  of  Pennsyl- 
vania is  1,000  miles.  Connellsville  coke  is  taken  600  miles  to  the  blast  furnaces  of 
Chicago  and  750  miles  to  the  blast  furnaces  of  St.  Louis.  The  average  distance 
over  which  all  the  domestic  iron  ore  which  is  consumed  in  the  blast  furnaces  of 
the  United  States  is  transported  is  not  less  than  400  miles,  and  the  average  dis- 
tance over  which  the  fuel  which  is  used  to  smelt  it  is  transported  is  not  less  than 
2CO  miles." 


876  KENTUCKY. 

On  top  of  the  sub-carboniferous  limestone  brought  up  by  the  great  Pine 
Mountain  fault,  there  is  an  excellent  iron  ore  near  the  Elkhorn  coking  coal. 
Along  the  border  of  the  State,  in  Southwest  Virginia,  is  an  extensive  deposit  of 
the  Clinton  or  "  fossil"  iron  ore — a  very  cheap  ore — only  a  few  miles  distant  from 
this  Kentucky  coking  coal,  whilst  there  is  an  abundance  of  high  grade  ores  in  the 
valley  of  Southwest  Virginia,  and  in  Western  North  Carolina  is  an  extensive 
deposit  of  what  is  probably  the  best  steel-making  ore  in  America.  During  the 
census  year  1,414,182  tons  of  ore  was  brought  from  the  Lake  Superior  region  and 
439,451  tons  from  across  the  ocean,  mainly  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  steel; 
hauled  hundreds  of  miles  on  railways  to  the  furnaces  in  the  valley  of  the  upper 
Ohio.  Standing  in  Southeastern  Kentucky  upon  the  mountains  containing  the 
coking  coal,  and  looking  at  the  blue  hills  of  North  Carolina  containing  the  great 
steel-making  ores,  I  have  realized  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  the  facts  well 
known  to  insure  the  building  of  railways  to  unite  these  great  resources,  and  the 
consequent  development  of  a  great  iron  and  steel  industry  in  our  midst  second  to 
none  in  America. 

There  are  extensive  beds  of  iron  ore  favorably  situated  for  cheap  mining  and 
contiguous  to  seams  of  coking  coals. 

PETROLEUM. 

The  almost  revolution  in  fuel  produced  by  natural  gas  at  Pittsburgh  gives  to 
Kentucky  a  prospective  importance  hard  to  overestimate.  It  is  understood  that  a 
large  scheme  is  under  consideration  to  utilize  an  area  of  this  natural  gas,  to  be 
used  in  Cincinnati.  In  view  of  this,  something  more  than  a  brief  abstract  is  due 
to  Kentucky  on  the  topic  in  question.  A  most  important  paper  on  petroleum  has 
just  seen  the  light  in  Vol.  X  of  the  last  United  States  Census.  From  it  we  quote 
on  page  24  et  seq : 

The  oil  and  burning  springs  that  mark  the  line  from  Blue  Rock,  in  Ohio,  to 
the  Tug  fork  of  the  Sandy  River,  in  West  Virginia,  is  continued  in  outcrops  on 
Paint  Creek,  Johnson  County,  Kentucky.  This  creek  is  a  tributary  of  the  west 
fork  of  the  Big  Sandy,  and  has  been  described  by  J.  P.  Lesley  in  his  report  pub- 
lished in  1865.  Springs  are  also  met  with  near  Saylersville,  in  Magoffin  County. 
In  Lincoln,  Rockcastle,  Pulaski,  Casey,  Green,  Adair,  Russell  and  Metcalfe  Coun- 
ties oil  springs  are  found,  and  oil  wells  have  been  drilled  at  different  times.  Some 
of  these  wells  in  Lincoln  and  Casey  Counties  are  old  salt  wells  drilled  50  or  60 
years  ago ;  others  are  oil  \vells  drilled  during  the  excitement  of  1865  and  1878. 
The  oil  sand  in  Lincoln  County  lies  at  a  depth  of  about  300  feet.  A  number  of 
wells  have  been  drilled  in  this  county  in  the  neighborhood  of  Stanford,  all  of 
which  are  reported  to  have  reached  oil,  but  the  wells  have  not  been  piped  or 
pumped,  and  none  of  the  oil  has  been  put  upon  the  market.  In  Wayne  County 
the  oldest  well  in  the  country  is  still  flowing  oil.  It  was  drilled  for  brine  on  the 
little  south  fork  of  the  Cumberland  River,  in  the  southeast  corner  of  the  county, 
in  1818.  The  oil  is  heavy,  black  lubricating  oil.  Wells  have  been  drilled  near 
Monticello  since  1865  that  yield  a  heavy  oil  of  a  dark  green  color,  specific  gravity 
25°  Baume,  that  has  a  high  reputation  as  a  lubricator.  In  Clinton  County  oil  was 
obtained  in  1866 ;  in  Cumberland  County  the  old  American  well  was  bored  for 
brine  in  1829  and  flowed  oil  till  1860,  and  in  1865  a  large  number  of  wells  were 
drilled  along  the  Cumberland  River  and  the  creeks  flowing  into  it,  and  they  prob- 
ably gave  the  most  certain  and  largest  yield  of  oil  that  has  ever  been  obtained  for 
the  same  cost  in  any  locality.  At  the  same  time,  probably  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  oil  produced  was  wasted  than  has  been  the  case  anywhere  else  in  the  United 
.  States,  as  it  is  supposed  that  50,000  barrels  from  the  American  well  ran  down  the 
Cumberland  River  before  any  attempt  was  made  to  save  it.  The  oil  near  Burkes- 


KENTUCKY.  377 

ville,  Cumberland  County,  has  a  peculiar,  offensive  odor  and  a  specific  gravity  of 
37°  Baume.  Amber  oil  of  a  lower  specific  gravity  was  obtained  from  other  wells 
in  small  quantity,  and  a  larger  amount  was  yielded  by  wells  on  Oil  fork  of  Bear 
Creek  (east  of  Burkesville),  which  was  of  a  black  color,  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
26°  Baurne.  The  oil  here  appears  to  be  in  a  sort  of  marble  at  90, 190  and  380  feet 
from  the  surface. 

On  Boyd's  Creek,  near  Glasgow,  Barren  County,  Kentucky,  oil  has  been 
obtained  for  several  years  in  commercial  quantities,  the  wells  being  in  the  bed  of 
the  creek  and  on  the  adjoining  hills.  A  few  thousand  barrels  per  year  are 
obtained  here.  Wells  have  also  reached  oil  on  Beaver  Creek  north  of  Glasgow. 
A  well  is  also  reported  to  have  yielded  "  considerable  quantities "  of  oil  near 
Bowling  Green,  Warren  County,  and  another  near  the  Mammoth  Cave,  in 
Edmonson  County. 

Directly  north  of  these  counties,  on  the  Ohio  River,  wells  have  reached  oil  at 
Brandensburg,  in  Meade  County,  at  a  depth  of  900  feet ;  but  those  who  drilled 
them  afterward  concluded  that  they  were  not  deep  enough.  Three  wells  were 
also  drilled  near  Cloverport  which  yielded  a  small  quantity  of  oil.  Another  well 
is  reported  in  Bourbon  County,  and  still  another  at  Henderson,  in  Henderson 
County.  This  latter  well  is  reported  to  have  yielded  a  very  valuable  lubricating 
oil.  Over  at  least  one-third  of  the  State  scattering  wells  have  yielded  petroleum, 
some  of  which  have  been  among  the  most  remarkable  in  the  country. 

Springs  of  natural  gas  are  common  throughout  the  region  just  outlined;  but 
I  have  not  learned  that  the  gas  is  anywhere  used  for  any  purpose,  or  that  more 
than  one  well  has  ever  been  bored  for  gas — that  at  Bristow  Station,  Warren 
•County. 

TIMBER. 

Just  about  one-half  of  the  State  is  in  forests  of  very  valuable  timber,  consist- 
ing of  oaks  of  several  species,  ash,  yellow  poplar,  black  walnut,  hickory,  lynn, 
beech,  chestnut,  red  cedar,  &c.  Large  quantities  of  black  walnut  are  being 
shipped  East  and  to  Europe.  The  business  of  exporting  staves  is  large  and 
increasing. 

The  timbers  of  the  North  Cumberland  have  received  especial  praise.  Mr.  L. 
H.  De  Friese  has  made  a  report,  from  which  the  following  extracts  are  made: 
"In  parts  of  the  Black  Mountains  there  is  a  growth  of  chestnut,  yellow  poplar, 
black  walnut,  white  and  blue  ash,  birch,  linden  and  white  hickory  that  I  have 
never  seen  surpassed.  Parts  of  the  region  have  been  almost  untouched."  White 
walnut,  cherry,  elms,  beech,  etc.,  are  also  mentioned  with  high  praise. 

The  United  States  Census  of  1880  divides  the  area  of  Kentucky  thus :  "  In 
cultivation  and  grass  in  rotation,  8,307,910  acres;  in  permanent  meadows  and 
pastures,  2,368,773  acres ;  in  woodland  and  forests,  10,763,337  acres." 

Prof.  Charles  S.  Sargent,  in  the  Census  Report  on  the  Forest  Trees  of  North 
America,  in  writing  of  an  area  in  part  inclusive  of  Eastern  Kentucky,  says: 

"The  characteristic  features  of  the  forests  of  this  whole  region  are  found, 
however,  in  the  broad-leaved  species  of  which  it  is  largely  composed.  Oaks, 
hickories,  walnuts,  magnolias  and  ashes  give  variety  and  value  to  this  forest,  and 
here,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  species  peculiar  to  a  more  northern  latitude,  the 
deciduous  trees  of  the  Atlantic  region  attain  their  greatest  development  and 
value.  Upon  the  slopes  of  the  Southern  Alleghany  Mountains  and  in  the  valley 
of  the  lower  Red  River,  regions  of  copious  rainfall  and  rich  soil,  the  deciduous 
forest  of  the  continent  attains  unsurpassed  variety  and  richness.  Upon  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  Northern  and  Southern  species  are  mingled,  or  are  only 
separated  by  the  altitude  of  these  mountains.  Rhododendrons,  laurels  and  mag- 
nolias, here  attaining  then*  maximum  development,  enliven  the  forests  of  Northern 


378  KENTUCKY. 

pine  and  hemlocks  which  clothe  the  flanks  of  these  mountains,  or  are  scattered 
through  forests  of  other  broad-leaved  species.  The  cheny,  the  tulip  tree  and  the 
chestnut  here  reach  a  size  unknown  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  *  *  *  The 
hard- wood  forests  of  the  Mississippi  basin  are  still,  in  certain  regions  at  least, 
important,  although  the  best  walnut,  ash,  cherry  and  yellow  poplar  have  been 
largely  culled.  Two  great  bodies  of  hard-wood  timber,  however,  remain,  upon 
which  comparatively  slight  inroads  have  yet  been  made.*  The  most  important  of 
these  forests  covers  the  region  occupied  by  the  Southern  Alleghany  Mountain 
system,  embracing  Southwestern  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Western  North  and 
South  Carolina,  and  Eastern  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Here  oak  unequaled  in 
quality  abounds ;  walnut  is  still  not  rare,  although  not  found  in  any  very  large 
continuous  bodies,  and  cherry,  yellow  poplar  and  other  woods  of  commercial 
importance  are  common." 

With  reference  to  the  State  at  large,  the  following  language  is  found  OIL 
pages  543-544: 

"The  forests  of  Kentucky  resemble  in  general  features  those  of  Tennessee. 
Cypress,  gum  and  various  water  oaks  occupy  the  river  swamps  of  the  western 
counties.  The  central  region,  now  largely  cleared  and  devoted  to  agriculture,. 
was  once  covered  with  the  oaks,  walnuts  and  hickories  of  the  Atlantic  region, 
while  over  the  eastern  and  southeastern  counties  the  dense  forests  of  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains  extended.  The  eastern  counties  still  contain  great  bodies  of  the 
best  hard  wood,  especially  black  walnut,  white  oak,  cherry  and  yellow  poplar, 
which  are  particularly  fins  and  abundant  in  Bell,  Harlan  and  other  southeastern 
counties.  These  forests,  protected  by  the  falls  of  the  Cumberland  River,  which 
have  prevented  the  dr'ving  of  logs  from  its  upper  waiters,  and  inaccessible  to  rail 
communication,  are  still  practically  uninjured,  and  probably  unsurpassed  in  the 
amount,  quality  and  value  of  the  timber  which  they  contain.  The  destruction  of 
forests  to  supply  numerous  iron  furnaces  with  charcoal  has  been  great  in  the 
northeastern  counties,  and  no  small  part  of  this  region  has  already  been  cut  over. 

"During  the  census  year  556,647  acres  of  woodland  were  reported  devastated 
by  fire,  with  an  estimated  loss  of  $'237,635.  Of  these  fires,  by  far  the  largest 
number  was  traced  to  farmers  carelessly  clearing  land  for  agricultural  purposes. 

"In  Barren,  Edmonson  and  other  central  counties  extensive  tracts  of  prairie 
existed  at  the  time  of  the  earliest  settlement  of  the  State.  The  presence  of  these 
prairies  in  the  midst  of  a  heavily-timbered  region  is  ascribed  to  the  annual  burn- 
ing to  which  they  were  subjected  by  the  aborigines.  With  the  disappearance  or 
the  Indians  trees  sprang  up,  and  this  region  is  now  well  covered  with  a  vigorous 
growth  of  black  oaks  of  different  species.  White  oaks,  however,  are  not  abun- 
dant, and  other  species  common  to  the  region,  such  as  the  walnuts,  the  yellow 
poplar  and  the  beech,  are  wanting  in  these  young  forests,  indicating  perhaps  the 
effect  of  fires  in  checking  the  subsequent  growth  or  development  of  many  useful 
timber  trees. 

PASTURAGK   OP  WOODLANDS. 

"  The  forests  of  Kentucky,  as  well  as  those  of  all  the  central  and  southern 
portion  of  the  United  States,  suffer  severely  from  the  almost  universal  custom  of 
using  woodlands  for  pasturage.  The  evil  resulting  from  this  practice  is  only  more 
apparent  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  because  in  these  States  the  amount  of  live 
stock  is  proportionately  larger  than  in  other  parts  of  the  South,  while  in  the 
thickly  settled  agricultural  sections  of  these  States  the  ratio  of  woodland  to  total 
area  is  smaller.  The  pasturage  of  woodlands  necessitates,  or  at  least  induces,  the 
annual  burning  of  the  dead  herbage,  by  which  underbrush,  young  trees,  seedlings 

*This  language  applies  to  a  period  two  or  three  years  ago.  Considerable  spoliation  has  since 
been  made. 


KENTUCKY.  379 

and  seeds  are  destroyed  and  the  succession  and  permanence  of  the  forest  endan- 
gered. "What  the  fires  spare,  browsing  animals  devour;  hogs  root  out  seedlings, 
and  by  selecting  the  sweet  acorns  of  the  white  oak  in  preference  to  the  bitter 
fruit  of  the  black  oaks,  are  gradually  changing  the  composition  of  the  oak  forests. 
Comparatively  few  white  oaks  spring  up  in  the  forests  of  the  more  thickly  settled 
portions  of  the  central  Atlantic  region,  and  this  change  of  forest  composition 
must  be  ascribed  to  the  preference  of  domestic  animals  for  the  palatable  fruit  of 
what,  as  regards  their  timber,  are  the  most  valuable  species.  The  injury,  too, 
inflicted  by  the  constant  stamping  of  animals  and  consequent  packing  of  the  laud 
about  the  stems  of  old  trees  is  very  great,  and  all  reports  speak  of  the  gradual 
dying  of  old  trees  left  standing  in  the  grazing  regions  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

"  The  spread  of  the  mistletoe  (Phoradendron  flavcscens\  consequent  upon  the 
removal  of  the  forest  and  the  increase  in  the  number  of  birds  (the  mistletoe  seems 
to  require  a  certain  amount  of  light  and  air  for  its  development;  it  does  not 
flourish  or  increase  rapidly  in  the  dense  forest,  and  cannot  spread  except  by  the 
agency  of  birds),  is  a  cause  of  serious  injury  to  the  forest  of  this  whole  region. 
It  slowly  but  surely  destroys  the  trees  upon  which  it  obtains  a  foothold.  The 
black  walnut  especially  suffers  from  the  growth  of  this  parasite,  which  seems 
destined  to  destroy  the  finest  walnut  timber  left  standing  in  the  settled  portions 
of  the  southern  central  region. 

"Large  quantities  of  cooperage  and  wheel  stock  are  produced  all  over  the 
State,  and  manufacturers  generally  report  no  scarcity  or  deterioration  of  timber, 
with  the  exception  of  white  oak.  The  principal  centers  of  lumber  manufacture 
are  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee  River,  in  McCracken  County,  where  a  large 
amount  of  cypress,  sycamore,  gum,  oak,  walnut  and  other  hard  wood  is  manufac- 
tured for  the  Northern  market  from  logs  rafted  down  the  Tennessee  and  other 
streams  flowing  into  the  Mississippi ;  at  Frankfort,  where  poplar,  oak,  ash,  walnut, 
pine,  cherry,  hickory  and  maple  logs,  rafted  from  the  upper  waters  of  the  Ken- 
tucky River,  are  sawed,  the  lumber  being  shipped  North  and  East  by  rail ;  and  at 
Louisville,  where  walnut,  poplar  and  oak  lumber  is  manufactured  for  local  con- 
sumption. The  manufacture  of  pumps  and  water-pipes  from  logs  of  the  Jersey 
pine  (Pinus  inops),  at  one  time  an  important  industry  at  Louisville,  has,  since  the 
general  introduction  of  city  and  town  water- works,  become  unremunerative  and 
unimportant." 

MANUFACTURES. 

In  1880,  when  the  census  statistics  were  gathered,  Kentucky  stood  second  on 
the  list  of  Southern  States  in  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in.  manufactures, 
being  outranked  by  Maryland  alone.  At  that  date  there  were  in  Kentucky  5,828 
manufacturing  enterprises,  employing  a  capital  of  $45,813,089,  the  value  of  the 
products  being  $75,483,377.  The  manufacturing  capital  of  this  State  at  that  time 
equalled  the  combined  manufacturing  capital  of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia.  While  Maryland  ranked  above  Kentucky  in  this  line  in  1880,  it  is 
quite  probable  that  the  latter  State  is  now  ahead  of  the  former,  as  the  increase  of 
manufactures  in  Kentucky  during  the  last  few  years  has  been  much  greater  than 
in  any  other  Southern  State.  In  fact,  the  development  of  the  manufacturing 
interests  of  that  State  has  been  something  remarkable,  even  when  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  rapid  growth  of  the  industrial  interests  of  the  whole  South.  In 
the  statistics  of  new  industries  established  in  the  South,  as  published  quarterly 
by  the  Baltimore  Manufacturers'  Record,  Kentucky  invariably  takes  the  lead  in 
the  amount  of  capital  invested  and  in  the  number  of  new  enterprises  established. 

Among  the  most  important  manufacturing  industries  in  Kentucky  in  1880 
were  the  following : 


380  KENTUCKY. 

VALUE 
KINDS.  NO.  CAPITAL.  OF    PRODUCTS. 

Agricultural  implements 86  $2,296,037  $1,647,116 

Flour  and  grist  mills 652  3,685,759  9,604,147 

Foundry  and  machine  shop  products 50  2,283,350  3>oi3,Q79 

Iron  and  steel 29  5,493>°35  5>°9°>029 

Leather,  tanned 63  1,741,430  2,511,960 

Liquors,  distilled 215  6,345,922  8,281,018 

Liquors,  malt 30  1,260,944  1,491,659 

Lumber,  sawed 670  2,290,558       .        4,064,361 

Printing 48  1,401,700  1,289,316 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing 31  2,229,500  4,538,888 

Tobacco  (chewing,  smoking  and  snuff; 28  1,069,800  3>734>835 

The  manufacture  of  whiskey,  as  will  be  seen  from  these  figures,  employed  in 
1880  more  capital  than  any  other  industry,  and  the  value  of  its  products,  taking 
distilled  and  malt  liquors  together,  was  slightly  in  excess  of  the  value  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  flour  and  grist  mills,  which  stood  second  on  the  list.  The  increase  in 
flour  and  grist  mills  during  the  last  few  years  has  been  very  great,  and  this 
industry  doubtless  now  exceeds  in  the  value  of  its  products  the  manufacture  of 
whiskey. 

The  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements  is  a  great  industry  in  Kentucky, 
and  in  the  making  of  plows  especially  this  State  does  a  heavy  business.  In  1880, 
Kentucky,  with  the  exception  of  Indiana  and  Illinois,  made  more  plows  than  any 
other  State  in  the  Union.  This  industry  is  mainly  located  in  Louisville,  where 
there  are  a  number  of  immense  plow  factories,  one  of  them  having  a  paid-up 
capital  of  $1,500,000. 

It  is  not  in  these  few  leading  industries  alone,  however,  that  good  progress  is 
being  made,  for  the  growth  of  the  manufactures  in  Kentucky  includes  a  wide 
diversity  of  enterprises,  thus  ensuring  a  more  healthy  and  permanent  future  than 
if  the  progress  noted  was  confined  to  a  few  over-stimulated  industries. 

WATERWAYS. 

it  would  be  an  unpardonable  omission  to  fail  to  give  greater  consideration 
than  yet  has  been  given  to  the  waterways  of  the  State,  and  if  great  elaboration 
could  give  due  emphasis  to  this,  the  topic  were  well  worth  discursiveness.  The 
State  is  most  remarkably  ramified  by  streams,  and  many  of  them  have  their  rise 
in  an  imperishable  source — the  Cumberland  Mountains.  An  English  journalist 
puts  it  well  thus : 

"  Kentucky,  it  will  be  seen,  occupies  a  most  central  position  in  what  is  known 
as  the  Mississippi  basin,  a  district  which,  in  all  coming  time,  cannot  fail  to  be  the 
most  important  in  North  America.  Its  contiguity  to  the  vast  river  systems  of  the 
continent  must  have  upon  its  future  development  the  greatest  possible  influence, 
the  more  so  because  no  single  State  of  the  Union  has  advantages  equal  to  Ken- 
tucky in  the  way  of  water  communication.  Its  river  system  impressed  me  greatly, 
more  particularly  the  fact  that  about  1,500  miles  of  navigable  water  was  to  be. 
found  in  the  State.  As  I  have  pointed  out,  the  Ohio  River — one  of  the  noblest 
streams  on  any  continent— runs  along  one  frontier  for  more  than  600  miles.  Then 
there  is  the  Kentucky  River,  with  at  least  some  300  miles  now  navigable,  and 
•capable  of  having  two  or  three  hundred  more  miles  added  by  the  judicious  use  of 
locks  and  dams.  There  are,  besides,  the  Cumberland,  the  Green,  the  Licking,  the 
Tradewater  and  the  Tennessee  Rivers,  concerning  which  any  ordinary  geographi- 
cal gazetteer  will  supply  valuable  information,  rendering  it  unnecessary  to  refer 
to  them  at  length  here.  I  have  emphasized  this  point,  because,  in  a  State  with 
such  a  marvelous  wealth  of  natural  resources  as  Kentucky  has,  these  important 
streams  must  unquestionably  be  of  the  greatest  advantage." 

More  authoritative  is  the  following  by  Hon.  John  R.  Procter,  in  one  of  his 
publications : 


KENTUCKY.  381 

"  The  State  has  a  river  boundary  of  813  miles — by  the  Chattaroi  or  Big  Sandy 
on  the  northeast,  120  miles ;  by  the  Ohio  on  the  north,  643  miles,  and  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi on  the  west,  50  miles.  The  principal  rivers  have  their  sources  in  the 
Cumberland  Mountains  and  afford  to  all  parts  of  the  State  river  communication 
with  the  Ohio  and  entire  Mississippi  River  system.  No  State  has  a  frontage  on 
navigable  rivers  equal  to  Kentucky.  This  insures  to  the  State  cheap  transporta- 
tion in  the  future  for  the  abundant  forests  and  large  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  ores 
contiguous  to  the  streams.  *  *  *  The  citizen  of  Kentucky  has  the  advantage 
of  navigable  rivers  penetrating  all  parts  of  the  State.  From  these  it  is  possible 
to  run  flat-boats,  barges  and  rafts  of  timber  into  the  Ohio  River,  and  also  by  the 
river  current,  without  any  cost  save  the  hire  of  necessary  pilot  and  hands  to  man 
the  boats,  to  New  Orleans,  thus  giving  to  all  the  power  of  reaching  ocean  trans- 
portation at  small  cost." 

So  much  by  way  of  generality  as  to  the  extent  of  her  waterways.  The  system 
of  waterways  is  one  of  the  most  important  on  the  continent  (as  goes  almost  with- 
out saying),  and  the  United  States  Government  has  recently  begun  improvement 
of  the  navigation  of  the  rivers  of  the  State. 

Of  course,  the  reflection  is  familiar  how  waterways  not  only  compel  decent 
rates  in  railroads  subject  to  their  competition,  but  incite  competition  in  lines  of 
transportation  availing  themselves  of  these  water  highways. 

But  there  is  another  feature  of  Kentucky  Rivers  which  is  impressing,  and 
that  is  a  remarkable  parallelism,  and  the  almost  inevitable  competition  between 
them  (as  it  were)  for  the  future  business  to  be  transacted  upon  them.  Let  one 
look  how  the  Big  Sandy,  the  Licking,  the  Kentucky,  the  Rolling  Fork,  the  Green, 
the  Cumberland,  with  all  their  branches,  come  into  the  Ohio.  Just  reflect  in  the 
future  the  small  steamboats  and  barge  lines  that  will  come  into  vogue  upon  these, 
and  see  how,  to  enterprises  situated  between  and  near  these  streams,  competing 
rates  will  be  offered  by  lines  of  transportation  on  separate  streams  competing  for 
the  business  of  these  enterprises.  I  know  of  nothing  to  which  to  compare  it, 
except  in  Delaware  and  the  Eastern  Shore  of  Maryland,  where  small  sloops  and 
schooners  run  up  creeks  and  rivers  within  a  mile  or  two  of  each  other,  and  bid 
sharply  for  the  business  of  the  farmers — in  the  former  case  for  the  city  of  Phila- 
delphia ;  in  the  latter  for  Baltimore. 

WATER-POWERS. 

It  is  a  corollary,  from  the  innumerable  streams  of  Kentucky,  their  sources, 
the  rocks  through  which  they  have  cut  their  way  and  the  many  "  rapids  "  in  their 
courses,  that  there  are  many  fine  water-powers  on  them.  No  comprehensive  esti- 
mate can  be  given  of  them,  and  I  do  not  know  that  any  has  ever  been  made ;  but 
it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  going  amiss  of  plenty  of  them  if  intelligent  search 
be  made,  most  particularly  on  the  east  side  of  the  State. 

SOIL  AND  PRODUCTIONS. 

I  quote  from  Dr.  Robert  Peter,  chemist  of  the  Kentucky  Geological  Survey, 
an  agricultural  chemist  and  practical  agriculturist  of  large  experience : 

Geologists  inform  us  that,  even  in  strata  which  had  been  deposited  or  formed 
at  the  same  geological  time,  the  rock-layers  at  the  North  are  sometimes  formed  of 
coarse-grained,  insoluble,  silicious  material,  while  those  farther  South  and  West 
are  limestones  or  fine-grained  shales,  rich  in  phosphates  and  other  soluble  materials. 

Another  geological  cause  of  the  comparative  fertility  of  Kentucky  soils  is, 
that  these  rock  strata  out  of  which  they  were  formed,  and  which  are  made  up  of 
the  most  finely  divided  or  soluble  materials,  were  raised  above  the  general  surface 
of  the  primeval  ocean  very  early  in  geological  history,  and  have  therefore  been 
exposed  to  the  disintegrating  influence  of  the  atmospheric  agencies  for  immense 


382  KENTUCKY. 

unknown  ages,  so  that  soils  formed  of  these  rocks  alone  have  been  gradually  pro- 
duced to  a  much  greater  depth  than  is  to  be  observed  in  almost  any  other  country. 
Soils  thus  formed,  in  place,  out  of  the  rock  strata  on  which  they  rest  are  called  by 
writers  "  sedentary  soils,"  and  said  to  have  usually  little  depth.  They  are  hardly 
known  over  the  broad  expanse  of  our  continent  north  and  west  of  Kentucky,  the 
whole  of  that  extensive  region  being  covered  by  a  mixed  deposit  of  clay,  sand, 
gravel  and  boulders  called  the  "  drift,"  made  .up  of  the  debris  of  more  northern 
rock  strata,  which  have  been  carried,  during  long  periods  of  polar  refrigeration, 
by  the  immense  glaciers  which  then  covered  a  great  portion  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere. 

This  mixed  deposit,  made  up  largely  of  coarse  and  hard  silicious  materials, 
which  so  covers  the  country  of  the  great  Northwest  that  scientific  observers  of 
the  North  have  asserted  that  the  soil  is  not  affected  by  its  underlying  rock 
stratum,  does  not  seem  to  have  crossed  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  River  to  enter 
Kentucky.  The  southern  extremity  of  the  polar  ice-field  seems  to  have  been  near 
the  line  of  our  latitude,  and  the  great  stream  of  water  flowing  from  it,  carrying 
its  gravel  and  sand,  deflected  by  the  river  valley  and  by  the  elevated  table-land  of 
our  ancient  rocks,  was  turned  west  of  our  State,  leaving  undisturbed  and  unburied 
the  rich  soil  which  had  been  produced  in  the  long  period  during  which  those  rocks 
had  been  raised  above  the  ocean  level. 

To  these  fortunate  geological  conditions,  therefore,  are  our  Kentucky  soils 
greatly  indebted  for  their  fertility  and  for  the  extremely  fine  state  of  division  of 
their  constituent  particles.  In  the  great  majority  of  these  soils  analyzed  by  the 
present  writer,  the  silicious  particles  left  after  digesting  the  soils  in  chlorohydric 
acid  of  specific  gravity  1.1  all  passed  through  a  fine  sieve  which  had  sixteen  hun- 
dred meshes  in  the  centimetre  square.  All  scientific  writers  on  soils  attach  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  relative  fineness  of  the  particles  which  form  them. 
Mons.  DeGasparin  ("  Terres  Arables,"  3me.  ed.,  p.  33)  says :  "  It  must  not  be  for- 
gotten, that  the  nutritive  power  of  a  soil,  other  things  being  equal,  is  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  fineness  of  the  particles  which  compose  it ;"  so  much  so,  indeed, 
that  when  a  soil  is  to  be  chemically  analyzed,  only  the  "  fine  earth,"  or  that  por- 
tion which  will  pass  through  a  sieve  having  ten  wires  to  the  centimetre,  is  taken 
for  the  analysis,  the  coarser  part  being  considered  practically  inert  as  to  plant 
nourishment — only  a  skeleton,  which  is  not  to  be  taken  into  account  when  esti- 
mating the  fertility  of  a  soil;  and  this  is  especially  true  when  the  coarser  particles 
are  of  quartz,  or  some  hard  silicate  not  readily  to  be  disintegrated  or  decomposed 
by  the  ordinary  process  of  weathering,  or  which  do  not  contain  any  essential  ele- 
ment of  plant  nourishment. 

In  this  important  particular  our  Kentucky  soils  are  more  valuable  than  the 
great  body  of  those  of  the  great  Northwest ;  that  not  only  are  their  constituent 
particles  very  minutely  divided,  but  even  these,  fine  enough  to  pass  through  the 
meshes  of  the  finest  sieve  above  described,  are  not  entirely  fine  sand  of  silica,  but 
contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  fine  particles  of  decomposable  silicates, 
which  in  the  process  of  weathering  help  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  essential  plant 
food  and  make  the  soils  very  durable.  In  some  of  his  analyses  of  Kentucky  soils 
the  writer  has  found  as  much  as  2.9  per  cent,  of  potash  in  the  fine  silicious  residue 
of  a  soil  which  was  left  after  a  week's  digestion  in  diluted  chlorohydric  acid,  but 
which  would  gradually  be  unlocked  and  made  available  for  plant  growth  under 
the  influence  of  tune  and  the  atmospheric  agencies. 

The  late  Dr.  David  D.  Owen,  former  director  of  the  Kentucky  Geological 
Survey,  placed  in  the  writer's  possession  a  series  of  samples  of  soils  which  he  had 
collected  during  his  celebrated  exploration  of  the  great  Northwestern  territory 
for  the  United  States  Government  in  1847-50,  some  of  which  the  writer  analyzed, 


KENTUCKY.  383 

giving  the  results  in  .Vol.  IV.,  O.  S.,  Kentucky  Geological  Reports.  These  soils, 
characteristic  of  the  best  of  this  great  prairie  region,  are  mostly  very  dark  colored, 
sometimes  almost  black,  from  the  presence  of  a  large  proportion  of  organic  matter, 
some  of  which  is  peaty  or  semi-bituminous — of  little  value  for  plant  food — derived 
from  the  decomposing  remains  of  many  successive  growths  of  grasses  or  aquatic 
plants  in  recent  or  former  ages;  but  in  them  all,  and  in  some  of  them  in  very 
large  proportion,  are  visible  grains  of  quartzose  sand,  reducing  materially  the 
quantity  of  "tine  earth,"  and  consequently  the  durability  of  these  soils.  "While 
the  organic  matters— the  dark  vegetable  mould,  give  to  such  soils  great  fertility  at 
first,  and  cultivation  is  facilitated  by  the  sandy  ingredient,  the  durability  of  such 
soils  without  the  aid  of  artificial  fertilizers  would  be  much  less  than  that  of  our 
best  Kentucky  soils,  which  contain  no  coarse  sand,  but  are  altogether  "fine  earth," 
made  up  partly  of  decomposable  silicates.  By  reliable  accounts,  the  older  prairie 
farmers  find  it  necessary  even  now  to  resort  to  artificial  fertilizers,  while  on  the 
best  lands  of  Kentucky  cropping  for  a  hundred  years  has  not  yet  brought  about 
this  necessity,  nor  will  it  perhaps  for  hundreds  of  years  more,  where  the  soil  rests 
on  a  decomposable  limestone  which  annually  gives  up  in  solution  to  the  soil  above 
as  much  essential  mineral  plant  food  as  may  be  removed  from  it  by  a  judicious 
system  of  culture. 

The  great  wheat-growing  region  of  the  Northwest,  known  as  the  Red  River 
Valley,  is  unmodified  glacial  drift,  and  the  exhaustion  by  the  present  system  of 
culture  may  be  confidently  predicted. 

In  the  Mississippi  bottom  Kentucky  has  some  320  square  miles,  lying  between 
the  Mississippi  and  Tennessee  Rivers,  in  Fulton  and  the  southern  parts  of  Hick 
man,  Graves  and  Galloway  Counties.  This  is  part  of  a  great  belt  of  country 
famous  for  its  mellow  rich  lands  and  as  a  cotton-producing  region.  Then,  near 
by  is  considerable  of  the  loess  soil,  one  of  the  most  enduring  and  fertile  of  all  soils 
in  the  country. 

No  State  of  this  Union  possesses  a  rounder  or  more  symmetrical  agriculture 
than  Kentucky.  Its  many-sidedness  is  most  impressive.  The  variety  of  products 
is  striking  enough,  but  the  force  and  strength  in  many  of  them  are  what  conspire 
to  give  the  State  such  potency  and  weight  in  the  scale  of  Federal  agriculture. 

The  product  for  which  Kentucky  is  most  noted  is  tobacco.  According  to  the 
last  Census  Report,  Kentucky  takes  first  rank  as  a  tobacco-growing  State,  pro- 
ducing more  than  double  the  quantity  of  any  other  State,  and  more  than  one-third 
-of  the  entire  amount  produced  in  the  Union.  The  entire  area  covered  by  the  crop 
for  1879  (226,120  acres)  shows  an  average  yield  per  acre  of  756.77  pounds.  The 
area  of  its  cultivation  is  widening  every  year,  extending  into  the  mountainous 
districts  on  the  east,  and  contracting  the  limits  of  the  blue-grass  region  in  the 
central  portion  of  the  State. 

There  are  eight  tobacco-growing  districts  in  Kentucky  recognized  by  the 
trade,  each  having  some  peculiarities  of  soil,  producing  types  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct. These  districts  are : 

I.  Paducah  or  western  district,  embracing  the  counties  of  Fulton,  Hickman, 
Graves,  Ballard,  McCracken,  Marshall  and  Galloway. 

II.  Ohio  River  district,  embracing  the  counties  of  Livingston,  Crittenden, 
Caldwell,  Lyon,  Hancock,  Breckenridge  and  Meade,  in  two  separate  bodies,  the 
Lower  Green  River  district  lying  between  them,  with  its  coal  measures. 

III.  Lower  Green  River  district,  embracing  the  counties  of  Henderson, 
Union,  Daviess,  Webster,  Hopkins,  McLean  and  Muhlenburg,  resembling  adja- 
cent districts  of  Indiana  and  Illinois. 

IV.  Green  River  district,  embracing  the  counties  of  Butler  and  Ohio. 


384  KENTUCKY. 

V.  Upper  Green  River  district,  embracing  the  counties  of  Barren,  Warren, 
Hardin,  Grajrson.  Edmonson,  Hart,  Green,  La  Rue,  Marion,  Taylor  and  Allen. 

VI.  Clarksville  district,  embracing  the  counties  of  Trigg,  Christian,  Todd, 
Logan  and  Simpson,  and  seven  counties  in  Tennessee. 

VII.  Cumberland  River  district,  embracing  the  counties  of  Metcalfe,  Russell, 
Adair.  Clinton,  Cumberland,  Monroe,  Casey,  Wayne  and  Pulaski. 

VIII  White  Burley  district,  embracing  what  was  formerly  known  as  the 
Boonc  County  district,  the  Mason  County  district,  the  Pendleton  County  district 
and  the  Kentucky  River  district.  The  following  counties  are  now  included  in 
the  White  Burley  district,  though  it  is  rapidly  widening,  and  may  soon  embrace 
several  other  districts:  Boone,  Kenton,  Campbell,  Gallatin,  Grant,  Pendleton, 
Bracken,  Carroll,  Owen,  Harrison,  Robertson,  Mason,  Lewis,  Fleming,  Montgom- 
ery, Nicholas,  Bourbon,  Scott,  Franklin,  Henry,  Trimble,  Oldham,  Shelby  and 
Woodford.  The  cultivation  of  the  White  Burley  is  even  invading  the  blue-grass 
region  of  Fayette  and  the  surrounding  counties. 

FRUITS. 

Although  Kentucky  has  not  gained  prominence  as  a  fruit  State,  there  is 
thereby  no  necessary  implication  against  her  soil  and  climate  with  reference  to 
fruit  production.  Owing  to  her  great  variety  of  soils  and  the  character  of  her 
climates,  it  must  be  seen  that  the  State  is  capable  of  producing  a  great  variety  of 
fruits.  From  the  low  elevation  above  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  of  her  rich  alluvion  on 
her  western  border,  with  its  warm  mellow  soil,  to  the  altitudes  of  the  mountains 
on  her  eastern  border,  is  a  great  range.  In  the  latter  area,  by  way  of  distinguish- 
ment  from  the  former,  the  cherry,  plums,  raspberry,  gooseberry,  currant,  and 
varieties  of  apple  and  pear,  requiring  generally  a  much  higher  latitude,  are  "  at 
home."  Further  west  and  south,  those  fruits  common  to  much  of  the  country  at 
large  should  receive  greater  consideration  for  the  possibility  of  earliness  than 
they  have — early  apples,  peaches,  pears,  strawberries,  grapes,  raspberries,  etc. 
The  railroads  in  the  latter  area  offer  great  conveniences  for  transportation  to 
market  and  have  measurably  stimulated  production.  If  it  be  said  that  the  pro- 
duction of  early  fruits  is  overdone,  the  answer  is  that  there  is  wide  scope  for* 
improvement  in  methods  in  many  regards. 

VEGETABLES. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  to  any  American  reader  that  there  is  nothing  to  bar 
the  production  of  any  vegetable  in  Kentucky  that  is  common  to  the  country  at 
large,  and  early  peas,  beans,  potatoes,  tomatoes,  etc.,  offer  a  fair  field  for  operations. 

Tlie  author  of  this  book  has  visited  many  times  various  parts  of  the  State  of 
Kentucky,  and  he  has  leisurely  observed  some  of  its  choicest  areas.  It  is  certainly 
no  disparagement  to  any  other  portion  of  the  United  States  to  say  that  there  is 
no  more  beautiful  and  celebrated  area  in  the  country,  in  point  of  pastoral  attrac- 
tiveness, than  the  blue-grass  region.  Its  celebrity  is  almost  world-wide.  "  The 
blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky  "  sounds  upon  the  ear  like  an  incantation,  and  the 
name  seems  to  involve  the  imagination  and  memory  in  a  delicious  spell,  in  which 
it  is  next  to  impossible  to  tell  which  of  these  faculties  plays  the  greater  part.  It 
is  a  sort  of  modern  Arcadia  and  rife  with  bucolic  suggestions.  It  stands  to  all 
well-informed  and  appreciative  citizens  of  the  United  States  as  the  climax  of 
pastoral  life — the  Eden  of  the  stock-raiser,  the  Elysium  of  the  cultured  dreamer. 
Its  magnificent  parks,  clad  with  its  famous  grass,*  where  graze  its  renowned 
herds;  the  wide-spreading,  towering  trees  gracing  these  parks;  the  ornate, 
spacious,  costly  homes,  where  wealth,  beauty  and  culture  dispense  their  fascina- 
tions to  the  grandly- welcomed  guest,  bind  the  heart  in  the  gracious  fetters  of 

Kentucky  blue-grass  (Poo,  fratensis). 


KENTUCKY.  385 

their  kindly  spell.  There  the  pellucid  stream  meanders  in  silvery  shiuousness, 
and  the  sparkling  brook  leaps  and  laughs  in  a  glee,  as  though  gladsome  and  blest 
in  the  privilege  of  its  pretty  and  tireless  gambols;  there  is  the  most  celebrated 
home  of  the  lordly  Short  Horn ;  there  is  to  be  found  the  fleetest  and  most  endur- 
ing racer;  thither  resort,  as  to  both  a  Mecca  and  the  choicest  mart,  the  wealthiest 
and  best  known  stock-raisers  of  Great  Britain,  the  United  States  and  Canada,  to 
add  to  their  fame  and  fortune  selections  from  the  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  of  the 
Kentucky  breeders.  It  is  a  wealthy,  cultured,  glorious  country.  The  banks  are 
crammed  with  money;  for  the  stock-raisers  there  have  got  almost  fabulous  prices 
for  their  stock.  It  is,  better  than  all  yet  said,  a  land  of  "  fair  women  and  brave 
men."  Who  shall  tell  of  the  indescribable  union  of  charms  in  the  women — "  the 
ripe  and  real,"  the  rich,  round,  sumptuous  beauty,  with  its  voluptuous  spell,  and 
yet  the  spiritual  grace,  the  atmosphere  of  higher  life,  the  hovering  halo  so  rife  of 
commerce  with  the  skies  ?  When  one  thinks  of  their  sylphid  grace,  their  luxu- 
riant symmetry,  the  soft  enchantments  of  their  glorious  figures,  one  is  reminded 
of  Suckling's  beauty  in  the  famous  ballad  on  the  Easter  wedding.  When  one  sees 
the  light  irradiating  them  and  dominating  the  beholder,  one  thinks  of  how — 

"  Soul  is  form  and  doth  the  body  make ;" 

or  of  that  other  sentiment : 

"  The  eloquent  blood 

Shone  in  her  cheek,  and  so  distinctly  wrought. 
One  could  not  tell  if  soul  or  body  thought." 

No  one  can  be  unobservant  of  the  superb  physique  so  common  among  the 
men  of  that  country.  Nowhere  can  there  be  seen  as  many  men  of  fine  height 
and  vigor.  Prof.  Procter,  in  one  of  his  publications,  says :  "  That  the  conditions 
are  most  favorable  for  the  production  of  a  vigorous  race  of  men  is  attested  by  the 
tables  of  measurements  of  the  United  States  volunteers  during  the  civil  war  by 
A.  B.  Gould.  The  soldiers  born  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  excelled  all  others 
in  height,  weight,  circumference  around  the  head,  circumference  of  chest,  ratio 
of  weight  to  stature,  and  proportional  number  of  tall  men  in  each  100,000  of 
same  nativity." 

He  also  says :  "  The  speed  and  endurance  of  the  Kentucky  horse,  and  the 
superior  development  of  all  kinds  of  domestic  animals  of  the  State,  are  well 
known."  This  development  of  domestic  animals,  it  is  very  generally  agreed,  is 
owing  to  the  large  quantity  of  phosphate  of  lime  in  the  soil  available  for  plant 
food.  It  is  a  condition  of  soil  destined  to  distinguish  parts  of  Mississippi  and 
Alabama,  and  possibly  some  other  Southern  States. 

This  blue-grass  region  has  an  area  of  10,000  square  miles,  or  one-fourth  the 
State.  Its  elevation  is  from  800  to  1,150  feet  above  the  sea. 

HEALTHFULNESS. 

It  is  a  natural  transition  from  a  portrayal  of  the  vigor  of  the  men  and  women 
to  the  topic  of  the  healthf ulness  of  the  State.  From  Prof.  Procter  we  quote : 

"  In  healthfulness  the  State  ranks  high.  *  *  *  Death  to  population  was, 
in  1850, 1.53  per  cent.;  in  1860, 1.42  per  cent.,-  in  1870, 1.09  per  cent.;  in  1880,  0.72 
per  cent.  *  *  *  The  high  elevation,  perfect  drainage,  salubrity  of  climate 
and  purity  of  waters  combine  favorably,  and  insure  health  and  vigor  to  the 
population." 

PROXIMITY  TO  MARKETS. 

The  State  of  Kentucky  is  singularly  blessed  in  another  respect — she  is  in  the 
very  center  of  population.  The  United  States  Census  for  1880  places  the  center 
of  population  for  the  entire  country  in  Kentucky,  eight  miles  west  by  south  from 
Cincinnati.  To  Cincinnati  the  citizens  of  Kentucky  have  access  by  water  for  a 


386  KENTUCKY. 

large  area  of  the  State.    Near  are  other  considerable  cities — Indianapolis,  Pitts- 
burgh, Louisville  and  others. 

The  prices  of  lands  in  Kentucky  are  much  lower  than  in  the  competing 
States  of  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio.  A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  these 
States  share  with  Kentucky  the  benefits  of  the  Ohio  River. 

PLACES  OF  4,000  INHABITANTS  AND   OVER. 

The  places  of  4,000  population  and  upwards,  according  to  the  last  (tenth) 
United  States  Census,  are:  Bowling  Green,  5,114;  Covington,  29,720;  Frankfort 
(capital),  6,958 ;  Henderson,  5,365 ;  Hopkinsville,  4,229;  Lexington,  16,656;  Louis- 
ville, 123,758;  Maysville,  5,220;  Newport,  20,433;  Owensboro,  6,231;  Paducah, 
8,036.  Louisville  is  a  great  whiskey  and  tobacco  mart  particularly,  and  by  reason 
of  her  location  and  facility  for  procurement  of  and  proximity  to  raw  materials, 
must  always  manufacture  much  tobacco,  whiskey,  articles  of  hemp  (in  the  pro- 
duction of  which  the  State  has  long  held  the  supremacy)  and  flour.  The  city 
ought  some  day  to  be  a  great  place  for  manufacturing  furniture,  paper  from  wood 
pulp,  and  in  the  production  of  many  articles  in  the  iron  line. 


TENNESSEE. 


Tennessee  has  for  its  northern  boundary  Virginia  and  Kentucky ;  on  the  east 
is  North  Carolina;  on  the  south,  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi;  while  on  the 
west  it  is  separated  from  Arkansas  and  Missouri  by  the  Mississippi  River.  The 
population  of  the  State  in  1880  was  1,542,359—1,525,657  native  and  16,702  foreign; 
1,138,831  white  and  403,151  colored. 

Concerning  the  general  features  of  this  State,  nothing  more  accurate  or  satis- 
factory could  be  presented  than  the  following  from  the  Report  of  the  Tenth 
Census.  It  was  prepared  by  the  eminent  geologist,  James  M.  Safford,  A.  M.,  Ph. 
D.,  M.  D.,  State  Geologist  of  Tennessee,  and  Professor  of  Geology  and  Natural 
History  in  Yanderbilt  University : 

The  southern  boundary  of  Tennessee  coincides  mostly  with  the  parallel  of 
latitude  35°  north ;  its  northern  limit  is  a  broken  line  lying  between  the  parallels 
of  36°  41 '.  In  general  outline  the  State  has  approximately  the  figure  of  a  long 
rhomboid.  Its  mean  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  385  miles,  while  its  mean 
breadth  cannot  be  much  over  109  miles.  Its  land  area  is  estimated  to  be  41,750 
square  miles ;  its  water  surface  300  square  miles. 

VARIETY  IN  NATURAL  FEATURES. 

The  length  of  the  State,  and  the  fact  that  it  reaches,  in  its  ribbon-like  form, 
from  the  crest  of  a  great  mountain  range  on  the  east  to  the  very  low  alluvial  plain 
of  the  Mississippi  on  the  west,  through  a  varied  territory,  gives  to  Tennessee  it's 
most  prominent  characteristic,  to  wit :  great  variety.  This  is  seen  in  its  topog- 
raphy, geology,  soil,  climate,  agriculture,  and  we  may  say  in  the  character  and 
habits  of  its  population. 

Nearly  all  the  important  physical  and  geological  features  of  the  States 
around  it  are  represented  more  or  less  (grouped  as  if  for  contrast)  within  its 
borders.  Tennessee  has,  for  example,  on  the  one  hand,  some  of  the  greatest 
mountain  ridges  of  the  Apalachians,  with  their  'bald'  summits  and  ancient  rocks; 
on  the  other,  the  low  land,  cypress  swamps  and  alluvial  beds  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  It  has  also  well  represented  the  singular  parallel  valleys  and  ridges  of 
Middle  Virginia;  the  highlands,  the  *  barrens'  and  the  rich  limestone  lands  of 
Kentucky,  and  the  orange-colored  sand-hills,  the  Cretaceous  beds  and  cotton  soils 
of  Northern  Mississippi.  The  same  variety  and  contrast  exist  in  the  matter  of 
climate,  especially  as  to  summer  temperatures. 

GENERAL  TOPOGRAPHY  AND  ELEVATION. 

To  aid  in  understanding  the  topography  of  the  State,  it  will  be  well  to 
assume  and  have  in  mind  a  great  horizontal  plane,  having  an  elevation  of  900 
feet  above  the  sea,  with  which  to  compare  the  general  surface.  Throwing  out  of 
view  for  the  moment  some  of  the  local  geographical  features — that  is  to  say,  the 
mountain  ranges  of  the  eastern  portion  and  the  basins  and  valleys  of  the  western, 
the  general  surface  coincides  more  or  less  with  this  plane.  I  say  more  or  lees,  for 


388  TENNESSEE. 

the  surface  is  in  a  degree  a  warped  one,  coinciding  at  very  many  points  with  the 
plane,  but  at  others  either  rising  above  or  sinking  below  it. 

The  parts  of  the  State  approximately  coinciding  with  our  assumed  plane  of 
900  feet  elevation,  or  at  least  directly  referable  to  it,  are  the  great  divisions  named : 
The  plateau  slope  of  West  Tennessee,  the  highland  rim  of  Middle  Tennessee  and 
the  Valley  of  East  Tennessee. 

The  Valley  of  East  Tennessee,  in  its  upper  or  northern  part,  is  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  plane,  while  in  its  central  and  southern  parts  it  at  first 
coincides  and  then  very  gradually  falls  below  it.  The  highlands  of  Middle 
Tennessee  in  some  counties,  as  in  Lawrence  and  Wayne,  present  a  flat  surface 
100  feet  higher  than  our  assumed  reference  plane,  while  in  Montgomery  and 
adjoining  counties  the  corresponding  highlands  are  considerably  lower.  The 
Bridge'  in  West  Tennessee  dividing  the  waters  of  the  Tennessee  and  Mississippi 
Rivers,  and  including  the  summit  line  of  the  great  plateau  slope,  must  at  some 
points  be  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  high  as  the  plane.  Westward,  however,  the 
.general  surface  sloping  off  towards  the  Mississippi  falls  considerably  below,  and 
may  be  regarded  as  terminating  at  an  average  elevation  of  not  far  from  400  feet 
along  the  edge  of  the  bluff  escarpment  which  faces  the  alluvial  plane  of  the  great 
river. 

Upon  the  surface,  as  described,  rest  the  mountains  of  the  State,  the  most 
important  being  the  great  ranges  of  the  Unaka  Region  and  the  Cumberland 
Table-land.  Cut  out  of  it  and  below  it  are  the  central  basin  of  Middle  Tennessee, 
the  western  valley  of  the  Tennessee  River  and  the  Mississippi  Bottom  Region. 

Politically,  the  State  is  divided  into  three  large  divisions,  namely:  West 
Tennessee,  Middle  Tennessee  and  East  Tennessee.  The  first  embraces  all  the 
counties  between  the  Mississippi  and  Tennessee  Rivers,  including  the  whole  of 
Hardin  County,  altogether  less  than  one-third  of  the  State;  the  second  the 
counties  between  the  Tennessee  River  and  a  line  approximately  dividing  longi- 
tudinally the  Cumberland  Table-land,  the  largest  division ;  and  the  third  all  the 
remaining  counties  in  the  eastern  end  of  the  State. 

CLIMATE. 

As  already  stated,  in  climate,  as  in  other  natural  features,  the  State  presents 
a  marked  variety,  This  is  especially  true  of  summer  temperatures.  The  valley 
lands  of  upper  East  Tennessee  have  the  summers  of  Ohio  and  New  Jersey ;  the 
lowlands  of  Middle  Tennessee  have  the  summers  of  the  northern  part  of  Georgia; 
while  West  Tennessee  is  warmed  by  the  summer  of  the  central  parts  of  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina.  And  further,  there  is,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter,  an  extended 
line  of  high  points  on  the  eastern  border  of  the  State  which  have  the  cool  breezes 
of  a  Canadian  summer,  and  are,  to  some  extent,  clothed  with  a  Canadian  flora. 
The  climate  of  the  State,  exclusive  of  its  mountains,  is,  in  general,  midway  in 
character  between  that  of  a  temperate  and  that  of  a  sub-tropical  region,  or  rather 
it  combines  the  milder  features  of  the  two.  In  common  with  a  large  part  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Mississippi,  the  climate  is  subject  to  comparatively  great  extremes, 
yet  these  extremes  never  reach  the  excessive  cold  of  the  Northern  States  or  the 
highest  temperature  of  the  tropics. 

Herbage  is  often  green  throughout  the  year,  and  cattle  can  generally  graze, 
with  but  little  interruption  from  cold  or  snow,  during  all  the  months  of  the 
winter.  Many  shrubs  which,  in  States  farther  north,  lose  their  leaves  during  the 
winter,  here  not  unfrequently  retain  them  the  year  round. 

The  daily  changes  of  temperature  are  considerable,  and,  in  common  with  a 
large  area  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  State  has  a  full  share  of  humidity  and 
sufficient  rains.  It  is  a  part  of  the  region  of  which  it  is  said  "  cotton,  Indian  corn 


TENNESSEE.  389 

and  the  cane  find  their  natural  climate  here,  but  not  elsewhere  in  any  considerable 
degree  beyond  the  tropics." 

The  annual  mean  temperature  along  a  parallel  running  longitudinally 
through  the  middle  of  the  State  is,  according  to  the  best  observations  and  esti- 
mates, about  60.5°  for  West  Tennessee,  58.5°  for  Middle  Tennessee,  on  the  meridian 
of  Nashville,  and  57.5°  for  the  Valley  of  East  Tennessee,  the  range  being  3°.  For 
the  annual  means  of  parts  of  West  and  Middle  Tennessee  near  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  State  one  degree  may  be  subtracted  from  each  of  the  above 
numbers  respectively,  and  for  parts  near  the  southern  boundary  one  degree  added. 
In  East  Tennessee  two  degrees  must  be  added  and  subtracted  respectively  for  the 
northern  and  southern  means.  These  approximations  are  the  best  that  can  be 
made  at  present.  In  making  them,  the  temperatures  of  the  mountain  divisions, 
namely:  the  Cumberland  Table-land  and  the  Unaka  Region,  have  not  been 
considered. 

The  length  of  the  period  between  the  last  killing  frost  of  spring  and  the 
first  killing  frost  of  autumn  is  to  the  agriculturist  an  important  element  of  cli- 
mate. It  is  the  measure  of  the  growing  season,  at  least  so  far  as  the  cotton-plant 
is  concerned.  Not  including  the  mountains,  the  average  time  for  the  last  killing 
frost  of  spring  is  the  middle  of  April  in  the  northern  counties  of  the  State, 
excepting  in  those  of  upper  East  Tennessee,  where  it  occurs  a  few  days  later.  In 
the  southern  part  of  the  State  it  is  a  week  sooner.  The  average  time  of  the  first 
killing  frost  of  autumn  in  the  northern  counties  is  the  middle  of  October.  It 
occurs  a  few  days  earlier  in  upper  East  Tennessee,  and  a  week  later  in  the 
southern  counties  of  the  State.  The  number  of  days  between  these  frosts — that 
of  spring  and  that  of  autumn — averages  189  for  the  northern  part  of  the  State 
and  203  for  the  southern.  Frosts,  of  course,  may  occur  respectively  before  or 
after  the  times  specified,  but  the  probabilities  are  against  it.  Early  frosts  begin 
to  be  a  source  of  apprehension  before  the  last  of  September,  especially  in  the 
more  northern  portions  of  the  State,  and  the  cotton  crop  often  suffers  more  or 
less  from  them.  The  latitude  of  Tennessee  is  such  that  a  fall  of  two  degrees  of 
temperature  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State  might  cause  a  killing  frost,  resulting 
in  the  destruction  of  the  cotton-plants,  while  the  same  fall  in  the  southern  part 
would  leave  them  intact.  The  length  of  the  growing  season  for  cotton  is,  at  the 
best,  short  enough  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  and  where  so  slight  a  change 
of  temperature  produces  such  results,  we  can  readily  see  how,  in  the  northern 
part,  it  may  be  generally  too  short  for  full  crops,  which  in  reality  it  is.  It  amounts 
to  nearly  the  same  thing  to  say  that  the  margin  of  the  cotton-growing  section  of 
the  country  runs  through  Tennessee.  In  an  inspection  of  the  map  showing 
percentage  of  aggregate  areas  in  cotton,  as  compared  with  the  entire  area  of  any 
given  region,  it  is  seen  that  the  counties  in  Tennessee  which  plant  and  produce 
the  most  cotton  are  strikingly  the  most  southerly  ones,  and  that  from  these  the 
production  decreases  almost  uniformly  as  we  go  north.  This  is  especially  so  in 
West  Tennessee.  Now,  hi  explanation  of  this,  in  great  part  at  least,  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  isotherms  or  lines  of  equal  temperature  for  spring  and  fail  extend 
west-northwest  throughout  the  State,  say  parallel  with  a  line  running  through 
Chattanooga  and  Trenton  or  thereabout.  This  shows  the  southwestern  corner  to 
be  the  warmest,  and  here  is  our  great  center  of  cotton  culture.  The  greater 
warmth  stimulates  the  cotton,  and,  by  throwing  back  the  killing  frosts,  increases 
the  length  of  the  growing  season.  The  soils  have  their  influence,  but  that  they 
are  not  dominant  in  this  distribution  of  percentage  cuHure  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  as  we  go  north  the  decrease  occurs,  though  the  soils  and  elevation  remain 
essentially  the  same.  It  is  also  noteworthy  that  as  we  go  eastward  from  each  of 
the  two  centers  of  cotton  culture,  (the  southwesterly  corner  of  the  State  and  the 


890  TENNESSEE. 

southern  part  of  the  central  basin,)  the  percentage  of  cotton  culture  rapidly 
decreases.  The  temperature  and  high  elevation  obviously  have  much  to  do  with 
this  decrease. 

The  rainfall  for  seven  years  (1873-1879)  was :  At  Memphis,  54.40  inches ;  at 
Nashville,  51.98  inches,  and  at  Knoxville,  54.52  inches,  giving  a  mean  of  53.00 
inches.  Our  data  indicate  that  we  have  the  least  rain  in  autumn,  and  the  most  in 
winter  and  spring,  yet  so  distributed  through  the  months  as  to  prevent  a  ly 
marked  distinction  into  wet  and  dry  seasons.  The  most  favorable  seasons  are 
those  in  which  the  rainfall  is  about  mean,  provided  it  is  suitably  distributed 
among  the  months.  It  is  more  frequently  too  dry  than  too  wet  during  the 
summer. 

MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

In  minerals  Tennessee  is  one  of  the  richest  States  in  the  Union.  She  stands 
among  the  first  of  the  Southern  States  that  have  within  the  last  few  years  been 
found  to  possess  such  vast  beds  of  coal  and  iron  ore.  She  furnishes  the  most 
costly  and  beautiful  marble.  Other  minerals,  such  as  building  stones,  roofing 
slates,  copper,  zinc,  etc. ,  exist  in  quantities.  The  following  in  reference  to  the 
minerals  of  the  State  is  from  the  pen  of  Henry  E.  Colton,  Esq.,  geologist  and 
mining  engineer,  Nashville,  Tenn. : 

COAL. 

The  superficial  area  in  the  State  of  Tennessee  covered  by  coal-bearing  strata 
amounts  to  5,100  square  miles ;  but  this  does  not  fairly  represent  the  amount  of 
coal  in  the  State,  as  all  this  area  has  at  least  one  seam  of  coal,  a  large  proportion 
more  than  two,  and  a  very  considerable  area  has  six  or  more  workable  seams.  It 
is  thus  seen  that  the  mere  area  of  a  coal-field  may  be  a  very  poor  indication  of 
the  quantity  of  coal  it  contains,  and  without  an  examination  into  the  thickness  of 
the  seams  and  the  quality  of  the  coal  therein,  any  judgment  formed  from  area 
alone  may  be  very  incorrect.  Missouri  contains  vastly  more  coal  area  than 
Tennessee,  yet  one  seam  in  Tennessee  is  worth  more  for  economic  purposes  than 
all  the  coal  of  Missouri. 

In  Pennsylvania  there  is  a  formation  under  the  regular  coal  series  known  as 
the  False  coal  measures,  having  only  thin  bands  of  coal;  in  Tennessee  the  meas- 
ures contain  several  workable  seams  of  coal  of  excellent  quality.  The  lower 
and  upper  measures  of  Pennsylvania  also  appear  in  this  State,  but  the  great  mass 
of  rocks  of  the  barren  measures  appear  in  much  reduced  thickness.  It  is  thus 
seen  that  while  Tennessee  has  all  the  bituminous  coals  of  Pennsylvania,  this  State 
has  also  a  coal-bearing  strata  which  in  that  is  bare  of  any  productive  seams. 
"While  the  area  covered  by  our  coal-field  is  not  so  large,  yet  it  is  probable  that  we 
have  as  much  or  more  of  this  mineral  fuel — the  anthracite  field  excepted — than 
the  great  iron  State. 

The  Tennessee  coal-field  belongs  to  that  division  known  in  geology  as  the 
Apalachian  coal-field,  which,  commencing  in  Pennsylvania,  extends  over  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  West  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  ends  in  Alabama.  While  its  width  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  extends  through  four  degrees  of  longitude,  at  the  northern 
boundary  of  Tennessee  it  is  only  about  seventy-one  miles,  and  at  its  southern 
boundary  fifty  miles.  In  its  southern  course  into  Alabama  it  expands  into  a 
heart-shaped  area  one  hundred  miles  or  more  in  width.  The  area  of  this  coal- 
field in  Tennessee  includes  within  its  limits  the  counties  of  Scott,  Morgan,  Cum- 
berland, the  greater  part  of  Fentress,  Van  Buren,  Bledsoe,  Grundy,  Sequatchie 
and  Marion ;  considerable  parts  of  Claiborne,  Campbell,  Anderson,  Rhea,  Roane, 
Overton,  Hamilton,  Putnam,  White  and  Franklin,  and  small  portions  of  Warren 
and  Coffee. 


TENNESSEE.  391 

The  Cumberland  Table -land  has  generally  a  broad,  flat  top,  capped  with  a 
layer  of  conglomerate  sandstone,  averaging  perhaps  seventy  feet  in  thickness. 
This  layer  of  sandstone  on  the  western  edges  of  the  table-land  forms  a  steep 
escarpment  or  brow — bold,  distinct,  and  well-marked — from  twenty  to  one  hun- 
dred, and  sometimes  two  hundred  feet  high.  Beneath  this  often  overhanging 
brow  the  steep,  woody  slopes  of  the  sides  begin  and  run  down  to  the  lowlands. 
These  slopes  below  the  cliffs  usually  rest  against  the  lower  coal  measures  and 
upon  the  mountain  limestone.  The  eastern  outline  of  the  Cumberland  Table-land 
is  for  some  distance  a  nearly  direct  line,  making,  however,  a  curve,  and  taking  in 
portions  of  Roane,  Anderson  and  Campbell  Counties.  The  western  edge  is 
jagged,  notched  by  innumerable  coves  and  valleys,  and  presenting  a  scolloped  or 
ragged  contour,  with  outlying  knobs  separated  from  the  main  table-land  by  deep 
ravines  or  fissures.  In  the  southern  portion,  near  the  eastern  side,  is  a  deep 
gorge,  canoe  shaped,  with  steep  escarpments  rising  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand 
feet  above  the  valley,  through  which  the  Sequatchie  River  flows  This  is  the 
Sequatchie  Valley,  which  separates  the  lower  end  of  the  table-land  into  two 
distinct  arms.  Through  the  eastern  arm  the  Tennessee  River  breaks,  and  after 
flowing  clown  the  valley  for  a  distance  of  sixty  miles,  turns  at  Guntersville,  Ala., 
and  spon  afterwards  cuts  through  the  western  arm  fifty  miles  from  the  Tennessee 
line.  This  Sequatchie  trough  is  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  in  length,  the  Ten- 
nessee end  being  sixty  miles  and  the  Alabama  end  one  hundred. 

The  eastern  arm  of  the  coal-field,  on  the  western  side  of  wrhich  this  remark- 
able valley  passes,  is  six  to  eight  miles  wide.  Between  the  Tennessee  River  and 
the  Nashville  and  Chattanooga  Railroad  it  is  called  Raccoon  Mountain.  Sepa- 
rated from  this  by  Will's  Valley,  Lookout  Mountain  rises  up  in  massive  propor- 
tions. The  latter  is  an  outlier  of  the  Cumberland  Table-land,  and  geologically  is 
closely  allied  to  it. 

Passing  now  to  the  northeast  corner  of  the  coal  region,  we  find  a  quadri- 
lateral block  almost  severed  from  the  mountain  mass  by  the  valleys  of  Elk  Fork 
and  Cove  Creek — the  former  running  northeast  and  emptying  into  the  Cumber- 
land River;  the  latter  running  southeast  into  the  Clinch  River. 

The  average  height  of  the  Cumberland  Table-land  is  two  thousand  feet  above 
tidewater,  but  some  of  the  ridges  of  the  northeastern  part  rise  to  a  much  greater 
height,  reaching  at  places,  as  at  Cross  Mountain,  three  thousand  three  hundred 
and  seventy  feet,  and  at  Butt  Mountain,  near  Coal  Creek,  three  thousand  five 
hundred.  The  Valley  of  Cove  Creek  is  two  thousand  three  hundred  feet  lower 
than  the  high  points  of  Cross  Mountain.  The  part  of  the  Valley  of  East  Ten- 
nessee immediately  contiguous  to  the  mountain  is  about  one  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea;  so  that,  viewed  from  that  valley,  the  Cumberland  Table-land  stands  out 
with  singular  boldness  and  sharpness  of  outline.  Everywhere  in  the  northern 
part  it  is  marked  by  a  succession  of  cliffs  elevated  one  above  the  other,  with 
intervening  wooded  slopes.  On  the  eastern  side,  parallel  with  the  main  mountain 
mass,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  narrow  vale,  is  a  steep,  roof-like  sandstone  ridge, 
with  the  layers  upturned  on  their  edges,  the  only  access  being  through  a  few  gaps 
like  that  of  Coal  Creek.  This  ridge  is  known  as  Walden's  Ridge.  Following 
this  ridge  southward,  the  name  is  applied  to  the  whole  arm  between  Sequatchie 
Valley  and  the  Valley  of  East  Tennessee. 

We  have  said  that  this  coal  region  is  sheeted  with  a  thick  conglomerate 
sandstone;  but  upon  this  sheet,  a  short  distance  from  the  edges  of  the  precipice, 
other  strata  are  superimposed,  rising  in  some  places  one  thousand  feet  and  more 
above  the  conglomerate  or  general  surface,  and  forming,  as  it  were,  mountains 
upon  the  top  of  the  table-land.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  coal  region,  its 
plateau  character  is  destroyed  by  these  superincumbent  mountains. 


392  TENNESSEE. 

While  there  should  be  a  division  of  the  Tennessee  coal-field  into  lower, 
middle  and  tipper  measures,  from  the  fact  that  the  false  measures  contain  work- 
able coal,  and  that  the  true  upper  measures  appear  only  north  of  Emery  River, 
yet  the  line  of  demarkation  between  the  last  two  has  not  been  so  well  denned, 
and  the  usual  classification  has  been  into  upper  and  lower  measures,  the  division 
being  the  thick  conglomerate  which  givos  the  cliff-like  appearance  to  the  moun- 
tain on  its  western  side.  The  second  conglomerate  or  sandstone  which  caps  the 
plateau  throughout  its  length  is  over  what  should  be  called  the  middle  measures — 
really  the  lower  measures  of  Pennsylvania. 

Including  the  upper  and  lower  coal  measures,  there  are  seven  strata  of  coal, 
aggregating  a  thickness  of  from  seven  to  fourteen  and  a  half  feet..  Many  of  these 
beds,  however,  are  too  thin  to  work,  and  are  given  merely  to  show  the  extent  of 
the  coal  measures. 

The  lower  measures,  though  irregular  and  uncertain,  supply  a  large  amount 
of  coal  in  White,  Putnam,  Overton,  Fentress,  Franklin  and  Marion  Counties. 
The  seams  in  these  counties  are  of  good  thickness  and  afford  coal  of  excellent 
qualily. 

The  main  seam  of  the  upper  measures  on  the  western  side  of  the  table-land 
is  the  Sewanee.  This  seam  will  average  four  and  a  half  feet  in  thickness — its 
largest  development  being  ten  feet  four  inches,  and  its  least  two  feet. 

The  Sewanee  seam  furnishes  a  larger  amount  of  coal  than  any  other  single 
seam  in  Tennessee,  and  has  all  the  qualities  that  combine  to  make  a  useful  and 
valuable  coal.  It  varies  in  some  of  its  characteristics  and  constituents  in  different 
localities,  but  that  is  a  common  freak  of  all  coal  seams  in  every  coal-field.  It 
makes  a  good  coke,  is  a  good  steam-making  coal,  makes  a  hot,  durable  fire  in  the 
grate,  and  is  nearly  free  from  sulphur.  It  is  found  at  a  certain  elevation  all  over 
the  table-land,  but  in  the  horizontal  strata  of  the  Coal  Creek  and  Winter's  Gap 
section  of  the  field  it  has  probably  sunk  far  beneath  the  surface.  It  is  the  main 
seam  of  Walden's  Ridge,  and  continues  with  much  persistency  from  Chattanooga 
to  Coal  Creek.  Where  the  ridge  is  regular  in  surface  and  the  strata  in  place,  the 
seam  is  of  regular  thickness  and  easily  worked,  with  a  certainty  of  obtaining  a 
constant  supply;  but  where  the  strata  are  broken  by  ravines  or  gorges,  it  is  also 
disturbed — sometimes  lost  entirely,  and  again  rising  into  great  thickness. 

Walden's  Ridge  is  an  outlier  of  the  Cumberland  Table-land,  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  length  a  vast  wall  of  upturned  rocks  ranging  from  six  hundred  to 
twelve  hundred  feet  high.  This  singular  formation  is  best  seen  north  of  Big 
Emery  Gap.  A  base  line  drawn  horizontally  through  the  ridge  would  probably 
give  a  width  of  twelve  hundred  feet.  The  line  of  demarkation  between  the 
inclined  strata  of  Walden's  Ridge  and  the  horizontal  layers  of  the  Cumberland 
Mountains  is  sharp  and  well  defined.  Within  a  few  feet  one  steps  from  the 
almost  vertical  sandstones  of  Walden's  Ridge  to  those  of  the  Cumberland  Table- 
land lying  horizontally.  Behind  he  sees  the  steep  inclined  crags  of  Emery  Gap, 
and  in  front  the  shales,  slates  and  sandstones  lying  one  on  the  other.  This  ridge 
is  most  continuous  and  conspicuous  in  its  tilted  strata  from  Big  Emery  Gap  to 
near  Carey ville ;  but  those  peculiar  characteristics  are  gradually  lessened  to  the 
southwest  from  Emery  Gap,  until  near  Chattanooga  the  dip  of  the  strata  is  very 
slight,  and  its  top,  instead  of  being  a  narrow  ridge,  flattens  out  into  a  plateau  six 
or  eight  miles  wide.  The  greatest  action  of  the  downthrow,  therefore,  took  place 
between  Emery  Gap  and  Careyville ;  and  to  its  action,  says  Prof.  Lesley,  is  due 
the  preservation  of  the  numerous  beds  of  coal  in  the  high  mountains  on  Poplar 
Creek,  at  Winter's  Gap  and  on  Coal  Creek. 

It  has  been  assumed  that  the  inclined  seams  of  Walden's  Ridge  pass  down 
under  the  surface  strata  of  the  Cumberland  Mountains  and  become  as  nearly 


TENNESSEE.  393 

horizontal  as  the  coals  of  that  formation.  No  accurate  demonstration  of  this  has 
ever  been  made,  but  the  record  of  the  borings  of  the  salt-well  at  Winter's  Gap, 
though  not  strictly  accurate,  gives  an  idea  upon  which  may  be  based  some  found- 
ation for  the  truth  of  this  theory. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  coal-field  the  general  dip  of  the  strata  is  slightly 
to  the  northeast.  The  elevation  of  the  sub-carboniferous  limestone  on  the  moun- 
tain-side near  Tracy  City  is  about  sixteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  On  a  direct 
east  line,  near  the  foot  of  Walden's  Ridge,  the  same  rock  is  only  about  nine  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  sea.  On  the  line  of  the  Tennessee  and  Pacific  road,  in  Putnam 
County,  the  limestone  is  about  fourteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  while  in  a 
direct  east  line,  near  Winter's  Gap,  in  the  valley,  it  is  only  eight  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  The  level  of  the  valley  at  Cowan  is  nine  hundred  and 
seventy-three  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  level  of  the  Sewanee  seam  at  Tracy 
City  is  nine  hundred  and  forty-nine  feet  higher.  This  seam  dips  to  the  southeast 
about  eight  feet  to  the  mile.  Hence,  irom  its  location  in  Fentress,  in  the  fifty 
miles  distance  to  Winter's  Gap,  it  would  be  deep  down  under  the  horizontal 
strata  of  the  high  mountains,  though  coming  up  again  above  the  valley  in 
Walden's  Ridge. 

Towering  high  above  the  valley,  in  Anderson,  Morgan  and  Campbell 
Counties,  is  the  series  of  mountains  heretofore  mentioned.  They  reach  an 
altitude  of  over  three  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  sea-level  and  contain 
coal  scams  to  their  very  summits.  Here  is  the  equivalent  of  the  upper  measures 
of  Pennsylvania.  And  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  carboniferous  strata  in  this 
region,  estimating  by  the  data  derived  from  the  boring  of  the  salt-well  at  Winter's 
Gap,  attain  a  thickness  of  full  four  thousand  feet  in  a  direct  vertical  line  from  the 
top  of  the  American  Knob  or  Brushy  Mountain  to  the  lowest  sub-conglomerate 
coal.  At  Careyville,  Prof.  Safford  determined  the  elevation  of  Cross  Mountain, 
with  nine  seams  of  coal,  to  be  three  thousand  three  hundred  and  seventy  feet 
above  the  valley.  This  is  the  northeastern  end  of  the  upper  measures,  as  the  still 
higher  Brushy  Mountain  is  near  the  southwestern  end.  In  this  distance  of  about 
forty  miles  is  the  series  of  high  ranges  and  peaks  alluded  to  above.  Hence  we 
have  in  this  distance  an  area  of  about  two  thousand  square  miles,  the  greater 
portion  of  which  contains,  above  water-level,  from  four  to  seven  seams  of  coal 
over  three  feet  thick,  thus  showing,  in  this  part  of  the  Tennessee  coal-field  alone, 
an  extent  of  thickness  and  a  number  of  seams  available  in  the  future  beyond  the 
previous  expectations  of  geologists. 

IRON  ORES. 

The  State  of  Tennessee  contains  every  variety  of  iron  ore  known  to  commer- 
cial use,  except  the  spathic  carbo  late.  The  area  of  the  magnetic  ores  and  of  the 
azoic  hematites  is  not  large,  yet  in  the  limited  area  where  found  the  magnetic  ore 
exists  in  large  quantity.  The  mass  of  unaltered  deposit  ores,  however,  is  beyond 
the  possibility  of  any  accurate  computation,  and  the  area  in  which  they  are  con- 
tained comprises  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  State. 

Geographically,  these  ores  may  be  classed  as  the  East  Tennessee  Iron  Region, 
the  Cumberland  Mountain  Iron  Region  and  the  Middle  Tennessee  Iron  Region. 
Geologically,  they  belong  to  the  metamorphic,  the  lower  and  upper  Silurian,  the 
sub-carboniferous  and  the  carboniferous  periods.  Physically,  they  are  vein,  strati- 
fied and  deposit  ores,  and  in  practical  nomenclatures  of  ores  they  are  magnetic, 
specular,  red  hematite — or  really  hematite — limonite,  (frequently  called  brown 
hematite,)  red  fossil  or  lenticular  red  hematite  and  carbonate  of  iron. 

The  limonites  are  found  over  the  largest  territory,  and  have  been  most  gener- 
ally used  of  the  two  chief  ores  of  iron.  They  are  found  in  nearly  every  county 
in  the  State,  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  from  the  North  Carolina  line  to  the 


394  TENNESSEE. 

sand  belt  which  borders  on  the  Mississippi  River.  In  some  counties  the  quantity 
is  enormous;  in  others  only  scattered  specimens;  and  the  quality  is  equally  vari- 
able. Some  beds  are  almost  chemically  free  from  phosphorus  or  sulphur,  while  in 
others  those  injurious  elements  are  found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

In  East  Tennessee  this  ore  lies  in  a  scries  of  ridges  running  northeast  and 
southwest,  its  greatest  development  being  on  the  east  side,  on  the  western  slopes 
of  the  Chilhowee  and  Unaka  Mountains  and  their  tributary  ridges.  Throughout 
the  entire  breadth  of  the  State,  in  the  counties  of  Johnson,  Carter,  Unicoi,  Wash- 
ington, Greene,  Cocke,  Sevier,  Blount,  Monroe  and  Polk,  there  may  truly  be  said 
to  be  one  continuous  bed  of  limonite,  at  some  points  in  immense  masses  like 
stratified  or  boulder  rocks,  and  at  others  intermingled  with  the  soil,  but  yielding 
large  quantities  of  ore  when  subjected  to  the  process  of  washing.  The  ores  of 
this  lead  are  all  in  the  lower  Silurian,  and  usually  lie  in  slates  or  between  the 
Chilhowee  sandstones  and  dolomites  of  the  Knox  or  Quebec  periods,  frequently 
intermingled  or  deposited  between  masses  of  the  latter.  In  this  position  it  is 
found  in  a  matrix  of  red  or  yellow  clay,  from  the  size  of  coarse  sand  to  large 
boulders.  These  are  the  ores  from  which  a  large  part  of  the  iron  of  the  United 
States  was  made  in  times  past,  and  many  beds  are  now  worked  in  Pennsylvania, 
New  York  and  Massachusetts  from  which  ore  was  taken  a  hundred  years  ago. 
The  unsystematic  and  robbery-like  character  of  obtaining  the  ore  from  many  of 
the  banks  in  Tennessee  has  greatly  impaired  their  value,  and  in  some  cases  appa- 
rently exhausted  the  supply  of  ore. 

The  limonite  of  this  lead  varies  very  greatly  in  quality,  some  being  very  free 
from  any  impurity — almost  pure  hydrated  oxide  of  iron — but  the  greater  part 
contains  silica,  alumina,  phosphorus  and  sulphur  in  greater  or  less  proportions ; 
none  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it  worthless.  In  some  beds  manganese  prevails 
in  such  proportion  as  to  make  the  manufacture  of  speigeleisen  or  ferro-manganese 
a  possible  source  of  profit.  These  deposits  become  more  vast  in  size  toward  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  State;  and  the  deposits  on  Tellico  River  and  Lee's  Creek, 
between  the  Little  Tennessee  and  Hiawassee  Rivers,  challenge  the  admiration  of 
the  geologist  and  practical  iron  manufacturer. 

At  intervals  in  every  ridge  of  the  Knox  dolomite  formation  beds  of  limonite 
are  found.  Some  of  them  appear  to  be  of  considerable  extent,  though  but  few  of 
them  have  been  opened.  When  opened,  the  quality  of  the  ore  has  proven  to  be 
good.  On  the  summit  of  Walden's  Ridge,  at  various  points  from  Emery  Gap  to 
Careyville,  beds  of  limonite  are  found,  which  are  no  doubt  the  result  of  local 
change  of  the  carbonate  of  iron  of  the  coal  formation. 

The  largest  body  of  limonites  in  the  State  is  found  in  Middle  Tennessee,  in 
what  has  been  usually  called  the  Western  Iron  Belt.  This  vast  deposit  covers 
irregularly  an  area  forty  miles  wide,  and  extending  entirely  across  the  State  from 
North  to  South.  It  comprises  the  entire  area  of  the  counties  of  Wayne,  Law- 
rence, Lewis,  Perry,  Hickman,  Humphreys,  Dickson,  Houston,  Montgomery, 
Stewart,  Benton,  Decatur,  and  part  of  Hardin. 

The  surface  geology  of  this  region  belongs  to  the  sub-carboniferous.  It  is  in 
fact  the  counterpart  of  the  Cumberland  plateau  of  the  east  with  the  coal-measure 
rocks  swept  away.  The  general  elevation  of  the  corresponding  strata  underlying 
the  coal-measure  rocks  is  but  a  few  feet  more  than  that  of  Lawrence  and  Hickman 
Counties.  Almost  at  an  identical  level  on  each  side  of  the  Middle  Tennessee 
basin  occur  the  same  characteristic  rocks.  The  vast  body  of  coal  which  once  may 
have  extended  from  Kentucky  to  Alabama  is  gone;  but  deposited  in  its  underlying 
strata  from  the  slow  action  of  ages  now  remain  immense  bodies  of  iron  ore,  in 
quantity  and  quality  hardly  surpassed  by  any  like  area  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  injurious  elements  of  phosphorus  and  sulphur  these  ores  frequently  go  down 


TENNESSEE.  395 

to  a  mere  trace,  while  they  never  rise  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  in  the  slightest 
degree  injurious  for  the  very  best  grades  of  foundry  irons. 

The  location  of  this  ore  has  been  stated  to  be  an  elevated  plateau-land,  yet  it 
is  well  watered  with  many  springs,  and  is  also  intersected  with  streams  which 
liovv  west  from  the  Middle  Tennessee  basin,  being  cut  through  on  the  north  by 
the  Cumberland  River,  while  the  western  edge  is  intersected  from  north  to  south 
— the  entire  middle  of  the  State — by  the  Tennessee  River.  All  these  streams  cut 
down  through  the  sub-carboniferous  strata  into  the  lower  limestones,  thus  afford- 
ing ample  facility  for  obtaining  flux  in  the  manufacture  of  iron.  The  two  great 
rivers  named  also  afford  cheap  transportation  to  market,  wrhile  other  means  of 
transportation  and  access  to  this  region  is  afforded  by  the  Memphis  branch  of  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville  Railroad,  through  Montgomery  and  Stewart  Counties; 
the  Nashville  and  Northwestern,  through  Dickson,  Humphreys  and  Benton;  a 
narrow-gauge  south  from  Dickson  station  into  Hickman  County,  and  the  railroad 
from  Columbia,  through  Lawrence  County,  to  Florence,  Ala. 

Along  the  western  foot  of  the  Cumberland  Mountains  and  the  Middle  Ten- 
nessee basin,  in  a  formation  identical  with  that  where  the  ores  of  Stewart, 
Montgomery  and  Hickman  are  found,  exist  some  beds  of  limonite,  the  extent  of 
which  has  not  been  fully  determined.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  the  counties  of 
White,  Warren,  Putnam  and  Overton.  At  several  points  these  beds  appear  to  be 
of  valuable  extent. 

Red  Fossil  Ore. — The  next  ore  to  be  considered — and  though  occupying  a  less 
area,  probably  not  less  extensive  in  quantity — belongs  to  the  true  hematite  series, 
and  is  known  to  mineralogy  and  the  manufacturer  as  the  red  fossil  ore,  but  is 
known  locally  in  Tennessee  as  dyestone.  It  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  East 
Tennessee,  but  almost  three-fourths  of  the  pig  iron  made  in  the  State  since  1870 
was  made  from  it. 

The  geological  position  of  this  ore  is  in  the  Clinton  group  of  the  Niagara 
period,  below  the  black  shale  of  the  Devonian  formation.  In  this '  State  there  are 
usually  but  thin  strata  intervening  between  the  two,  and  while  the  latter  is  fre- 
quently found  outcropping,  it  does  not  mean  that  the  ore  is  found  underneath  it. 
This  is  the  case  all  around  the  Middle  Tennessee  basin ;  but  in  East  Tennessee, 
all  along  the  western  base  of  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  from  Chattanooga  to 
Cumberland  Gap,  the  two  strata  are  found  in  close  conjunction,  and  where  one 
exists  it  is  certain  that  the  other  is  to  be  found  in  that  vicinity,  though  it  may  be 
covered  with  drift.  This  ore  is  one  of  the  most  persistent  strata  of  the  Apala- 
chian  geological  system.  It  is  found  in  New  York  bordering  Lake  Ontario, 
curving  northward  on  the  west  and  southward  on  the  east,  sinking  there  beneath 
the  Hamilton  shales  and  slates;  rising  again  in  Pennsylvania,  and  continuing 
thence  in  an  almost  unbroken  outcrop  southwest  into  the  heart  of  the  State  of 
Alabama.  The  seams  of  ore  in  this  State,  however,  are  much  thicker  than  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  besides  the  regular,  continuous  seam  at  the  foot  of  the  Cum- 
berland Mountains,  there  is  an  independent  seam  almost  as  continuous,  and  at 
places  much  thicker,  in  what  is'called  White  Oak  Mountain,  a  high  ridge  entering 
the  State  from  Georgia,  in  the  county  of  James,  and,  passing  northward,  is  con- 
tinuous to  Virginia,  though  the  northern  end,  in  the  county  of  Hancock,  is  called 
Powell's  Mountain.  This  is  the  Mountour  Ridge  of  Pennsylvania.  This  ridge 
in  Pennsylvania  is  only  twenty-seven  miles  long,  and  from  it  in  1846  Prof.  Rogers 
states  that  twenty  furnaces,  making  sixty  thousand  tons  of  iron  per  annum,  were 
deriving  their  supply  of  ore;  and  in  1881  there  were  still  nine  large  furnaces 
deriving  their  supply  in  whole  or  in  part  from  this  same  ridge.  The  White  Oak 
Mountain  has  a  continuous  length  in  East  Tennessee  of  over  one  hundred  miles. 


896  TENNESSEE 

This  red  fossil  ore  is  also  found  in  several  detached  ridges,  from  three  to  ten 
miles  long,  which  lie  parallel  with  the  White  Oak  Mountain,  at  intervals,  in  a 
general  southwest  and  northeast  direction. 

This  ore  is  less  variable  in  quality  than  the  limonites,  and  the  analysis  of  a 
specimen  from  one  point  in  a  leading  range  will  usually  be  identical  with  that 
from  another  point  ten,  twenty  or  fifty  miles  distant.  Below  water  level  the  ore 
on  the  White  Oak  Mountain,  and  at  a  certain  depth  the  ore  in  the  seam  at  the 
foot  of  the  Cumberland  Mountain,  becomes  poorer  in  iron  and  richer  in  lime. 
Hence,  for  the  present,  mining  is  stopped  when  this  hard  and  poor  ore  is  reached. 
The  proper  course  would  be  to  mix  it,  as  done  in  Pennsylvania,  with  the  richer 
soft  ore  from  near  the  surface. 

Two  other  bodies  of  this  ore  are  detached  from  the  East  Tennessee  Valley 
proper.  These  are  in  Elk  Fork  Valley  and  Sequatchie  Valley.  The  former  is 
about  twenty-five  miles  long,  and  extends  into  Kentucky;  the  latter  is  about 
sixty  miles  long,  and  extends  into  Alabama.  Throughout  the  whole  length  of 
these  valleys  the  red  fossil  ore  appears,  dipping  slightly  to  the  cast.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  mountain,  at  its  eastern  base,  along  the  foot  of  Walden's 
Ridge,  the  ore  dips  to  the  west.  Hence,  if  the  ore  is  continuous  for  the  eight  to 
ten  Miles  of  distance  under  the  intervening  carboniferous  strata,  the  amount  of 
iron  ore  thus  stored  away  for  future  use  is  simply  enormous.  The  ore  on  the  east 
side  of  the  mountain  is  three  feet  thick,  and  in  the  valleys  much  thicker.  There- 
fore, even  if  containing  only  thirty  per  cent,  of  iron,  the  amount  of  available  ore 
the  seam  would  yield  to  capital  invested  in  scientific  mining  will  equal  if  not 
surpass  that  of  any  known  deposit  of  ore  in  the  world. 

At  present  the  mode  of  mining  this  ore  is  to  get  the  ore  on  the  cheapest  plan 
possible,  without  the  slightest  reference  to  the  future.  In  the  seam  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountain  it  occurs  in  a  series  of  knobs,  with  short,  narrow  valleys  between 
them.  The  ore  is  robbed  from  the  knobs  by  rough  tunnels  as  long  as  they  think 
it  pays,  and  then  that  knob  is  abandoned  and  another  attacked.  No  mining  is 
done  below  level  of  the  little  branches.  In  White  Oak  Mountain  the  dirt  and 
shale  is  stripped  with  picks  and  shovels  off  the  seam  of  ore  until  the  wall  of 
shale  reaches  a  height  or  thickness  of  six  or  eight  feet.  The  stripped  ore  is  then, 
taken  out  and  the  rest  abandoned.  In  so-called  worked-out  leases  near  Ooltewah 
are  thousands  of  tons  of  ore  which,  by  intelligent  mining,  can  now  be  gotten  out 
as  cheaply  as  has  been  any  which  had  the  thinner  covering.  The  price  of  this 
ore  in  Chattanooga  ranges  from  $2  to  $2.50  per  ton. 

The  seams  of  this  ore  have  very  superior  facilities  for  transportation.  The 
Tennessee  River  runs  parallel  between  the  White  Oak  Mountain  seam  and  that 
of  Shin  Bone  Ridge,  at  the  foot  of  the  Cumberland  Mountain.  The  latter  has 
also  the'  Cincinnati  Southern  Railway  in  a  few  hundred  yards  of  it  for  nearly 
seventy  miles.  It  is  also  accessible  by  the  Knoxville  and  Ohio  road  at  Coal  Creek 
and  Careyville.  The  White  Oak  Mountain  ore  is  cut  through  by  the  East  Ten- 
nessee, Virginia  and  Georgia  Railroad  near  Ooltewah,  and  also  by  its  Red  Clay- 
extension,  and  by  the  Knoxville  and  Ohio  branch  of  that  road  from  Knoxville  to 
Kentucky,  near  the  town  of  Clinton.  The  Tennessee  River  also  cuts  it  at 
Welker's,  in  Roane  County.  The  Tennessee  River  also  cuts  through  the  Half 
Moon  Island  bed  for  a  distance  of  ten  miles.  A  system  of  cheap  narrow-gauge 
roads  would  bring  to  the  river  and  railroads  in  short  distances  a  large  amount  of 
ore  now  too  far  distant  for  hauling  by  teams. 

The  red  fossil  ore  has  not  been  found  in  any  part  of  the  Middle  Tennessee 
Region.  In  Overton  County  a  hematite  ore  is  found,  locally  called  dyestoue,  but 
it  is  not  the  same  as  the  East  Tennessee  dyestone,  nor  is  it  known  to  exist  in 
large  quantities.  In  the  county  of  Wayne  are  three  knobs  which  contain  a  large 


TENNKSSEE.  397 

amount  of  hematite.  Its  geological  position  has  not  been  exactly  determined. 
The  location  is  near  Clifton,  on  the  Tennessee  River,  and  the  ore  is  of  good 
quality.  It  was  once  used  in  a  furnace  near  by,  and  some  of  it  has  been  shipped 
off  and  used  for  paint. 

The  third  most  important  ore,  as  respects  quantity,  in  the  State  of  Tennessee 
is  the  carbonate  of  iron  of  the  coal  measures.  This  is,  in  England  and  Europe, 
one  of  the  chief  ores  from  which  iron  is  made.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  in  Ohio 
and  Pennsylvania,  but  as  yet  not  at  all  in  Tennessee,  though  it  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  and  easily  worked  ores.  There  are  points  in  the  Tennessee  coal-field 
where  it  can  be  mined  very  cheaply.  It  is  found  in  the  State  underlying  the  coal 
seam  worked  at  Coal  Creek  and  at  Careyville ;  at  the  latter  it  is  specially  abun- 
dant. There  are  a  number  of  layers  of  it  in  the  Tennessee  coal-field. 

The  least  abundant  but  most  valuable  iron  ores  of  the  State  are  the  ores 
found  in  the  metarnorphic  rocks,  from  which  Bessemer  steel  pig  may  be  made. 
There  are  the  hematite  and  the  magnetic.  These  are  found  at  intervals  in  the 
strata  just  edging  on  the  Potsdam  sandstone  and  in  the  hornblendic  gneiss  of 
Carter  and  Johnson  Counties.  The  hematite  has  not  been  developed  to  any 
special  extent ;  hence  its  quantity  is  not  known.  In  Sullivan  and  Carter  Counties, 
in  the  foot-hills  of  the  Holston  Mountains,  is  found  hematite  ore  of  very  compact 
structure.  It  has  been  used  in  forges  and  made  good  iron,  but  no  sufficient  explo- 
ration has  ever  been  made  to  test  its  quality,  though  small  pieces  of  it  are 
scattered  over  a  large  area  of  country. 

The  magnetic  ore  exists  in  a  limited  area,  but  is  in  large  quantity  and  of 
excellent  quality.  Little  beyond  explorations  for  the  investment  of  capital  and  a 
little  digging  for  forges  has  been  done  in  this  State,  but  beyond  the  North  Caro- 
lina line  very  extensive  excavations  have  been  made  for  the  owners  of  the  East 
Tennessee  and  Western  North  Carolina  Railroad,  and  an  immense  amount  of  ore 
uncovered.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Johnson  County  magnetic  ore  is  also  found, 
but  transportation  is  so  far  distant  that  there  is  no  likelihood  of  its  development 
for  many  years. 

MARBLE. 

Nearly  all  the  Tennessee  marble  belongs  to  the  variegated  class ;  some  has  a 
solid  drab  or  dove  color,  and  in  other  localities  it  is  gray  or  pinkish  gray.  Of 
this  class  it  has  no  rival  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  except  in  a  limited  area  of 
the  State  of  Vermont.  The  sienna  and  variegated  marbles  of  Italy  have  been 
supplanted  by  the  more  brilliant  stone  from  the  land  whose  people  delight  to  call 
it  the  Switzerland  of  America. 

The  geological  position  of  this  marble  is  in  the  upper  part  of  the  lower 
Silurian,  one  of  the  strata  of  the  group  of  Trenton  limestones,  being  the  next  to 
the  lowest  member  of  that  series.  In  the  county  of  Henry  and  also  in  Benton 
are  found  local  beds  of  marble  which  are  in  the  Niagara  formation ;  but  they, 
while  of  truly  handsome  appearance,  do  not  have  the  brilliancy  of  the  East  Ten- 
nessee marbles.  In  Lincoln  County  a  variety  of  shell  marble  is  found  in  the 
Trenton  limestones  which  very  much  resembles  the  true  variegated  species,  and 
may  afford  handsome  blocks  of  commercial  size ;  but  by  far  the  greatest  body  of 
marble  is  found  in  East  Tennessee,  and  from  that  section  alone  shipments  from 
the  State  have  been  made. 

The  original  opening  of  the  Tennessee  marble  was  in  Hawkins  County,  and 
until  within  a  few  years  past  there  was  its  greatest  development.  Now  the 
largest  business  is  done  in  Knox  County,  and  there  are  quarries  in  Hawkins, 
Knox,  Hamblen,  Jefferson,  Loudon,  Monroe  and  Bradley. 

The  marble  beds  of  Hawkins  County  are  in  a  narrow  ridge  running  northeast 
and  southwest  with  the  general  line*  of  all  East  Tennessee  strata,  the  outcropping 


398  TENNESSEE. 

being  usually  on  the  western  side  of  the  ridge.  This  ridge  commences  about  six 
miles  north  of  Rogersville  and  ends  abruptly  about  eight  miles  southeast  of  that 
place,  being  apparently  isolated,  though  careful  examination  proves  that  its  strata 
connects  with  Clinch  Mountain  on  the  north  and  continues  in  the  strata  to  the 
south,  though  losing  for  some  distance  its  elevated  ridge-like  position  above  the 
general  face  of  the  country.  The  railroad  from  Rogersville  connects  with  the 
main  East  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  Georgia  Railroad. 

The  amount  of  marble  in  Hawkins  County  is  very  great,  and  therein  are 
found  variegated  marbles  of  more  brilliancy  than  in  any  other  section.  The  chief 
markets  of  this  marble  are  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  New  York,  Boston  and  other 
cities.  It  is  seldom  used  for  outside  work,  but  from  selected  blocks  very  hand- 
some and  durable  door-steps  and  banisters  have  been  made,  which  stood  the  wear 
of  weather  and  time  equally  with  any  stone. 

Jefferson  County  contains  a  large  quantity  of  marble,  from  the  beds  of  which 
beautiful  specimens  have  been  obtained,  but  no  extensive  quarrying  has  yet 
been  done. 

The  largest  business  now  carried  on  in  quarrying  and  shipping  marble  is  in 
Knox  County.  The  marble  of  Knox  is  more  varied  in  its  quality  and  the  uses  to 
which  it  is  adapted  than  that  of  Hawkins  County,  and  the  facilities  of  transporta- 
tion are  much  better.  The  quality  varies  from  the  plain  gray-colored  building 
stone  to  the  most  beautiful  pink  and  variegated  ornamental  marble.  The  gray  or 
whitish  drab  with  pink  tinge  has  no  superior  as  a  building  stone.  It  has  been, 
used  in  the  United  States  Custom-houses  at  Knoxville  and  at  Memphis  and  the 
State  House  at  Albany,  New  York,  and  in  many  other  private  and  public  build- 
ings in  other  cities.  For  durability  and  resistance  to  moisture  it  has  no  superior 
in  the  world.  An  analysis  gives  its  contents  of  carbonate  of  lime  at  98.436,  and 
tests  show  its  capacity  to  bear  12,000  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch.  This 
marble  has  been  sent  to  all  parts  of  this  country  from  San  Francisco  to  New  York 
City.  The  interior  of  the  Governor's  room  in  the  new  capitol  at  Albany  is  built 
of  it,  trimmed  with  Mexican  onyx.  When  polished  it  has  a  rich  mottled  pink 
color,  but  bush-hammered  and  rough  for  building  purposes,  has  the  appearance 
of  being  a  white  marble.  The  demand  for  the  marble  is  constantly  increasing, 
and  there  is  still  room  for  capital  invested  in  quarries  located  near  to  transport- 
ation. 

TIMBER. 

Tennessee  possesses  an  unbounded  source  of  wealth  in  her  vast  forests  of 
hardwood  timber.  On  this  subject  I  quote  the  following  from  the  Baltimore 
Manufacturers'  Record  of  October  11, 1884,  which  is  part  of  an  able  and  interest- 
ing series  of  articles  by  Mr.  Charles  H.  Wells  on  the  "  Timber  Resources  of  the 
South : " 

"  In  conclusion,  I  wi'l  speak  of  the  Tennessee,  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Louisiana 
tracts — the  most  beautiful  lumber  to  be  found  anywhere  on  the  American  Conti- 
nent. Beginning  with  Tennessee,  let  us  discard  the  stilts  of  the  scientists  and  the 
iron  tracks  of  the  four  great  railroads  penetrating  the  country,  and  take  it  afoot 
along  these  sparkling  streams,  across  the  hills  and  dales  teeming  with  redundant 
crops  of  grass  and  grain,  and  over  the  mountains  bristling  with  unbroken  forests 
of  primeval  growth,  and,  'with  an  eye  single  to  business,'  see  what  there  is  to 
lure  the  ironmasters  of  more  crowded  regions  to  bring  their  money  and  their 
labor  here,  or  to  induce  the  shrewd  lumberman  to  move  his  mills  and  enterprise 
from  the  rigorous,  wintry  regions  of  the  great  Northern  forests,  rapidly  nearing 
exhaustion,  to  this  almost  virgin  field  of  production  in  his  peculiar  line. 

"Beginning  with  Holston  Mountains,  a  high  line  of  hills,  we  tramp  northeast- 
ward. The  distance  is  quite  thirty  miles  to*  the  Virginia  line,  and  it  is  nearly  all 


TENNESSEE.  399- 

in  forest ;  till  we  follow  it  some  twenty  miles  there  is  no  great  quantity  of  high- 
grade  timber.  The  trees  are  not  so  large  as  upon  other  ranges  where  the  soil  is 
richer ;  still  there  will  be  a  great  deal  of  timber  taken  from  it  at  no  distant  day. 
There  is  a  large  growth  of  medium-sized  black  or  yellow  pine  on  it.  On  the 
Stony  Creek  side  it  has  been  considerably  denuded  in  making  charcoal  for  the 
forges  and  furnaces.  On  the  northwestern  side,  next  to  the  Holston  Kiver,  little 
if  any  cutting  has  been  done,  and  there  is  much  good  timber — some  white  pine, 
large  quantities  of  white  oak,  red  and  black  oak  and  chestnut,  and  in  many  of 
the  hollows  large  and  excellent  yellow  poplar.  This  mountain  wrill  yield  a  large 
supply  of  the  best  tan  bark — chestnut,  oak  and  hemlock — as  these  trees  are  very 
plentiful  in  many  localities.  Reaching  '  Cross  Mountain.'  we  enter  a  magnifi- 
cently timbered  region,  being  the  whole  of  'Shady,'  and  the  slopes  of  the 
Holston  and  Iron  Mountain  on  the  Virginia  line.  The  growth  of  white  pine  in 
the  eastern  part  of  'Shady'  for  miles  rivals  such  forests  in  the  Northern  States 
as  have  supplied  so  long  the  large  demands  of  the  cities  and  towns  there.  Hem- 
lock, cherry,  poplar,  the  oaks,  maples  and  chestnut  are  of  great  size,  and  are 
abundant  all  through  'Shady'  and  down  the  slopes  of  the  mountains.  One 
strange  fact  is  presented — there  is  not  a  hickory  tree  or  sapling  to  be  found  in  the 
entire  region.  Just  beyond  'Shady'  the  great  'White  Top'  Mountain,  5,000 
feet  in  height,  forms  the  boundary  line  between  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina. 
Here  we  are  again  in  the  home  of  the  white  pine,  and  it  is  the  king  of  timber 
trees  here.  A  belt  of  it  runs  along  '  Stone  Mountain,'  through  Johnson  County, 
and  here  and  there  through  Carter  County,  all  the  way  to  the  'Roan'  and 
'Yellow'  Mountains.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  very  valuable  timber  of  all 
varieties  I  have  named  in  Johnson  County,  on  the  east  side  of  Roan's  Creek,  up 
to  the  State  line  of  North  Carolina  and  Virginia.  Doe  Mountain  has  a  little  but 
not  much  good  timber  on  it,  and  in  Carter  County  there  is  not  now  remaining 
much  good  timber,  except  near  the  North  Carolina  line.  In  the  broken  and 
mountainous  district  lying  above  Hampton,  and  between  the  Doe,  Watauga  and 
Elk,  there  is  one  block  over  one  hundred  miles  square  of  unbroken  forest,  worth 
a  mint  of  money  to  some  energetic  man.  In  the  '  Walnut  Hills '  District  is  found 
the  most  beautiful  walnut  lumber  in  abundance,  while  cherry  is  also  plentiful. 
The  'Cranberry  Narrow-Gauge  Road'  has  opened  up  all  the  'Crab  Orchard' 
District  in  Carter  County,  and  many  mills  are  now  at  work  cutting  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  feet  of  the  finest  cherry  and  ash  and  a  good  deal  of  wralnut,  and  still 
more  poplar  and  oak  timber,  taxing  the  little  railroad  to  its  utmost  to  move  it, 
making  Johnson  City  the  largest  lumber  depot  on  the  East  Tennessee,  Virginia 
and  Georgia  Railroad.  An  important  factor  to  be  taken  in  consideration  is  the 
low  price  of  laud  all  through  the  State.  Those  who  own  the  property  are  willing 
to  sell  cheap." 

MANUFACTURES. 

In  facilities  and  advantages  for  general  manufacturing  Tennessee  is  unsur- 
passed, and  there  is  probably  no  State  in  the  South  that  is  making  more  rapid 
and  healthy  progress  in  the  development  of  industrial  interests.  While  her  manu- 
factures are  wonderfully  increasing  in  number  and  extent,  there  is  a  very  marked 
diversity  that  will  prevent  any  undue  expansion  of  one  industry  to  the  neglect  of 
others.  The  manufacture  of  pig  iron  has  possibly  attracted  more  attention  than 
any  other  one  industry,  but  yet  there  has  been  no  such  increase  in  that  business 
as  to  overshadow  other  interests  or  to  draw  into  it  too  much  capital.  A  wide 
diversity  of  manufactures  is  essential  to  the  healthy,  permanent  growth  of  the 
South,  and  Tennessee  is  doing  her  full  share  in  this  direction.  The  increase  in 
pig  iron  production  of  late  years  has  been  very  great,  but  hardly  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  increase  in  the  foundries",  machine  shops  and  agricultural-implement 


400  TENNESSEE. 

factories,  in  which  pig  iron  is  used  as  a  raw  material.  It  is  true  that  a  consider- 
able amount  of  Tennessee  pig  iron  is  shipped  to  the  West  and  North,  but  it  is 
also  true  that  the  home  consumption  is  steadily  increasing,  and  that  a  very  large 
proportion  of  Tennessee  iron  now  finds  a  market  in  that  State.  In  Nashville, 
Chattanooga,  Memphis,  South  Pittsburgh  and  other  places  there  has  been  a  remark- 
able increase  in  iron-working  establishments,  which  are  now  furnishing  a  large 
amount  of  the  machinery  needed  in  the  manufactures  of  that  State,  besides  ship- 
ping largely  to  the  adjoining  States.  In  1880  Tennessee  produced  70,873  tons  of 
pig  iron,  while  in  1885  the  production  was  161,199  tons,  or  mere  than  double.  A 
number  of  furnaces  are  now  under  construction,  and  others  arc  projected,  assuring 
a  very  largely  increased  production  of  iron  in  this  State  in  1887. 

Tennessee  is  the  first  of  the  central  Southern  States  to  make  Bessemer  steel 
an  experimental  plant  at  Chattanooga  having  proved  such  a  success  that  the  Roane 
Iron  Company,  of  the  same  place,  have  built  a  large  Bessemer  rail  mill,  to  be 
started  up  about  March,  1887.  The  activity  in  the  iron  interests  is  very  great, 
and  especially  is  this  noticeable  in  the  building  of  diversified  industries,  such  as 
stove  works,  pipe  works,  machine  shops,  foundries  and  kindred  enterprises  that 
will  take  the  pig  iron  from  the  furnaces,  turn  it  into  finished  goods,  and  thus  save 
to  the  South  the  expense  of  shipping  pig  iron  North  and  buying  it  back  in  the 
shape  of  agricultural  implements,  stoves,  &c. 

According  to  the  last  census,  there  were  4,326  manufacturing  establishments 
in  Tennessee,  having  an  aggregate  capital  of  a  little  over  $20,000,000  and  employ- 
ing 22,345  hands,  the  total  value  of  the  products  being  $37,074,886.  There  were 
990  flour  and  grist  mills,  with  a  capital  of  $3,595,585;  19  cotton  goods  factories, 
capital  $1,184,600;  43  iron  and  steel  works,  capital  $3,681,776;  770  saw  and  plan- 
ing mills,  capital  over  $2,100,000;  and  106  woolen  goods  factories,  capital  $418,664. 
These  figures,  however,  give  but  little  idea  of  the  present  extent  and  value  of  the 
industrial  interests  of  the  State.  Since  1880  there  has  been  an  enormous  increase 
in  the  manufacturing  interests  of  the  State.  Not  only  in  the  iron  interests,  such 
as  furnaces,  machine  shops,  foundries,  &c.,  is  this  true,  but  in  all  other  industries. 
Wood-working  factories  of  all  kinds,  from  the  small  portable  saw  mill  to  the  large 
planing  mills,  sash  and  door  factories  and  similar  enterprises,  have  increased  won- 
derfully. In  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods  the  same  rapid  growth 
is  seen,  while  in  flour  and  grist  mills,  tobacco  factories,  etc.,  great  progress  has 
likewise  been  made. 

As  illustrating  the  increase  in  manufactures  in  Tennessee,  a  few  facts  gath- 
ered from  the  "  Revised  Hand-Book  of  Tennessee,"  prepared  by  A.  J.  McWhirter, 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Statistics,  Mines  and  Immigration,  will  be  of  gen- 
eral interest.  From  this  book  the  following  figures  are  mainly  gathered:  In 
1880  Chattanooga  had  a  population  of  13,000;  in  1885  her  population  is  25,000,  or 
nearly  double.  In  1880  Hamilton  County,  in  which  Chattanooga  is  situated,  had 
only  $2,045,000  invested  in  manufactures— the  number  of  hands  employed  being 
2,100,  and  the  aggregate  value  of  the  products  being  $3,230,000;  in  1885,  on 
January  1st,  Chattanooga  alone  is  credited  with  having  $5,600,000  invested  hi 
manufactures,  employing  4,213  hands,  and  producing  in  1884  products  valued  at 
nearly  $11,000,000.  In  Nashville  the  increase,  while  not  quite  so  great,  has  still 
been  very  large.  The  same  authority  gives  the  statistics  of  manufactures  of  that 
city  January  1,  1885,  as  follows: 

CENSUS    RETURNS 
FOR    l88o. 

Number  of  manufactories,  estimated 800  268 

Capital  employed $6,160,500  f 3,893, 380 

Average  number  of  hands  employed 7*615  4*79! 

Total  amount  paid  in  wages  during  the  year  1884 $2,082,900  JSi, 312, 765 

Value  of  materials 8,760,000  5-3I2»527 

Value  of  products 14,070,000  8,597,278 


TENNESSEE.  401 

These  figures  will  give  some  idea  of  what  has  been  done  in  two  cities  in 
Tennessee  in  the  last  five  years  in  the  way  of  developing  manufactures.  Knox- 
Yille,  Memphis,  Columbia  and  other  cities,  as  well  as  the  small  towns  and  out  of 
the  way  places,  have  also  done  their  full  share  in  this  splendid  progress. 

Tennessee  is  abundantly  supplied  with  the  materials  and  facilities  needed  for 
the  development  of  great  manufacturing  interests.  Her  mines  of  iron  ore,  coal, 
marble  and  other  minerals  are  inexhaustible;  her  timber  resources  are  wonder- 
fully great;  her  water-powers  are  unfailing;  her  climate  is  all  that  could  be 
desired,  and  her  transportation  facilities,  already  excellent,  are  being  steadily 
increased  by  the  building  of  new  railroads  and  the  improvement  of  her  water- 
ways. With  all  these  advantages  she  combines  a  splendid  soil  capable  of 
producing  the  most  bountiful  crops,  while  the  healthfulness  of  the  State  is 
remarkably  good.  Her  manufacturing  industries  have  made  great  progress 
during  the  last  five  years,  but  the  next  five  will  in  all  probability  show  a  still 
more  rapid  advance. 

AGRICULTURAL  FEATURES. 

The  soil  and  climate  of  Tennessee  are  suited  to  the  growth  of  every  variety 
of  agricultural  product  known  to  the  temperate  zone,  and  all  the  cereals,  vege- 
tables and  fruits  are  grown  in  abundance.  In  1880  there  were  in  the  State  165,650 
farms  covering  20,660,915  acres,  or  about  three-fourths  of  the  land  surface  of  the 
State— an  average  of  about  125  acres  to  a  farm.  Of  this  area  8,496,556  acres  were 
improved  and  12,170,359  acres  unimproved.  The  value  of  farms,  including  land, 
fences  and  buildings,  was  $206,749,837;  the  value  of  farming  implements  and 
machinery,  $9,054,863;  the  value  of  live  stock  on  farms,  $43,651,470;  the  esti- 
mated value  of  all  farm  productions,  $62,076,311.  The  cotton  production  of  the 
State  was  330,6^1  bales,  Tennessee  being  ninth  in  order  of  production  in  the  list 
of  cotton  growing  States.  There  were  raised  62,764,429  bushels  of  corn,  7,331,353 
bushels  of  wheat  and  4,722,190  bushels  of  oats.  The  production  of  tobacco  was 
29,365,052  pounds  on  41,532  acres.  The  value  of  orchard  and  market  garden 
products  was  $1,148,113. 

The  extent  of  the  live  stock  and  dairying  interest  is  shown  by  the  following 
figures:  In  1880  there  were  in  the  State  439,617  horses  and  mules,  27,312  working 
oxen,  303,900  milch  cows  and  452,462  other  cattle,  672,789  sheep  (exclusive  of 
spring  lambs)  and  2,160,495  hogs.  There  were  17,886,369  pounds  of  butter  and 
98,740  pounds  of  cheese  made  on  farms  in  1879.  The  yield  of  wool  (spring  clip 
of  1880)  was  1,918,295  pounds. 

On  the  subject  of  the  agricultural  interests  of  the  State  I  quote  from  Hon.  A. 
J.  McWhirter's  able  and  accurate  description  of  the  three  civil  divisions  of  the 
State — East  Tennesee,  Middle  Tennessee  and  West  Tennessee  : 

EAST  TENNESSEE  is  that  portion  of  the  State  that  lies  between  the  Unaka 
and  Smoky  Mountains  on  the  east,  and  a  line  drawn  from  north  to  south  centrally 
across  the  Cumberland  plateau  on  the  west.  It  embraces  thirty-four  counties, 
and  is  much  the  oldest  settled  portion  of  the  State.  It  is  literally  a  land  of  misty 
mountains,  of  pensive  vales  and  of  swift  waters. 

The  agricultural  interest  of  East  Tennessee  is  diversified  and  progressive. 
Under  the  lead  of  a  few  intelligent  farmers  and  the  inspiration  of  the  East  Ten- 
nessee Farmers'  Convention,  great  changes  for  the  better  have  been  wrought 
within  the  past  few  years.  Improved  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs,  and  better 
methods  of  cultivation,  have  been  pretty  generally  introduced.  All  the  cereals 
flourish  here,  and  all  the  grasses  of  the  temperate  zone,  including  blue-grass.  All 
the  fruits  common  to  the  Middle  States  are  successfully  grown,  especially  apples, 
pears,  cherries,  plums  and  grapes.  It  is  urged  by  those  who,  from  experience  and 
study,  are  best  acquainted  with  the  industry,  that  this  is  the  finest  grape  region 


402  TENNESSEE. 

on  the  continent,  California  not  excepted.  Great  things  are  predicted  in  this 
direction,  and  many  believe  that  the  chief  wine  center  of  the  future  in  the  United 
States  will  be  within  this  mountain-bound  and  mountain-decked  region  of  Ten- 
nessee. Lands  suitable  for  grape  culture  can  be  purchased  very  cheap. 

Immediately  around  Chattanooga  the  growth  of  small  fruits  is  attracting 
much  attention.  There  are  large  plantings  of  strawberries  and  raspberries,  and 
hundreds  of  acres,  especially  on  Missionary  Ridge,  planted  in  these  and  peach  and 
plum  trees.  This  industry  has  already  reached  large  proportions,  and  is  still 
advancing  under  the  powerful  stimulus  of  uniform  success. 

Three  trunk  railroads  pass  through  East  Tennessee,  three  others  penetrate  its 
borders,  and  several  branch  roads  r\m  into  the  more  prominent  mineral  regions. 
The  Tennessee,  Holston,  Clinch  and  French  Broad  Rivers  furnish  waterways  all 
or  the  most  of  the  year,  and  thus,  with  iron  and  water  highways,  the  wonderful 
resources  of  this  section  find,  in  the  main,  ready  outlet  to  the  markets  of  the 
world.  Other  railroads  are  projected,  and  within  a  few  years  all  the  resources 
of  this  marvelous  region  will  be  within  the  easy  reach  of  active  capital  and 
development. 

MIDDLE  TENNESSEE. — The  middle  division  of  the  State  of  Tennessee  is 
remarkable  for  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its  topography.  Extending  from  the 
Cumberland  Mountains  on  the  east  to  the  Tennessee  River  on  the  west,  its  land- 
scapes partake  of  all  the  varieties  of  mountains,  plains,  hills  and  valleys;  of 
extensive  forests;  of  numerous  streams,  large  and  small — some  deep  and  quiet, 
others  noisy  and  swift,  but  all  bright  and  pleasant  lines  in  a  charming  picture. 
There  is  not  on  earth  a  country  that  fills  more  completely  the  measure  of  the 
beautiful. 

This  section  resembles  a  vast  plain  interspersed  with  hills  and  lofty  knobs, 
sunny  streams  and  waving  forests,  surrounded  by  elevated  plateaus  that  in  the 
east  swell  into  mountains,  and  in  the  west  and  north  to  picturesque  highlands. 
The  usual  description  is  that  it  is  an  extensive  basin  inclosed  with  an  elevated 
mountainous  rim  or  plateau.  One  who  views  Middle  Tennessee  from  surrounding 
heights  will  be  reminded,  provided  he  has  read  the  work,  of  Plato's  description  of 
the  "Lost  Atlantis,"  that  fair  island  on  a  summer  sea  to  which  tradition  and 
mythology  point  as  the  eden  home  of  the  ancient  gods. 

The  valleys,  and  here  and  there  dips  in  the  plateau,  are  very  fertile,  and 
contain  many  valuable  farms  and  much  valuable  farming  lands.  The  plateau 
seems  marked  by  nature  for  sheep  husbandry,  possessing  in  remarkable  abundance 
the  best  known  food  for  these  useful  animals.  Tens  of  thousands  of  flocks  may 
feed  and  flourish  on  the  extensive  sweeps  of  these  now  profitless  and  almost 
valueless  uplands,  and  it  is  safe  to  predict  that  in  the  near  future  this  inviting 
industry  will  be  there  developed  on  an  immense  scale.  It  is  also  an  inviting  field 
for  fruit  industry,  especially  apples,  peaches,  pears,  plums  and -grapes.  These 
lands  are,  as  a  rule,  the  cheapest  in  the  State. 

The  valleys  are  all  rich  and  well  watered,  and  much  of  the  plateau  contains 
valuable  farming  lands.  The  lands  of  the  Elk,  Duck  and  Buffalo  Rivers  are 
among  the  finest  in  the  world.  Here  again  is  a  gplendid  region  for  sheep  and 
every  variety  of  live  stock.  These  uplands  bordering  the  valleys  of  these  rivers 
are  unsurpassed  in  the  production  of  the  native  grasses,  and  are  so  extensive  that 
millions  of  animals  may  roam  uncrowded  and  fatten  without  let  or  hindrance. 
This,  again,  is  a  cheap  land  region — the  uplands,  not  the  valleys.  The  valley 
lands  are  comparatively  high-priced  and  contain  many  of  the  finest  farms  in 
the  State. 

The  northern  rim,  or  the  highlands  proper,  embraces  some  of  the  best  farming 
lands  in  Tennessee.  The  scenery  is  bold  and  broad,  the  water  clear  and  pure, 


TENNESSEE.  403 

and  the  forests  in  many  places  extensive  and  valuable.  This  is  also  a  fine  fruit" 
region,  particularly  for  apples,  peaches,  grapes  and  berries.  It  is  also  a  superb 
stock  country  and  the  home  of  plenty.  No  portion  of  the  State  offers  superior 
inducements  to  thrifty  settlers,  and  nowhere  can  more  charming  homes  be  found. 
Clarksville,  a  thriving,  beautiful,  cultured  city,  is  the  commercial  and  educational 
center  of  this  fair  region,  and  there  the  immigrant  or  capitalist  may  learn  what 
he  may  wish  to  know  of  one  of  the  most  highly  favored  regions  of  the  South. 
Lands  in  these  highlands  are  generally  rich  and  comparatively  cheap. 

The  basin  of  Middle  Tennessee  embraces  ten  whole  counties  and  parts  of  all 
adjoining  ones.  It  is  a  lake-like  plain  of  beautiful  farms  dotted  with  island 
summits  of  green  and  groves,  and  seamed  with  brooks  and  rivers  that  glisten  like 
silver  in  the  genial  sunshine.  It  teems  with  herds  of  lordly  cattle,  with  whitening 
flocks  on  a  thousand  hills,  with  royal  blooded  horses  whose  shining  coats  glisten 
in  the  sun  and  whose  tossing  heads  proudly  speak  of  ancestral  centuries.  In 
summer,  miles  of  waving  grain,  miles  of  green  pastures  threaded  with  murmuring 
brooks,  miles  of  nodding  forests,  and  an  archipelago  of  baronial  homes  in  the 
highest  state  of  comfort  and  beauty,  greet  the  gazer  from  every  summit  in  this 
broad  and  matchless  landscape. 

As  a  grain  and  stock  country  Middle  Tennessee  is  uneqnalcd.  The  lands  of 
the  basin  are  uniformly  rich  and  the  fruit  unsurpassed;  the  world  can't  beat  it  for 
grass  and  grain  and  stock.  For  exquisite  landscapes  that  embrace  every  phase  of 
hill,  valley,  plain,  mountain,  forest  and  stream  that  the  artist  would  choose  for  a 
perfect  picture,  it  stands  unrivaled.  .For  homes  where  all  the  conditions  unite  to 
satisfy,  refine  and  liberalize,  while  they  stimulate  to  high-bred  achievements  and 
lordly  hospitality,  it  is  unsurpassed.  The  lands  of  this  matchless  region  are  high- 
priced,  but  worth  the  money. 

Two  trunk  railroads  pass  through  Middle  Tennessee,  and  each  has  many 
branches.  Another  trunk  road  is  under  contract  and  still  another  projected. 
The  Cumberland  River,  the  longest  for  its  width  in  the  world,  is  navigable  the 
most  of  the  year. 

WEST  TENNESSEE.— The  twenty-two  counties  composing  West  Tennessee  lie 
between  the  Tennessee  and  Mississippi  Rivers.  The  topography  of  this  division 
is  almost  totally  different  from  that  of  either  of  the  other  divisions  of  the  State. 
The  lofty  mountains,  the  elevated  ridges  and  mound-shaped  knobs,  characteristic 
of  the  other  divisions,  disappear  or  sink  into  rolling  plains,  level  plateaus  and 
broad  bottoms,  with  occasionally  a  ridge  that  swells  into  a  suggestion  of  mountain 
chains.  Old  settlers  say  that  this  region  was  very  beautiful  when  first  settled. 
The  soil  was  surpassingly  rich,  and  thousands  in  the  older  States  and  the  older 
divisions  of  this  State  were  drawn  thither  by  stories  of  marvelous  production. 
Counties  were  rapidly  organized,  towns  built,  and  the  foundations  of  many  for- 
tunes successfully  laid. 

This  division  of  the  State  is  best  described  in  three  parts.  First,  the  eastern 
tier  of  counties  which  skirt  the  Tennessee  River,  and  those  lying  next  to  them  on 
the  west.  Through  the  center  of  one  of  the  former  and  all  of  the  latter  runs  a 
ridge  from  north  to  south,  separating  the  waters  of  the  two  great  rivers  that 
border  West  Tennessee  on  the  east  acd  west.  From  this  ridge  numerous  water- 
courses, small  and  large,  floAV  east  into  the  Tennessee  or  west  into  the  Mississippi. 
This  ridge  and  the  country  east  of  it  is  high  and  broken,  resembling  very  much 
the  highlands  on  the  east  side  of  the  Tennessee  River.  The  land  on  the  ridge 
and  its  numerous  spurs  is  thin,  and,  as  a  rule,  unsuited  to  cultivation ;  but  they 
produce  exceedingly  fine  sheep  food,  and,  together  with  the  many  sheltered 
hollows  and  slopes  and  nooks,  would  afford  rich  and  ample  pasturage  summer 
and  winter  for  thousands  of  flocks.  As  a  sheep  country  it  is  equal  to  any  in  the 


404  TENNESSEE. 

world.  The  timber  of  this  region  is  also  fine  and  varied,  and  will  afford  fortunes 
to  the  enterprising  of  the  future.  These  lands  are  very  cheap.  There  are  many 
beautiful  and  fertile  valleys  in  this  region  that  are  musical  with  clear,  perennial 
streams  of  purest  water.  Much  fine  stock  is  raised,  and  abundant  crops  of  corn, 
wheat,  hay  and  fruit.  Peanuts  are  a  staple  crop  in  several  counties  and  are  grown 
with  great  success.  Tobacco  is  extensively  grown  on  the  northern  border  and  is 
of  superior  quality.  All  this  region  is  finely  adapted  for  fruit  growing,  and  pos- 
sesses superior  advantages  for  cattle  and  sheep  culture  on  a  large  scale.  Much  of 
it  is  picturesque  in  the  highest  degree,  presenting  in  charming  succession  hills 
and  valleys  mantled  with  trees  or  green  with  crops  or  golden  with  abundant  har- 
vests, and  threaded  with  silvery  streams  whose  pleasant  waters  dance  merrily  over 
rocks  and  sand  in  bustling  haste  to  join  the  great  army  of  waves  that  sweep  hard 
by  on  their  march  to  the  sea.  This  strip  of  country  also  abounds  in  marble,  iron 
ore  of  the  best  quality,  building  and  paving  stone,  and  marl-beds  rich  and  inex- 
haustible. The  projected  Nashville,  Jackson  and  Memphis  Railroad  will  pass 
centrally  through  this  region  from  east  to  west,  and  will  open  its  valuable 
resources  to  the  world.  The  northern  portion — that  is  Henry,  Benton  and  Carroll 
Counties,  already  have  railroad  and  river  communication  with  the  markets  of  the 
world,  and  only  need  capital  to  become  valuable  and  enriching  contributors  to  the 
country's  commerce.  The  central  part  of  West  Tennessee  is  the  richest  and  most 
populous.  It  embraces  all  of  the  counties  of  Hardeman,  Fayette,  Madison, 
Chester,  Haywood,  Crockett,  Gibson  and  Weakley,  the  western  half  of  Henry, 
Carroll,  Henderson  and  McNairy,  and  the  eastern  half  of  Shelby,  Tipton,  Lauder- 
dale,  Dyer  and  Obion.  This  section  is  filled  with  populous  towns,  and  so 
thoroughly  traversed  by  railroads  that,  excepting  Henderson  and  small  portions 
of  Henry  and  Carroll,  no  citizen  of  this  central  plateau  is  exceeding  twelve  or 
fourteen  miles  from  two  or  more  railroads,  or  a  railroad  and  a  river.  The  lands 
not  butchered  by  reckless  methods  are  very  productive,  and  there  is  comparatively 
little  land  but  what  can  be  restored  at  small  cost  to  original  fertility.  In  the 
northern  counties,  tobacco,  corn,  wheat,  and  all  the  cereals,  and  many  varieties  of 
the  grasses,  are  grown.  In  the  middle  and  southern  counties,  cotton,  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  clover,  red  top,  orchard  grass  and  millet  are  grown.  But  all  over  this  part 
of  Tennessee,  tobacco,  cotton,  corn,  wheat  and  all  the  cereals,  and  clover  and  all 
the  grasses,  are  or  may  be  grown  successfully.  It  is,  beyond  any  section  known 
to  the  writer,  the  home  of  diversified  production.  For  fruit  it  stands  unsurpassed. 
Nowhere  are  peaches,  strawberries,  raspberries,  dewberries  and  blackberries  more 
successfully  or  profitably  grown,  and  nowhere  is  the  quality  of  the  fruit  surpassed. 
Berries  of  every  description  grow  wild  in  luxuriance,  and  this  region  Deems  their 
natural  home,  where  they  reach  a  higher  perfection  than  is  possible  farther  north 
or  farther  south.  The  fruit  industry  is  already  large  and  growing,  but  may  be 
profitably  extended.  Vegetable  crops  of  every  description  arc  also  peculiarly 
well  favored  by  the  soil  and  climate  of  this  region,  and  are  receiving  more  and 
more  attention.  In  addition  to  advantages  of  soil  and  climate  for  fruit  and  vege- 
tables, the  market  facilities  of  this  locality  are  extra  fine.  Five  trunk  railroads 
pass  through  West  Tennessee,  connecting  the  great  cities  of  the  Northwest,  North 
and  Northeast  with  the  cities  of  the  South  and  gulf  coast.  Thus  early  fruits  and 
vegetables  find  convenient  and  profitable  markets  North,  and  later,  when  the  heat 
and  drought  exhaust  Southern  crops,  shipments  are  turned  in  that  direction  with 
advantage.  Geographical  position,  climate,  soil  and  transportation  facilities  all 
conspire  to  make  this  region  the  market  garden  and  orchard  of  the  future. 

Nor  should  its  fine  advantages  for  stock  raising  be  overlooked.  It  grows 
everything  necessary  to  successful  stock  raising.  It  has  miles  of  wild  cane  upon 
which  cattle  feed  in  winter ;  its  grasses  are  green  from  seven  to  nine  months  in 


TENNESSEE.  405 

the  year;  it  is  almost  literally  quilted  with  running  streams,  and  nowhere  oil 
earth  does  the  soil  respond  more  gratefully  to  kind  treatment.  The  lauds  of  this 
section  are  comparatively  cheap,  and  there  is  a  stronger  desire  for  immigration. 
The  lowlands  and  the  bottoms  of  the  Mississippi  River  region  are  magnificently 
timbered.  The  world  can't  beat  it  for  variety,  size  and  merchantable  value  of  its 
forests.  Its  lauds  are  as  rich  as  those  of  the  Nile,  and  in  the  parts  free  from  over- 
flow, or  where  the  overflows  are  not  frequent,  there  are  many  farms  of  unequaled 
productiveness.  Obion,  Lake  and  Dyer  contain  much  land  of  surpassing  and 
inexhaustible  richness.  There  is  also  considerable  of  the  same  character  of  laud 
in  Lauderdale,  Tipton  and  Shelby.  Here,  too,  laud  is  reasonably  cheap,  and  there 
is  much  on  the  market. 

Nine  trunk  railroads  penetrate  West  Tennessee,  five  passing  through  and 
three  terminating  in  its  borders.  Two  others  are  projected,  and  one — the  Nash- 
ville, Jackson  and  Memphis — will  be  built  soon.  River  transportation  is  had  by 
the  Tennessee  on  the  east,  the  Mississippi  on  the  west,  and  the  Hatchie  and 
Forked  Deer  penetrating  the  interior. 

EDUCATION. 

The  State  has  a  good  system  of  public  schools,  and  there  are  many  private 
schools  of  high  grade.  The  famous  Vauderbilt  University  is  located  at  Nashville, 
in  this  State. 

SOME  LAWS. 

A  homestead  in  the  possession  of  each  head  of  a  family,  and  the  improve- 
ments thereon  to  the  extent  of  $1,000,  shall  be  exempt  from  sale  under  legal 
process  during  the  life  of  such  head  of  a  family ;  to  inure  to  the  benefit  of  the 
widow,  shall  be  exempt  during  the  minority  of  their  children  occupying  the 
same;  nor  shall  the  same  be  alienated  without  the  joint  consent  of  the  husband 
and  wife,  when  that  relation  exists.  This  exemption  shall  not  operate  against 
public  taxes,  nor  debts  contracted  for  the  purchase-money  of  such  homestead  or 
improvements  thereon. 

Married  women  owning  a  separate  estate,  settled  upon  them  and  for  their 
separate  use,  can  dispose  of  the  same  by  will,  deed,  or  otherwise,  in  as  full  and 
complete  a  manner  as  if  she  were  unmarried.  The  property  of  the  wife  is  not 
liable  for  the  debts  of  the  husband  incurred  before  marriage.  The  same  law  is 
applicable  to  the  husband.  Money  deposited  in  bank  by  a  married  woman  is  free 
from  the  claims  of  husbands  or  their  creditors. 

Under  the  wrvenue  laws  of  Tennessee,  all  property  owned  in  the  State, 
excepting  $1,000  worth  of  personalty  belonging  to  the  heads  of  families,  is 
subject  to  taxation  for  State  and  county  purposes.  The  tax  on  property  levied 
by  the  State  is  40  cents  on  the  $100  worth,  10  cents  of  which  shall  be  for  school 
purposes.  Merchants  pay  ad  valorem  and  privilege  taxes  amounting  to  70  cents 
on  the  $100  worth,  10  cents  of  which  is  for  free  schools.  Taxes  are  also  levied 
upon  a  great  number  of  privileges  and  upon  polls,  the  poll-tax  being  applied  to- 
school  purposes.  The  county  courts  are  authorized  to  levy  taxes  for  general 
county  purposes  not  to  exceed  the  State  tax. 


INDEX. 


PAQB. 

INTRODUCTION 5-57 

CONDITION  OP  THE  SOUTH  IMMEDIATELY  AFTER  THE  CIVIL  WAR.  5 

AGRICULTURE 9-19 

Cereal  Production 9 

Stock  Raising 11 

Grasses 14 

Fruit  Raising 15 

Trucking 16 

Poultry 16 

Bee  Culture 17 

Silk  Culture 17 

Jute 17 

IRON  INTERESTS 19 

COAL 81 

COTTON  MANUFACTURING 32 

COTTON  SEED 34 

RAILROADS 37 

MILLING  INTERESTS 38 

TIMBER  RESOURCES 39 

ROSIN,  PITCH  AND  TURPENTINE 41 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  SOUTH 42-57 

The  Saving  in  Fuel,  Clothing,  &c.,  by  reason  of  Climate 42 

Health 43 

Exemption  from  Insects 46 

Variety  of  Products 47 

Watercourses 47 

Cheapness  of  Land  49 

Rainfall 52 

Marls.    53 

Miscellaneous I  53 

MARYLAND 58-63 

POSITION 58 

SOIL  AND  TOPOGRAPHY 58 

CLIMATE 59 

PRODUCTIONS 59-GO 

Cereals 59 

Tobacco 59 

Fruits  and  Vegetables 60 

DAIRYING  AND  STOCK  RAISING 60 

MINERAL  RESOURCES 60 

MANUFACTURING 61 

OYSTERS 62 

FISH  AND  GAME..  . 63 


408  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

TRANSPORTATION •  63 

EDUCATION 6& 

VIRGINIA 64-93 

HISTORICAL 64 

POSITION  AND  AREA 64 

NATURAL  DIVISIONS 65-73 

Tidewater  Virginia 65 

The  Middle  Country 67 

Piedmont  Virginia 68 

The  Blue  Ridge  Section 69 

The  Valley  of  Virginia 69 

Apalachian  Virginia 71 

INLAND  WATERS.  . . .' 72 

PRINCIPAL  RIVERS  AND  BRANCHES 72- 

GEOLOGY 73 

CLIMATE 78 

SOILS 79 

PRODUCTIONS 83-88 

Animal  Products 83 

Vegetable  Productions 84 

Timber 87 

MINERALS 88 

Coal    89 

Iron  Ore 89 

PIG  IRON 90 

MANUFACTURES 91* 

OYSTER  INTERESTS 92 

EDUCATIONAL  FACILITIES ..., 93 

TRANSPORTATION 93 

MINERAL  WATERS : 93 

WEST  VIRGINIA 94-114 

POSITION 94 

TOPOGRAPHY , . . . 94 

GEOLOGY 95 

CLIMATE 99-101 

Temperature 100 

Rainfall. 100 

AGRICULTURAL  FEATURES 101-105 

&>ils 101 

Productions 103 

Stock  Raising 10* 

COAL 105 

IRON 106 

SALT 108 

TIMBER 108 

MANUFACTURES 113 

MINERAL  WATERS 114 

EDUCATION 114: 

NORTH  CAROLINA 115-142 

POSITION  AND  AREA 115 

TOPOGRAPHY 11$ 

EASTERN  SECTION 116-118- 


INDEX.  409> 

1  'AGE. 

Topography  116 

Boundaries 116 

Soils 117 

Productions 117 

Vineyards 117 

Fruits  and  Berries 117 

Trucking 118 

Timber 118 

Water  Fowl 118 

MIDDLE  AND  PIEDMONT  SECTION 119-122 

Boundaries 119 

Topography 119 

Productions 119 

Climate    119 

Healthfulness 120 

Water  powers 120 

Sheep  Husbandry 120 

Timber 120 

Tobacco 121 

Fruits 121 

WESTERN  SECTION 123-125 

Boundaries 122 

Topography 122 

Forests 122 

Productions , 123 

Fruits 123 

Climate 123 

Soils 123 

Minerals 123 

GEOLOGY 124 

COAL 1 25 

COPPER • 127 

GOLD 127 

IRON  ORES 128 

OTHER  MINERALS 135 

PRECIOUS  STOXES 138 

MANUFACTURES 139 

WOODS  AND  TIMBERS 140 

STOCK  RAISING ,  141 

SILK  CULTURE 141 

EDUCATION 142 

SOUTH  CAROLINA 143-162 

POSITION 143 

NATURAL  DIVISIONS 143 

COAST  REGION 144 

LOWER  PINE  BELT  OR  SAVANNA  REGION 144 

UPPER  PINE  BELT 145 

RED  HILL  REGION 146 

SAND  HILL  REGION 148 

PIEDMONT  REGION 149 

ALPINE  REGION 154 

CLIMATE 145,  147, 149, 151, 15£ 


-410  INDEX. 

PAGE 

SOILS 144,145,147,148,150,154 

PRODUCTIONS 145, 143,  148, 14D,  152, 155 

HEALTH 145, 148,  149, 152, 161 

WATER-POWERS 155 

MANUFACTURES 157 

MINERALS 158 

LAWS 161 

GEORGIA , 163-194 

POSITION  AND  AREA 163 

TOPOGRAPHY '. 163 

CLIMATE 163 

GENERAL  VIEW  OP  THE  STATE 164 

NORTHWEST  GEORGIA 165 

METAMORPHIC  REGION 169 

MIDDLE  GEORGIA 169 

CENTRAL  COTTON  BELT 172 

LONG-LEAP  PINE  AND  WIRE-GRASS  REGION 175 

LIME-SINK  REGION 176 

PINE  BARRENS,  OR  SANDY,  WIRE-GRASS  REGION 177 

PINE  AND  PALMETTO  FLATS 178 

COAST  REGION 178 

MARLS 178 

ORES  AND  MINERALS 179 

AGRICULTURE 182 

MANUFACTURES 183 

WATER-POWERS 186 

LETTER  FROM  DEPARTMENT  OP  AGRICULTURE 189 

FLORIDA 195-225 

INTRODUCTORY 194 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 196-198 

SOIL 198 

PRODUCTIONS 200-207 

Early  Vegetables 200 

Tropical  and  Semi-tropical  Fruits 202 

Orange  Growing 202 

STOCK  RAISING 207 

FISH 207 

SOCIETY 209 

GOVERNMENT 209 

SCHOOLS 209 

CLIMATE 210 

HEALTHFULNESS 211 

ALABAMA . 226-251 

LOCATION 226 

SURFACE  CONTOUR 226 

River  Systems 226 

Mountains  and  Table-lands 227 

Valleys 228 

CLIMATE 228-231 

Temperature 228 

Rainfall 229 

•GEOLOGICAL  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL  FEATURES .  231-236 


INDEX.  411 

PAGK. 

Middle  Division 231 

Northern  Division 232 

Southern  Division 235 

.AGRICULTURAL  FEATURES 236-240 

Soil  and  Productions 237 

Truck  Farming 239 

MINERAL  KESOURCES 240-246 

Coal 240 

Iron  Ore 241 

TIMBER 246 

MANUFACTURING 247 

EDUCATION 250 

LAWS 250 

MISSISSIPPI 272-C97 

LOCATION « 272 

SURFACE  AND  SOIL C72-277 

The  Alluvial  Soil  of  the  Yazoo  Delta 272 

The  Bluff  Formation 274 

The  Prairie  Kegion 275 

The  Tombigbee  Sand  Group 276 

The  Ripley  Group 276 

The  Pine  Woods  Region 277 

PRODUCTIONS 278 

Fruits  and  Vegetables 278 

HEALTH 278 

FRUIT  GROWING 281 

GRASSES  AND  STOCK  RAISING 282-287 

TIMBER  LANDS 288 

ATTRACTIONS  OF  THE  GULF  COAST 289-291 

TIMBER 292 

MINERALS , 292 

LAWS 293 

WINDS  AND  RAINFALL 296 

PROGRESS  AND  DEVELOPMENT 296 

LOUISIANA : 298-313 

GENERAL  VIEW 298-299 

CLIMATE 299 

SOIL  AND  PRODUCTIONS. 300-306 

MINERAL  RESOURCES 306-308 

TIMBER 308 

LANDS 309 

MANUFACTURES 310 

EDUCATION 310 

LAWS 311 

FISH  AND  GAME 311 

NEW  ORLEANS 312 

TEXAS 314-355 

INTRODUCTORY 314 

POSITION  AND  AREA 315 

CLIMATE 316-320 

Temperature 316 

Rainfall  and  Water  Supply .317 


412  INDEX. 

PAOt 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND  SOILS 320-334 

The  Timbered  Upland  Region 320 

Southern  and  Coast  Prairie  Region. . 324 

Central  Black  Prairie  Region 326 

Northwestern  Red  Loam  Region ,328 

"Western  and  North  western  Texae 329 

Alluvial  Lands 331 

PRODUCTIONS 335 

Fruit  Culture 336 

Grasses 337 

STOCK  RAISING 338-349 

Cattle 338 

Sheep 344 

Mules  and  Horses ... . .  347 

Hogs . ...  348 

The  Angora  Goat 34& 

FORESTRY 349 

MINERALS P51-353 

MANUFACTURES S53-855 

EDUCATION 355 

ARKANSAS 357-371 

POSITION  AND  AREA 357 

SURFACE  FEATURES 357 

CLIMATE : . .    .      35$ 

Rainfall 359 

DRAINAGE 359 

GEOLOGY 360 

AGRICULTURAL  FEATURES 361 

Soils 362 

Fruits 363 

STOCK  RAISING ,    364 

TIMBER * 364 

MINERALS 365 

MANUFACTURING 369 

RAILROADS 37ft 

LAWS 370 

GAME 371 

KENTUCKY 372-386 

LOCATION 372 

RIVER  FRONTAGE 372 

CLIMATE 373 

COAL 373 

PETROLEUM 376 

TIMBER 377 

Pasturage  of  Woodlands 373 

MANUFACTURES 379 

WATERWAYS 380 

Water-powers , 381 

SOIL  AND  PRODUCTIONS 381 

Fruits 384 

Vegetables 384 

THE  BLUE-GRASS  REGION 384 


INDEX.  413 

PAGE. 

HEALTHFULNESS 385 

PROXIMITY  TO  MARKETS 385 

TENNESSEE 387-405 

LOCATION 387 

VARIETY  IN  NATURAL  FEATURES 387 

TOPOGRAPHY 387 

CLIMATE 388 

MINERAL  RESOURCES 390-398 

Coal 390 

Iron  Ores ;:93 

Marble 397 

TIMBER C98 

MANUFACTURES 399 

AGRICULTURAL  FEATURES , , -!  00-405 

East  Tennessee 400 

Middle  Tennessee 401 

West  Tennessee 402 

EDUCATION 405 

LAWS 405 


NEW  YORK  BELTINE  &  PAGK1N6  GO. 

Warehouse:  15  PARK  ROW,  NEW  YORK. 

The  Oldest  and  Largest  Manu- 

facttirers  in  the  United  States  of 

•  IN  EVERY  FORM  ADAPTED  TO  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.  • 


BELTING 

For  Machinery 

WITH 

Smooth  Metallic  Rubber 
Surface. 

This  Company  has  manu- 
factured the  largest  belts  made 
in  the  world  for  the  principal 
elevators  at  Chicago,  Buffalo 
and  New  York. 

STEAM  &  WATER 
<HOSE 

elain  and  Rubber-Limed. 

RUBBER  "  TEST  "  HOSE, 
made  of  vulcanized  Para  Rub- 
ber and  Carbonized  Duck. 

Cotton  "CABLE"  HOSE, 
Circular,  Woven,  Seamless, 
Antiseptic,  for  the  use  of  Steam 
and  Hand  Fire  Engines,  Force 
Pumps,  Mills,  Factories  Steam- 
ers, and  Brewer's  use. 

Patent  Elastic  Rubber  •«• 
*•  Back  Square  Packing. 

BEST  IN  THE  "W-">RLD  for 
Packing  the  Piston  Pods  and 
Valve  Stems  of  Steam  Engines 
and  Pumps. 

CORRUGATED 

Bubber  Matting,  Mats, 
Stair  Treads,  &c. 

For  Halls,  Flooring,  Stone  and 
Iron  Stairways,  etc. 

Adopted  by  the  BROOK- 

LYN BRIDGE  and  ELE- 

VATED RAILROADS. 


ORIGINAL   SOLIO 


VULCANITE-  •  EMERY  •  WHEELS. 

L:rg3  Wheels  made  on  Cr.st-lron  Centre  if  desired. 

KEY;  YORK  BZLTIKG  &  PACKING  co. 


JOHN   H.  CHEEVER,  TREASURER. 
0,  D.  CHEEVER,   DEP'Y  TREAS 


WAREHOUSE: 


15  Park  Rcrw,  N.  Y 


RECORD, 


A  V7eelcly  Paper, 

Devoted  to  the  Manufactttring,  Mining  and  Railroad  Interests  of  the 

STATES, 


Its  weekly  issues  constitute  an  Authentic  History  of  the  Industrial  Pro- 
gress of  the  Southern  States* 


It  is  Read  in  Every  Section  of  the  14  Southern  States,  and  has  a 
Constantly  Increasing  Circulation  among  capitalists  and  others  in  the 
North,  who  wish  to  keep  informed  as  to  Southern  Affairs. 

SUBSCRIPTION     $3.OO    A.    YEAR, 
PUBLISHED  BY   TH^ 

MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  Co. 

S.  E.  Cor.  Exchange  Place  and  Commerce  Street,  BALTIMORE,  MD. 


Edson's  Speed  Recording  Gauge 

COMBINED  WITH 

TIME  AND    PRESSURE   INDICATIONS. 


C/2 


FUIX  INSTRUCTIONS 

for  unpacking,  setting  up  and  running,  always 
sent  with  instrument. 

Yibrating  Alarm  Gong  and  Batteries, 


TO  BE  PLACED  IN  ENGINE  BOOM. 


SPECIAL  ATTENTION 

of  Steam  users,  Engineers,  Superintendents  of 
city  water  works,  and  Electricians,  is  called 
to  the  Combined  Instrument,  whereby  a 

"record"  may  be  constantly  made  upon  a  ribbon 
of  paper,  graduated  to  scales  of  TIME  and  of 
RATES  OF  SPEED,  and  whereon  the 
records  of  steam  (or  water)  pressure  are  also 
being  made  simultaneously  and  automatically, 
as  the  same  are  indicated  by  hand  and  dial  in  the 
usual  manner  upon  the  same  instrument,  as 
shown  in  the  cut. 

Dynamo  Machines  must  be  run  at  a 
uniform  'rate  and  continuously ;  and 
steam,  or  other  motive  power,  must  be  reliable 
at  all  times.  Unquestionably  these  auto- 
matic means  must  be  resorted  to  in 
order  to  secure  intelligent  and  efficient 
action  on  the  part  of  those  in  charge  of  the 
several  elements  put  in  requisition  for  performing' 
so  important  operations ;  and  in  which  blun- 
dering, unfaithful  or  incompetent  performance  of 
assumed  or  prescribed  duties,  will  be  attended 
with  very  serious  results. 

Inasmuch  as  Electricity  and  Steam  are  each 

dangerous  in  their  nature,  and  both  as 
yet  on  trial,  no  warrant  can  be  found  to  justify 
anyone,  even  those  who  are  considered  "ex- 
perts," in  delaying  or  refusing  to  apply  to  im- 
mediate and  constant  use  these  well-tried  in- 
ventions. 

One  or  more  "Alarm  Gongs"    give  instant 

notice  of  any  over  pressure. 

They  were  adopted  and  used  at  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition  as  standards  for 
expert  testing  of  Steam  Boilers,  Steam 
Gauges,  etc.,  and  they  are  guaranteed  for  ac- 
curacy  and  durability. 

They  are  alike  adapted  for  Air,  Oil,  Steam 
or  Water  Pressure. 

One  year's  supply  of  daily  "Charts"  printed 
and  ruled  to  special  scale  of  each  instrument, 
also  shelf  and  Brackets  sent  free  of  extra  charge 
with  the  Gauges. 


These  instruments  are  now  in  use  on  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  ;  in  the  new  Capitol  building,  Albany; 
•by  the  Edison  Electric  Light  and  Illuminating  Company  ;  the  U.  S.  Illuminating  Co.  ;  the  New 
York  Steam  Co.  ;  on  the  United  States  ships  "Shenandoah"  and  "Powhatan;"  in  the  mercantile 
marine  on  both  ocean  and  river  steamers  ;  by  the  Chicago  Cable  Railway,  and  the  Chicago  Water 
Works  ;  the  St.  Louis  Ore  and  Steel  Company  ;  the  New  York,  Brooklyn,  and  other  Water  Works; 
and  hundreds  of  breweries,  paper  mills,  chemical  works,  oil  refineries  and  others. 

descriptive  pamphlet,  reduced  price  list,  and  further  information,  address 


THE  EDSON  RECORDING  AND  ALARM  GAUGE  CO. 

91  Liberty  Street,  New  York. 


Edson's  Steam  Recording  and  Alarm  Gauge, 

FOR  USE  ON  ALL  KINDS  OF  BOILERS. 


B.    F.    Isherwood,    Chief   Engineer 

U.  S.  Navy,  writes  as  follows  : 

"New  York,  Sept.  i,  1885. 

"The  use  of  Recording-Steam  Gauges  and 
High-Pressure  Alarms  on  boilers  is  of  supreme 
importance  because  it  is  a  means  for  the  preser- 
vation of  life  and  property,  for  the  discovery  of 
the  causes  of  steam-boiler  explosions,  and  for 
the/M-r^  adjudication  of  damages  when  the  latter 
occur,  etc.,  etc. 

Geo.  B.  N.  Tower,  late  U.  S.  Su- 
pervising Inspector-General  of  Steamers, 
writes  as  follows  : 

"M.  B   EDSON,  Esq..  President. 

"Sir  :  I  have  carefully  examined  your  Indica- 
ting and  Recording  Steam  Pressure  Gauge  and 
High  Pressure  Alarm,  and  am  well  satisfied  that 
it  will  do  all  that  is  claimed  for  it.  I  have  wit- 
nessed its  action  for  some  years  past,  and  con- 
sider it  invaluable  to  owners  and  users  of  steam 
power,  as  it  is  a  complete  check  on  the  doings  of 
the  engineer  and  fireman.  Its  perfect  reliability 
is  unquestioned.  Nothing  harms  a  boiler  more 
than  fluctuations  in  pressure,  and  nothing  is  more 
prejudicial  to  economy  in  fuel,  and  the  record 
chart  of  this  gauge  shows  at  once  whether  the 
pressure  is  uniform,  and  the  amounts  of  all  varia- 
tions. In  case  of  an  explosion  it  is  very  difficult, 
and  generally  impossible,  to  determine  the 
amount  of  steam  pressure  at  the  moment  of  rup- 
ture ;  but  if  this  gauge  is  attached,  the  record- 
sheet  gives  an  indubitable  and  accurate  register 
of  the  pressure  in  pounds,  which  may  assist 
greatly  in  determining  the  cause  <  f  the  explosion. 
It  is  of  great  assistance  to  boi'er  inspectorst 
for  it  shows  them  how  efficiently  an  engineer 
has  cared  for  his  boiler,  and,  also,  -whether 
the  prescribed  pressure  has  been  exceeded— how 
much  and  how  often  ;  and/0r  this  reason  alone  t 
if  for  no  other,  the  'Charts'  should  always  be 
carefully  preserved  for^  reference.  I  think 
too  much  cannot  be  said  in  its  favor. 
Respectfully, 

"GEO.  B.  N.  TOWER, 
"Sup'g    Inspector  Am.   Steam   Boiler  Ins.  Co. 

"New  York,  Dec.  i,  1885." 


The  well-known  Expert  in  Hydraulic 
Engineering,  J.  J.  R.  Croes,  Esq., 
states  that  "the  evidence  obtained  by 
the  use  of  these  Recording  Gauges  is 
extremely  useful,  and  is  a  most  effective 
means  for  discovering  whether  waste 
occurs,  and  of  tracing  offenders  in  this 
respect." 

For  descriptive  phamphlet,  reduced 
price  list,  or  further  information,  address 

The  Edson  Recording  &  Alarm  Gauge  Co. 

91  Liberty  Street,  New  York. 


FLOUR  TRADE   OF    BALTIMORE. 

ONE  of  the  most  important  industries  of  Baltimore  is  the  manufacture  of  flour. 
Since  1774,  when  the  Ellicotts  first  built  the  Patapsco  Flour  Mill  at  Ellicott 
City,  a  few  miles  from  Baltimore,  this  city  has  been  noted  as  a  great  flour 
market.  The  superior  quality  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  winter  wheat,  which 
contains  more  nutriment  than  the  "Western  spring  wheat,  has  always  enabled  our 
best  millers  to  produce  the  highest  grade  of  flour — the  "Patapsco"  brand,  for 
instance,  now  over  a  century  old,  being  known  from  Canada  to  Florida,  as  well 
as  in  Europe,  as  a  flour  that  has  always  stood  at  the  very  top;  a  flour,  in  fact,  the 
superior  of  which  can  nowhere  be  found.  Of  course,  the  leading  mills  are  the  three 
Patapsco  Mills,  owned  by  the  C.  A.  Garnbrill  Manufacturing  Company.  A  few 
facts  about  this  company  will  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  Baltimore's  flour  business. 
It  is  an  incorporated  company,  having  a  capital  of  $COO,000,  a  fact  which  will  give 
the  readers  of  THE  NEW  SOUTH  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  their  operations.  They 
own  and  operate  three  large  mills,  having  an  aggregate  daily  capacity  of  about 
2,000  barrels,  or  over  600,000  barrels  a  year.  Their  mills  are  unsurpassed  in 
design  and  construction,  and  are  supplied  with  the  very  latest  and  most  improved 
roller  process  machinery,  one  of  their  mills  having  been  built  only  aboutthreeyears 
ago,  while  the  other  two  have,  since  then,  been  remodeled  and  changed  from 
buhrs  to  rollers,  no  expense  whatever  having  been  spared  either  in  the  building 
of  the  new  mill  or  the  remodeling  of  the  others,  the  company  being  determined 
that  these  mills  should  have  every  advantage  that  the  highest  skill,  backed  by  an 
abundance  of  money,  could  give.  As  they  now  stand,  these  three  mills  are  models 
of  perfection,  and  as  they  are  managed  by  the  best  millers  to  be  found  in  the 
country,  and  use  the  finest  wheat  raised  in  America,  they,  of  course,  produce,  as 
we  have  already  said,  a  grade  of  flour  that  has  no  superior  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  these  mills  and  this  brand  of  flour,  more  than  all  else,  that  have  given  Balti- 
more such  a  world -wide  reputation  as  a  flour  market.  The  manufacturers  have 
steadily,  from  year  to  year,  added  the  latest  improvements  in  milling,  until  it 
really  seems  that  they  have  reached  absolute  perfection  in  making  flour.  The 
New  York  Produce  Exchange  Reporter,  one  of  the  best  authorities  in  the 
country  on  flour  and  grain  matters,  in  a  late  issue,  says :  "  Some  years  ago  the 
millers  of  the  Northwest  adopted  the  roller  system,  which  proved  a  great  success, 
and  flour  manufactured  by  this  new  method  at  once  took  a  front  rank,  and  came 
into  severe  and  sharp  competition  with  the  old  standards  and  brands  of  winter 
wheat  flour  as  manufactured  by  the  old  buhr  system.  The  adoption  of  the  new 
roller  system,  in  connection  with  other  modern  appliances,  produced  this  result. 
This  stimulated  the  winter  wheat  millers  to  enter  the  line  of  evolution,  and. 
knowing  winter  wheat  to  be  in  all  respects  far  superior  to  spring  wheat,  they 
entertained  no  fear  as  to  results.  *  *  *  During  the  past  fortnight  we  haVe 
devoted  considerable  time  in  carefully  testing  the  qualities  of  the  flour  of  the 
Patapso  Flour  Mills.  This  flour  has  been  long  known  to  the  trade,  and  during 
this  century  it  has  held  a  very  distinguished  position,  growing  in  the  popular 
estimation  almost  yearly.  This  renowned  flour  is  made  from  carefully  selected 
Maryland  red  wheat,  *  *  *  and  in  this  brand  we  have  an  article  embracing 
unrivalled  qualities.  *  *  *  It  is  not  often  we  find  a  flour  possessing  so  many 
admirable  qualities.  Its  color  is  very  much  in  its  favor ;  and  to  the  excellent 
wheat,  the  skillful  milling  and  improved  machinery,  wye  are  indebted  for  thi& 
unrivalled  article."  And  thus  we  might  go  on  almost  indefinitely  telling  of  the 
good*  qualities  of  this  most  excellent  flour.  In  Europe  it  is  as  great  a  favorite 
with  those  who  have  used  it  as  in  this  country — a  late  letter  from  Dunlop  Bros., 
of  Glasgow,  to  the  Gambrill  Manufacturing  Company  mentioning  the  fact  that 
they  had  sold  this  flour  at  a  higher  price  than  could  be  obtained  for  the  best 
Minnesota  flour. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   MACHINERY. 


AS  the  home  of  great  engineering  skill,  Baltimore  has  for  many  years 
enjoyed  a  most  excellent  reputation,  not  only  in  America,  but  also  in 
Europe.  Baltimore  engineers  and  engineering  work  have  always,  or  at 
least  as  far  back  as  the  memory  of  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary,  been 
regarded  as  equal  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  most  difficult  undertakings,  and 
this  reputation  is  well  deserved.  Probably  in  no  way  is  the  standing  of  Baltimore 
mechanical  engineering  work  better  illustrated  than  by  a  reference  to  the  business 
of  Messrs.  Poole  &  Hunt.  This  firm  has  now  been  in  existence  over  a  third  of  a 
century,  and  the  highest  commendation  that  can  be  given  them  is  simply  to 
mention  one  or  two  of  the  large  contracts  that  they  have  received  when  in 
competition  with  the  whole  country.  Chicago,  for  instance,  is  a  great  city;  and 
yet,  two  or  three  years  ago,  when  the  first  cable  street  railroad  was  to  be 
constructed  in  that  city — a  work  involving  several  million  dollars — Messrs.  Poole 
&  Hunt  received  the  contract  for  furnishing  the  enormous  amount  of  transmission 
machinery  required ;  and  such  was  the  case  in  Kansas  City ;  and  again  even  in 
New  York,  the  largest  manufacturing  center  in  the  country,  when  the  Third 

Avenue  Cable  Road  or- 
dered their  machinery 
of  the  same  firm.  In 
addition  to  these  roads 
Messrs.  Poole  &  Hunt 
have  lately  built  the 
same  class  of  machin- 
ery, but  on  a  much 
more  extensive  scale 
than  for  any  other  road 
in  existence,  for  the 
new  cable  road  in  Ho- 
boken,  ET.  J.,  and  for 
extensions  in  Chica- 
go and  Kansas  City. 
In  this  connection 
it  may  be  said  that 
all  cable  roads  whose 

plants  have  been  furnished  by  Poole  &  Hunt  are  now  in  successful  operation. 
Another  sample  of  their  work  is  seen  in  3  immense  dredges  which  they  recently 
finished  for  dredging  the  Potomac  Hats  at  Washington,  D.  C.  They  are  built  on 
an  entirely  new  system,  and  are  known  as  the  Yon  Schmidt  Hydraulic  Dredge. 
In  operating  them  the  material  to  be  excavated  is  first  stirred  up,  and  is  then 
pumped  into  large  delivery  pipes,  and  may  be  conveyed  to  any  distance.  The 
works  of  this  firm  are  located  at  Woodberry,  a  suburb  of  Baltimore,  and  are 
connected  by  telephone  with  their  office  in  Baltimore.  Their  works  now  cover 
12  acres  of  ground,  and  are  in  every  way  admirably  located  for  the  manufac- 
ture, hanuiing  and  shipping  of  machinery  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  iron 
foundry,  pattern  shop,  melting  house,  brass  foundry,  blacksmith  and  machine 
shops,  pattern  loft,  tool  room,  and  in  fact  every  department  connected  with  this 
extensive  establishment,  are  all  systematically  arranged,  and  replete  with  every 
modern  appliance  for  doing  the  best  work  with  the  greatest  dispatch.  This  firm 
manufacture  steam  engines,  boilers,  gang  saw  mills,  paint  mills,  flouring-mill 
machinery,  an  improved  patent  mixer  for  paints,  white  lead,  fertilizers,  etc., 
gearing  for  cotton  and  other  mills,  hydrostatic  presses,  white-lead  works  and  oil- 
mill  machinery,  the  Leffel  double  turbine  water-wheel,  shafting,  gearing,  pulleys, 
hangers,  and  every  variety  of  mill  machinery. 


THE   HYGEIA   HOTEL,  OLD   POINT   COMFORT,  VA. 

OLD  POINT  COMFORT  was  the  name  given  by  Captain  John  Smith,  the 
tempest-tossed  mariner  of  the  seventeenth  century,  to  that  point  of  land 
which  juts  into  the  broad  and  pleasant  waters  of  the  long-sought  harbor  of 
Hampton  Roads.  Situated  in  latitude  37  degrees,  it  escapes  the  rigors  of  a  more 
northerly  climate.  Its  temperature  during  the  coldest  weather  rarely  falls  below 
42  degrees.  In  summer  it  preserves  a  temperate  mean  between  60  and  80  degrees. 
Since  1817  it  has  been  a  military  post,  and  sanitary  records  kept  with  absolute 
fidelity  show  that  during  a  term  of  fifty  years  not  a  single  case  of  malarial,  typhus 
or  scarlet  fever,  nor  diphtheria,  has  originated  on  the  Point.  So  close  to  the  shore 
that  the  cheek  is  fanned  by  the  salt  breeze,  and  the  music  of  the  waves  lull  the 
weary  traveler  to  repose,  rises  the  tall-towered,  many-windowed  Hygeia,  the 
queen  of  health  and  pleasure  resorts  of  the  North  Atlantic  coast.  It  stretches 
its  leviathan  length  a  quarter  of  a  mile  along  the  white  beach.  Its  six  hundred 
Tooms  are  luxuriantly  furnished  with  all  modern  conveniences — gas,  electric  bells 
and  oral  annunciators,  Russian,  Turkish,  Roman,  electric,  thermo-electric,  hot  and 
cold  sea  baths,  and  the  most  perfect  system  of  drainage  to  be  found  in  any  hotel 
in  this  country.  The  wide  verandas,  15,000  square  feet  of  which  are  encased  in 
glass,  afford  delightful  promenades  and  sun  baths  for  the  delicate  invalid.  A 
spacious  ball-room  is  reserved  for  dancing,  with  an  excellent  military  band  in 


nightly  attendance.  The  table  is  unsurpassed.  The  surrounding  country  furnishes 
the  choicest  and  earliest  vegetables ;  Baltimore,  Washington  and  Norfolk  markets 
supply  meat  and  game,  while  the  fish  and  oysters  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  enjoy  a. 
world-wide  celebrity  for  their  variety  and  flavor.  The  historic  interests  which 
cluster  about  Old  Point  Comfort  are  familiar  to  all.  The  Hygeia  is  adjacent  to 
one  of  the  largest  military  posts  in  the  world,  Fort  Monroe,  the  stronghold  during 
the  late  civil  war  of  the  Union  army  and  navy.  Just  opposite  her  green  parapets 
the  battle  Avhich  decided  the  fate  of  the  Confederacy  at  sea,  between  the  Merrimac 
and  the  Monitor,  took  place.  Within  two  miles  of  the  Hygeia,  are  those  famous 
philanthropic  institutions,  the  Normal  and  Agricultural  School  for  Colored  People 
and  Indians,  and  the  National  Soldiers'  Home;  a  half  a  mile  beyond,  the  ancient 
colonial  town  of  Hampton.  Portsmouth,  with  its  navy  yard  and  arsenal,  and 
Norfolk,  the  thriving  shipping  and  commercial  town,  are  distant  an  hour's  sail 
across  the  Roads.  The  modes  of  reaching  the  Hygeia  are  various,  and  admit  of  a 
variety  of  routes.  The  best  of  medical  and  surgical  skill  is  within  live  minutes' 
call.  The  visitors  include  residents  of  all  parts  pf  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
and  the  register  last  year  held  the  most  distinguished  names  on  the  roll  of  their 
citizens,  comprising  representatives  from  Manitoba,  on  the  north,  to  British 
Honduras,  on  the  south,  and  from  California  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 


THE  ST.  JAMES,  JACKSONVILLE,  FLA. 

THE  St.  James  Hotel  is  an  old  house,  yet  it  is  a  new  and  modern  house.  It 
might  be  said  that  it  was  built  in  1868;  or  better,  that  they  have  been  since 
1868  building  it.  The  first  building,  of  wood,  was  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$30,000,  and  furnished  at  an  expense  of  $20,000.  The  size  was  105  by  150  feet, 
and  it  was  four  stories  high.  Enlarged  and  improved  from  time  to  time,  it  has 
always  kept  in  the  lead.  One  familiar  with  its  continued  growth  in  size  must 
wonder  where  it  will  stop.  Brick  additions,  large  dining  rooms  and  kitchen  have 
been  built,  until  now  nearly  the  whole  square  bounded  by  Duval,  Laura,  Church 
and  Hogan  streets  is  covered.  The  situation  is  in  the  best  residence  portion  of 
the  city,  just  far  enough  back  from  the  business  section  to  be  both  convenient  and 
pleasant.  The  churches  and  places  of  amusement  are  in  close  proximity.  The 
hotel  fronts  on  a  beautiful  public  park  filled  with  tropical  plants,  trees  and  shrub- 
bery. The  verandas  are  wide  and  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  front  and  part 
of  the  side  on  the  first  and  second  stories.  A  good  entrance  ornaments  the 
center,  and  large  trees  surround  the  whole.  The  St.  James  now  stands  without 
a  rival  in  the  whole  South,  and  evokes  the  admiration  of  its  thousands  of  guests 


THE  ST.  JAMES  HOTEL. 


at  its  large  and  beautiful  proportions  and  furnishings,  as  well  as  the  energy  and 
enterprise  of  its  proprietor.  To  its  host  of  friends  no  mention  need  be  made  of 
its  spacious  and  cheerful  office  and  halls,  pleasantly  impressing  the  traveller  on 
entering ;  of  its  magnificent  public  parlor,  suggestive  of  luxurious  comfort;  of  its 
immense  and  elegant  dining  room,  with  its  unexcelled  service  and  the  enviable 
reputation  of  its  cuisine,  and  of  its  private  parlors,  private  and  public  bath  rooms, 
elegant  rooms  en  suite,  with  baths,  &c.,  attached,  billiprd  parlor,  telegraph  office, 
electric  bells,  elevator,  gas,  and  the  whole  building  heated  with  steam.  In  fine, 
these,  with  all  the  modern  devices  and  improvements  which  skill  and  experience 
can  suggest,  together  with  the  delightful  climate,  are  presented  as  inducements 
and  temptations  to  the  public  to  visit  Florida  and  the  St.  James.  The  house  and 
grounds  are  lighted  by  electric  light.  A  select  band  of  musicians,  organized  both 
as  brass  band  and  orchestra,  is  engaged  for  every  season,  which  gives  concerts 
daily  for  the  entertainment  of  the  guests,  and  for  impromptu  hops,  which  occur 
every  evening.  For  information  regarding  rooms,  terms,  or  other  particulars, 
address  by  letter  or  telegraph  J.  R.  Campbell,  proprietor,  Jacksonville,  Florida. 


PRINTING   PRESSES. 

AMONG-  the  recent  improvements  in  printing  machinery,  there  has  never 
been  a  more  radical  departure  from  the  old-established  form  and  style  of 
building  these  machines  than  that  of  Messrs.  C.  B.  Cottrell  &  Sons,  of 
New  York  City  and  Chicago,  111.  These  gentlemen,  realizing  that  for  the  finest 
class  of  press-work,  in  both  black  and  colored  inks,  the  ordinary  fly  delivery  was 
far  from  perfection,  have  perfected  and  put  on  the  market  their  New  Patent 
Front  Delivery,  and  have  applied  the  same  to  both  the  Two-Revolution  and 
Stop-Cylinder  Presses  of  their  manufacture.  The  improvement  consists  of  arched 
ways  or  tracks  running  from  the  cylinder  at  one  end  to  the  receiving  table  at  the 
other.  In  these  ways  run  carriers  attached  to  and  carrying  gripper-bars,  which 
take  the  sheet  from  the  cylinder  by  the  "front"  or  "gripper"  edge,  and  carry  it 
through  the  air,  clear  of  all  tapes,  cords  or  strings  of  any  kind,  and  deposit  it, 
last  printed  side  up,  on  the  receiving  table  (which  is  situated  over  the  fountain) 
•without  any  pressure  whatever,  thus  doirg  away  with  the  necessity  of  slip  sheets. 
The  sheet  being  deposited  ri»lit  under  the  eye  of  the  pressman,  he  can  adjust  his 
fountain  without  leaving  his  position,  thus  economizing  time  and  saving  spoilage. 
The  high  commendation  this  improvement  is  receiving  from  printers  who  have 
adopted  and  are  using  it  is  a  sufficient  attestation  of  its  merits.  The  publishers 


COTTRELL'S  NEW  FRONT  DELIVERY  PRESS. 

of  this  book  have  had  one  of  this  make  of  presses  in  use  for  some  time,  and  the 
present  volume  was  printed  on  it.  They  consider  this  method  of  delivery  an 
immense  improvement  on  the  old  style,  and  would  not  use  any  other  press  for 
fine  work.  This  press  was  their  latest  purchase  in  that  line,  and  was  selected 
after  a  careful  examination  into  the  merits  of  all  the  best  known  makes,  seeking 
a  make  of  press  best  calculated  to  gratify  their  ambition  to  secure  for  the  Manu- 
facturers' Record  the  reputation  of  being  the  best  printed  trade  journal  in  the 
United  States,  and  thus  naturally  the  finest  in  the  world.  There  were  presses  of 
this  make  and  embodying  this  improvement  exhibited  at  the  World's  Industrial 
and  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition  at  New  Orleans,  and  they  were  awarded  medal 
of  first  class  over  all  competitors.  Messrs.  Cottrell  &  Sons  make  a  specialty  of 
presses  for  the  finest  book  and  color  work.  They  also  manufacture  cylinder 
presses  of  all  grades  and  sizes  for  newspaper  and  job  work.  Their  country  press 
was  awarded  first  medal  at  the  New  Orleans  Exposition.  The  decision  of  the 
judges  confirms  the  opinion  held  by  the  leading  printers  throughout  the  country 
that  the  Cottrell  presses  are  the  best  in  existence.  The  offices  of  Messrs.  Cottrell 
<fc  Sons  are  at  8  Spruce  street,  New  York,  and  198  Clark  street,  Chicago,  111. 


,  PRINTING   INKS. 

THE  Queen  City  Printing  Ink  Company,  located  in  Cincinnati,  right  on  the 
borders  of  the  "  Sunny  South,"  with  unexcelled  facilities  for  shipping  to  all 
points  of  the  Southern  States,  is  claimed  by  its  founders  to  be  the  oldest 
now  in  existence,  and  the  most  extensive  manufactory  of  its  kind  in  the  great 
Southwest.  Whatever  of  credit  or  honor  may  be  attached  to  pioneership,  this 
company  is  justly  entitled  to,  for  its  history  can  be  traced  back  to  the  earliest 
attempt  to  manufacture  a  really  fine  printing  ink  west  of  the  Alleghanies;  but  a 
higher  honor  than  comes  from  its  age  is  the  reputation  which  the  Queen  City 
Printing  Ink  Company  has  achieved  among  printers.  The  excellency  of  it8 
productions  created  a  demand  for  them  which  has  steadily  grown  year  by  year, 
necessitating  frequent  enlargements  of  factory  and  increased  facilities  for  manu- 
facture, until  now  the  establishment  of  the  company  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  completely  equipped  works  of  the  kind  in  the  United  States.  The  company, 
under  the  name  of  DeGolyer  &  Rychen,  began  business  in  a  small  way  in  1860, 
and  determined  to  achieve  success  through  the  merits  of  their  productions, 
deeming  it  good  business  policy  to  make  superiority  in  the  quality  of  their  inks 
the  leading  feature,  and  to  maintain  the  most  absolute  uniformity  of  quality  for 
each  grade.  Confident  of  their  ability  to  do  this,  and  wishing  to  reap  the  full 
benefit  of  the  favor  with  which  superior  and  uniform  inks  would  surely  meet, 
they  determined  to  adopt  a  distinctive  brand  which  all  their  productions  would 
bear — the  various  grades  being  designated  by  special  name  and  price.  With  this 
end  in  view,  the  name  Queen  City  Printing  Ink  Company  was  adopted  as  a  brand, 
and  so  widely  and  favorably  known  did  it  become,  that  a  few  years  later,  when 
the  firm  became  a  corporation,  what  had  merely  been  a  brand  or  trade-mark 
became  the  name  of  the  company;  and  the  business  growing  on  the  merits  of  its 
inks,  in  1870  they  removed  to  000  West  Fifth  street,  and  enlarged  their  facilities 
by  erecting  large  works  on  Court  street.  In  1S76  a  stock  company  was  formed 
under  the  name  of  Queen  City  Printing  Ink  Company,  with  John  Rychen,  presi- 
dent; E.  F.  Rychen,  vice-president,  and  Joseph  Green,  secretary  and  treasurer. 
The  company  recently  erected  large  buildings  on  South  street,  near  Evans,  which 
are  supplied  with  all  the  modern  improvements  and  appliances  necessary  for 
extensive  production,  and  every  facility  and  convenience  is  provided  for  the 
prosecution  of  the  work.  The  works  have  a  capacity  of  three  and  a  half  tons 
per  day.  The  manufacture  embraces  all  grades  and  colors  of  printing  and  litho- 
graph inks,  tints,  varnishes,  sizes,  etc.,  the  principal  production  being  news  inks, 
for  which  the  house  has  an  extensive  demand,  the  quality  of  its  inks  commanding 
a  wide  preference.  All  the  Cincinnati  dailies  and  nearly  all  of  the  less  frequent 
issues  are  supplied  from  this  establishment;  also  a  large  number  of  papers  in 
St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Pittsburgh,  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Nashville,  Atlanta,  New 
Orleans,  Buffalo,  etc.  The  news  ink  is  put  up  in  5  to  500-pound  packages;  the 
fine  and  colored  inks  in  smaller  packages,  down  to  a  single  ounce.  They  also 
manufacture  a  special  grade  of  illustrated  book  and  catalogue  ink,  with  which 
this  edition  of  the  "New  South"  is  printed,  and  which  is  used  on  a  large  number 
of  illustrated  and  trade  journals,  among  which  are  the  Manufacturers'  Record, 
Northwestern  Miller,  Modern  Miller,  American  Miller,  Carriage  Monthly,  and 
many  others.  It  is  suitable  for  printing  a  fine  card  as  well  as  the  largest  and 
most  difficult  cut  work.  From  being  a  pioneer  concern,  the  Queen  City  Printing 
Ink  Company  has  grown  to  be  the  largest  and  best  equipped  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies. It  makes  all  its  own  materials,  and  hence  insures  the  quality  of  its 
product.  Its  inks  are  the  standard  in  the  West,  their  superiority  being  universally 
recognized.  The  trade,  which  extends  throughout  the  North,  South  and  West,  is 
steadily  and  deservedly  increasing — the  management  being  marked  by  intelligent 
^enterprise,  and  the  products  first-class  in  all  respects. 


A  Scrap  of  Unwritten  History. 


Then  the  star  of  empire  of  which  Jeff- 
/  erson  Davis  had  so  fondly  dreamed 
/  had  waxed  and  waned,  and  fate  de- 
creed that  the  Southern  Confederacy 
should  go  out  in  darkness,  the  curtain  fell 
upon  the  la*t  act  of  the  bloody  drama  in 
North  Carolina,  Lee  having  capitulated  at 
Appomattox.  Sherman,  on  his  march  to 
the  sea,  had  demonstrated  to  J  ohnston  that 
further  resistance  was  useless,  so  April, 
1865,  found  Sherman  with  his  army  at 
Raleigh,  N.  C.,  while  Johnston,  with  the 
remnant  of  his  troops,  was  resting  at  Greens- 
boro, N.  C.  From  Kaleigh  to  Greensboro,  a 
distance  of  75  miles,  both  armies  roamed 
indiscriminately.  Gen.  Johnston  signified 
to  Gen.  Sherman  his  desire  for  a  conference, 
and  an  armistice  of  ten  days  was  declared, 
and  the  two  great  chieftains  met  in  consul- 
tation at  a  little  house  four  miles  west  of 
Durham,  N.  C.  Durham,  an  insignificant 
railway  station,  having  a  population  of  two 
hundred,  was  declared  neutral  ground. 
Here  the  gray  and  blue  met  in  friendly  in- 
tercourse—swapped horses,  ran  foot  races, 
shot  at  targets,  and  around  the  same  camp- 
fire  told  of  hair-brea'lth  escapes.  Not  more 
than  one  hundred  yards  from  the  railway 
station  stood  a  two  story  frame  tobacco 
factory,  owned  by  John  R.  Green.  During 
the  war  Green  had  manufactured  smoking 
toMaccoforthe  "boysin  thearmy,"  but  now 
his  occupation  was  gone.  Stored  in  the 
factory  were  large  quantities  of  smoking 
tobacco  ready  for  shipment,  and  during  the 
armistice  the  build  ng  was  sacked  and 
around  the  camp-fires  in  Durham  the  blue 
and  the  grav  literally  smoked  the  pipe  of 
of  peace.  When  the  terms  of  surrender 
were  arranged,  the  soldiers  of  each  army 
provided  themselves  with  a  "poke"  of  to- 
bacco, and  marched  homeward .  In  this  way 
the  tobacco  was  scattered  from  Maine  to 
Texas.  What  G  reen  had  regarded  as  a  great 
calamity  soon  proved  to  be  a  great  blessing. 
When  the  soldiers,  on  reaching  home,  had 
exhausted  their  "poke,"  orders  directed  to 
the  railroad  agent,  postmaster,  etc.,  at  Dur- 
ham, N.  C.,  began  to  pour  in  for  that  smok- 
ing tobacco.  Green,  quick  to  perceive  his 
advantage,  christened  his  tobacco  "Dur- 
ham," and  selected  the  Durham  bull  as  his 
trade  mark.  Nowhere  on  the  globe  is  to- 
bacco of  such  fine  quality  or  so  peculiarly 
adapted  to  smoking  purposes  raised  as  is 
grown  in  the  vicinity  of  Durham.  Almost 
entirely  free  from  nitrates  and  nicotinp,  the 
Durham  tobacco  has  become  so  celebrated 


that  to-day,  all  over  the  United  States,  the 
Canadas,  South  America,  Japan,  Australia, 
China,  etc.,  it  is  the  acknowledged  standard 
of  excellence  and  purity.  In  1869  Greun 
died,  and  W.  T.  Blackwell  &  Co.  purchased 
the  business,  and,  putting  into  it  fresh  capi- 
tal and  enterprise,  soon  made  itawonderiul 
success,  until  to-day  they  are  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  flourishing  firms  in  the 
country.  At  the  time  of  the  purchase  from 
Green,  the  total  force  employed  in  the  fac- 
tory numbered  less  than  twelve,  and  the 
population  of  the  town  less  than  300.  To- 
day the  Blackw ell's  Durham  Tobacco  Co., 
successors  to  W.  T.  Blackwell  &  Co.,  pay 
annually  to  the  government  a  revenue  tax 
of  more  than  $250,000  and  employ  from  50a 
1o  600  hands.  The  embryo  village  of  1865 
has  a  population  in  1886  of  over  5,000,  and 
contains  the  largest  smoking  tobacco  fac- 
tory in  the  world.  The  factory  of  Black- 
well's  Durham  Tobacco  Co.,  the  famous 
manufacturers  of  the  celebrated  Bull  Dur- 
ham smoking  tobacco  and  cigarettes,  is  the 
feature  of  attraction  at  Durham.  Immedi- 
ately fronting  the  railroad,  it  looks  more 
like  one  of  our  mammoth  metropolitan 
hotels  than  a  tobacco  factory.  On  the  first 
floor  are  fine  offices,  and  here  a  gentlemanly 
usher  shows  visitors  all  the  items  of  inter- 
est. Everything  indicates  industry  and 
enterprise,  and  perfect  system  prevail".  All 
the  best  improved  machinery  is  provided 
for  granulating,  shredding,  combing,  drying- 
and  packing  tobacco.  The  amount  of  leaf 
tobacco  (in  the  raw  state)  carried  by  the 
firm  is  amazing  to  the  visitor.  Six  immense 
storage  warehouses,  in  addition  to  the 
mammoth  four-story  brick  factory,  are  re- 
quired to  hold  the  stock  of  raw  leaf  con- 
stantly on  hand. 

Durham  is  twenty- six  miles  west  of 
Raleigh,  the  capital  of  the  State,  and  is  the 
outlet  to  what  is  known  as  the  Golden  To- 
bacco Belt  of  North  Carolina.  Facts  show 
that  the  tobacco  grown  in  this  section  is  not 
equaled  elsewhere  in  the  world.  As  all  the 
tobacco  raised  in  this  Golden  Belt  finds  its 
market  at  Durham,  Blackwell's  Durham 
Tobacco  Co.  are  so  situated  that  they  con- 
trol the  pick  of  all  the  offerings,  and  this, 
in  connection  with  their  enormous  storage 
facilities,  enable  them  to  carry  the  choicest 
stock  until  it  is  as  sweet  and  fragrant  as  a 
rose.  Success  always  brings  imitators  and 
several  unprincipled  manufacturers'  who 
have  attempted  to  pirate  their  goods  have 
been  brought  to  justice.  The  smoking  pub- 
lic are,  however,  fast  learning  that  the  Dur- 
ham bull  must  be  on  the  package  to  insure 
purity,  and  they  will  not  take  any  other. 
Blackwell's  Durham  Tobacco  Co.  have  lately 
added  the  manufacture  of  long  cut  smoking 
tobacco  and  cigarettes  to  their  business,  but 
the  purity  and  quality  of  these  goods  have 
already  secured  them  an  enormous  trade. 
Little  did  the  gallant  "boys  in  blue  and 
gray,"  around  their  camp-fires  in  Durham 
in  1865,  dream  that  they  were  sowing  the 
seeds  which  have  grown  till  Durham  is  one 
of  the  thriftiest  and  most  widely  known 
towns  in  the  South,  if  not  in  the  Union. 

Messrs.  M.  E.  McDowell  &  Co.  are  the  sole 
agents  for  the  sale  of  the  goods  manufac- 
tured by  Blackwell's  Durham  Tobacco  Co. 
The  main  office  of  this  enterprising  firm  is 
at  603-605  Chestnut  street,  Philade'phia,  and 
they  have  branch  offices  as  follows:  New 
York,  No.  103  Chambers  street :  Chicago,  No. 
8  Wabash  avenue :  St.  Louis,  No.  416  N.  2nd 
street;  San  Francisco,  No.  228  Front  street; 
Atlanta,  No.  9  W.  Alabama  street ;  New  Or- 
leans, No.  476  Constance  street;  London, 
England,  No.  52  Farringdon  street. 


A  VALUABLE   REMEDY. 

ONE  of  the  most  widely  known  medicines  at  the  present  day  is  Swift's 
Specific.    The  growth  in  the  sales  of  this  remedy  during  the  last  few  years 
has  been  astounding.    As  showing  something  of  its  efficacy  and  the  estima- 
tion in  which  it  is  held,  the  following  letters  are  presented : 

Mr.  Charles  Berg  writes  as  follows  from  the  Hot  Springs,  January  1, 1883: 
'*  Mercurial  rheumatism  made  me  cripple.  After  trying  the  springs  two  years, 
and  the  mercury  and  potash  treatment  until  I  was  a  skeleton  and  unable  to  do 
anything,  I  was  prevailed  upon  to  take  a  course  of  S.  S.  S.  After  taking  three 
bottles  my  appetite  legan  to  improve  and  I  gained  flesh  rapidly.  When  I  had 
taken  twelve  bottles  I  felt  as  well  as  I  ever  did.  It  is  now  twelve  months  since  I 
took  S.  S.  S.  My  health  and  appetite  are  good,  and  I  am  able  to  attend  to  all  the 
business  I  can  get." 

The  following  is  from  Peter  E.  Love,  Esq.,  Augusta,  Ga.,  January  8, 1885: 
"  I  am  a  coppersmith  by  trade,  and  during  a  series  of  years  my  arms  (being  bare 
when  at  work)  absorbed  a  wonderful  amount  of  metal  poison.  Having  a  scrofu- 
lous tendency  from  my  youth,  the  small  particles  of  copper  and  brass  would  get 
into  the  sores,  and  by  this  process  the  poison  was  conveyed  into  my  blood  until 
my  whole  system  became  infected.  I  was  treated  with  the  old  remedies,  mercury 
and  iodide  of  potash.  Salivation  followed,  and  my  teeth  are  all  loose  in  my  head, 
and  my  digestive  organs  became  deranged.  I  have  been  helpless  in  bed  for  a  year 
with  mercurial  rheumatism.  My  joints  were  swollen,  I  lost  the  use  of  my  arms 
and  legs,  and  became  helpless  as  an  infant.  My  sufferings  became  so  intense  it 
was  impossible  for  me  to  rest.  The  doctors  advised  me  to  go  to  the  city  hospital 
for  treatment.  This  I  could  not  bear.  A  friend,  who  has  proved  a  friend  indeed, 
urged  me  to  try  Swift's  Specific,  believing  it  would  cure  me.  Others  discouraged 
me;  but  I  secured  a  supply,  and  have  now  taken  two  dozen  bottles.  The  first 
effect  of  the  medicine  was  to  bring  the  poison  to  the  surface,  and  I  broke  out  all 
over  in  running  sores.  They  soon  discharged  and  disappeared,  and  my  skin 
cleared  off.  My  knees,  which  had  become  twice  their  natural  size,  were  soon 
reduced  to  natural  shape  again.  My  arms  and  hands,  which  had  become  useless, 
became  all  right  agnin,  and  I  can  now  use  them  without  pain.  The  disease  has 
left  all  parts  of  the  body,  save  ulcers  on  my  wrists,  which  are  rapidly  healing.  I 
am  weak  from  long  confinement,  but  I  have  the  use  of  all  my  limbs.  This  medi- 
cine is  bringing  me  out  of  the  greatest  trial  of  my  life,  and  I  cannot  find  words 
of  sufficient  strength  to  express  my  appreciation  of  its  virtues  and  the  gratitnde 
I  feel  that  I  ever  heard  of  it." 

Mr.  W.  C.  Furlow,  Sumpter  County,  Ga.,  September  11, 1884,  writes: 
"  The  drouth  in  Southwest  Georgia  last  spring  dried  up  the  wells,  and  we  were 
compelled  to  use  water  from  a  creek  on  the  plantation.  The  result  was  that  all 
were  troubled  with  chills  and  fever.  I  carried  with  me  several  bottles  of  Swift's 
Specific,  and  as  long  as  I  took  it  I  had  perfect  health.  As  soon  as  I  ceased  taking 
it,  I,  like  the  rest,  was  afflicted  with  chills.  When  I  resumed  its  use  I  was  all  right 
again.  We  have  used  it  in  our  family  as  an  antidote  for  malarial  poison  for  two 
or  three  years,  and  have  never  known  it  to  fail  in  a  single  instance." 

Here  is  a  medical  endorsement.  It  is  from  F.  A.  Toomer,  M.  D.,  Perry,  Ga. : 
"Bad  blood  is  inclined  to  come  to  the  surface  in  the  spring,  because  of  the 
effort  made  by  good  old  mother  nature  to  throw  it  off.  If  nature  does  not  have 
help  at  this  time  the  poison  may  go  back  to  the  system  and  produce  all  manner  of 
ills;  but  by  the  aid  of  Swift's  Specific  the  bad  blood  is  all  driven  out  through  the 
pores  of  the  skin,  and  permanently  relieves  the  trouble.  This  remedy  is  purely  a 
vegetable  and  harmless  preparation,  but  so  powerful  an  antidote  to  blood  poison 
that  it  finds  and  roots  it  all  out.  Do  not  be  deceived  by  mercury  and  potash 
mixtures,  which  drive  in  the  poison,  only  to  come  out  again  in  a  worse  form.  I 
have  cured  permanently  blood  taint  in  the  third  generation  by  the  use  of  Swift's- 
Specific,  after  I  had  most  signally  failed  with  mercury  and  potash." 

Get  the  genuine  treatise  on  blood  and  skin  diseases,  mailed  free  by  the  Swift 
Specific  Co.,  Drawer  3,  Atlanta,  Ga. 


THE  RICHMOND   DISPATCH,  RICHMOND,  VA. 


IN  1850  James  A.  Cowardin,  Esq.,  who  had  had  a  large  and  varied  experience 
in  newspaper  work,  undertook  the  establishment  in  Richmond,  Ya.,  of  the 
"  Daily  Dispatch."  His  enterprise  contemplated  a  penny  paper,  which,  while 
giving  paramount  attention  to  the  news  of  the  day,  would  at  all  times  be  ready  to 
discuss  editorially  topics  of  public  interest.  The  Dispatch  early  became  a  popular 
favorite,  distinguished  for  its  activity  in  the  collection  of  news,  for  reliability  and 
readableness  of  its  reports,  for  devotion  to  the  best  interests  of  city  and  State, 
and  for  its  independent  but  calm  discussion  of  all  matters — political,  financial, 
and  other.  It  was  the  persistent  friend  and  advocate  of  every  judicious  scheme 
of  internal  improvement,  and  devoted  much  of  its  energy  to  the  promotion  of 
such  other  enterprises — State,  municipal  and  individual — as  promised  to  advance 
the  prosperity  of  Richmond.  The  Dispatch  continued  its  career  with  uninter- 
rupted prosperity  during  the  late  civil  war,  and  until  the  3d  of  April,  1865,  when, 
in  the  evacuation  of  the  Confederate  capital  by  Confederate  troops,  a  large  portion 

of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  in  the  gen- 
eral calamity  the  Dispatch  lost  its  office,,  The 
building  and  all  that  was  in  it  was  destroyed, 
including  a  new  outfit  secured  for  it  by  a  special 
messenger  sent  to  England,  who  had  run  it 
through  the  blockade  at  Wilmington,  N.  C.  But 
undaunted  by  this  severe  loss,  and  while  yet  the 
principal  streets  of  the  city  were  blockaded  with 
the  debris  of  the  best  business  houses,  the  owners 
of  the  paper,  Messrs.  Cowardin  &  Ellyson,  nego- 
tiated for  a  new  and  more  complete  equipment, 
and  made  ready  to  start  again.  Here  their  enter- 
prise was  frustrated  by  a  United  States  military 
order.  The  publication  of  the  Dispatch  was  for- 
bidden. As  soon  as  the  revocation  of  that  order 
could  be  obtained,  in  December,  1865,  the  Dispatch 
resumed  its  publication ;  but  there  were  already 
six  other  daily  papers  in  the  field.  It  was  a 
memorable  period  of  newspaper  competition  in 
Richmond ;  but  the  Dispatch  soon  * ook  the  lead,  and  its  most  formidable  rival,  the 
Times,  went  down  after  two  years'  struggle,  the  Dispatch  becoming  the  purchaser 
of  its  good-will.  The  firm  of  Cowardin  &  Ellyson  was  dissolved  a  short  time 
before  the  death  of  Mr.  Cowardin  (in  1882),  and  a  stock  company  was  formed, 
with  the  former  owners  as  principal  officers.  The  Dispatch  has  the  best  business 
location  in  Richmond,  and  twelve  months  ago  it  put  in  a  Hoe  type-revolving 
machine.  It  gets  as  full  Associated  Press  news  as  is  sent  South ;  it  has  a  regular 
correspondent  in  Washington,  and  in  each  city  and  town  and  center  of  intelli- 
gence in  Virginia;  it  has  a  complete  corps  of  editors  and  reporters,  and  is  by  no 
means  backward  in  the  expenditure  of  money  for  special  work,  whether  it  be 
reporting,  telegraphing  or  illustrr.t.'ng.  The  Dispatch  enjoys  the  confidence  of 
the  people  of  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina  and  other  States.  Its 
daily  circulation  is  from  14,000  to  16,000,  being  larger  than  that  of  any  paper 
south  of  Baltimore,  if  New  Orleans  be  exceptcd. 

The  Weekly  Dispatch  is  an  8-page  paper  filled  with  the  latest  news,  miscella- 
neous and  choice  literature.    Its  present  circulation  is  9,000. 

The  Dispatch,  is  altogether  a  live,  prosperous  and  progressive  paper,  and  is 
one  of  the  many  indices  pointing  to  the  healthful  progress  of  Richmond  City. 


THE  NEWS  AND  COURIER,  CHARLESTON,  S.  C. 

IN  no  phase  of  Southern  development  has  there  been  greater  progress  than  in 
journalism.  The  press  of  the  South  has,  within  the  last  few  years,  taken 
rapid  strides  forward,  and  in  the  ability  and  enterprise  of  its  papers  that 
section  now  ranks  with  any  other  portion  of  the  country.  In  fact,  it  may  be 
safely  claimed  that  each  of  the  leading  Southern  cities  can  boast  of  one  or  more 
dailies  that,  in  all  that  goes  to  make  up  a  great  newspaper,  are  far  ahead  of  any 
to  be  found  in  cities  of  the  same  size  in  the  North  and  West,  with  rare  exceptions. 
One  of  the  foremost  of  these  is  the  Charleston  News  and  Courier,  a  leading  expo- 
nent of  Southern  sentiment;  in  politics, -Democratic  to  the  core;  national,  not 
sectional,  in  policy  and  purpose.  For  Northern  and  Western  men  wTho  desire  to 
increase  their  knowledge  of  the  South;  for  Southern  men  who  wish  to  know 
what  is  thought  and  accomplished  and  proposed  in  the  Southern  States;  for 
Americans  everywhere  and  at  all  times,  the  News  and  Courier,  daily,  Sunday, 
weekly,  will  be  found  to  be  without  a  rival  in  the  completeness  of  its  news  ser- 
vice, the  tho roughness  with  which  the  Southern  field  is  covered,  and  the  frankness 
and  liberality  with  which  the  questions  of  the  day  are  discussed.  The  News  and 
Courier  makes  special  rates  to  agents  and  for  clubs,  and  will  send  specimen  copies 
and  special  club  rates  free  on  application.  Address  the  News  and  Courier,  19 
Broad  street,  Charleston,  S.  C. 


THE   TIMES-UNION,  JACKSONVILLE,  FLA. 

THE  Florida  Times-  Usifen  and  the  Florida  Weekly  Times  are  published  by  C. 
H.  Jones  &  Bro.,  ZV;^s-  Union  Building,  West  Bay,  corner  Laura  street, 
Jacksonville,  Fla.  The  great  public,  whatever  their  differences  on  other 
subjects,  by  common  consent,  unite  in  the  verdict  that  the  great  papers  of  Florida 
are  the  Florida  Times-  Union  and  the  Florida  Weekly  Times.  There  is  scarcely  a- 
parallel  where  two  papers  with  such  wide  circulation  have  in  so  short  a  time  won 
their  way  into  the  confidence  and  support  of  the  people.  Up  to  the  year  1881 
various  attempts  had  been  made  to  establish  a  daily  newspaper  in  Jacksonville, 
but  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  the  undertaking.  Florida  had  not  progressed  far 
enough  to  support  a  great  paper  that  would  rank  among  the  foremost  journals  of 
the  country.  To  that  end,  and  in  November,  1£81,  Mr.  Charles  H.  Jones,  the 
senior  proprietor  and  present  editor  and  chief  of  the  above-named  papers,  started 
the  Florida  Daily  Times,  which  was  a  success  from  the  start.  In  May,  1882,  lie 
formed  a  partnership  with  Mr.  John  P.  Varnum  and  George  W.  Jones,  his  brother, 
the  firm  being  Jones,  Varnum  &  Co.  In  November,  1883,  the  Florida  Weekly 
Times,  at  $1  per  year,  was  started,  which  had  unprecedented  success,  and  now 
circulates  in  every  State  and  Territory  in  the  Union,  as  well  as  to  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  claims  to  have  by  far  the  largest  circulation  of  any  paper  in  the  State. 
In  January,  1884,  the  proprietors  of  the-  Times  purchased  the  Florida  Daily  Unionr 
and  consolidated  the  two  papers  under  the  title  of  the  Florida  Times-Union* 
which  is  the  only  daily  paper  in  Florida  with  a  general  circulation  which  is  as 
large  as  that  of  any  other  journal  in  the  South  outaide  of  New  Orleans.  It  has  a 
solid  reputation  and  is  extensively  quoted.  The  purchase  of  the  Union  included 
a  job  ofiice,  which  has  been  thoroughly  equipped  with  new  material,  and  is  now 
one  of  the  best  and  most  extensive  in  the  South.  In  June,  1884,  a  boo!:-bindery 
with  new  equipment,  including  improved  tools  and  machinery,  was  added.  In 
March,  1884,  Mr.  Charles  H.  Jones  purchased  the  interest  of  Mr.  John  P.  Yarnum, 
since  which  time  the  firm  has  been,  as  now,  C.  H.  Jones  &  Bro.  This  firm  con- 
ducts business  on  a  strict  cash  basis,  and  ranks  Al  in  the  mercantile  world.  In 
the  early  fall  of  1884  the  establishment  was  removed  to  more  spacious  quarters, 
the  proprietors  having  arranged  for  the  possession  of  the  building  on  the  corner 
of  West  Bay  and  Laura  streets.  They  have  also  purchased  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able corner  lots  in  the  city,  and  will  have  a  spacious  building  of  their  own  erected 
before  the  present  lease  expires.  Mr.  Charles  H.  Jones,  the  founder,  is  a  native  of 
Georgia,  and  was  in  the  Confederate  army,  but  went  North  immediately  after  the 
war,  and  resided  in  New  York  City  until  he  came  to  Jacksonville  in  October, 
1881.  In  New  York  he  had  an  extensive  literary  and  journalistic  experience 
editing  the  Eclectic  Magazine  and  Appleton's  Journal,  and  as  contributor  to  other 
leading  journals.  The  literary  and  financial  success  of  the  Florida  Times-  Union. 
and  the  Florida  Weekly  Times  is  a  marvel  in  journalism. 


THE    BALTIMORE 


AND  PRICE-CURRENT. 


A  Weekly  Paper  Devoted  to  the  General  Commercial  Interests 
of  Baltimore  and  the  South. 

PRICE  $3.00  A  YEAR.  BALTIMORE,  MD.  SINGIH  COPIES  6  CENTS. 


Only   Paper  in  the   Sou.th    for 


CERS,     COUNTRY     MERCHANTS,     COM- 
MISSION         HOUSES,         SHIFFERS          OK 


THE  JOURNAL.  OF  COMMERCE  was  purchased  by  the  present  publishers  in  August, 
1886,  from  the  estate  of  the  late  George  U.  Porter,  who  established  it  in  1850.  It  is  the 
only  general  trade  paper  of  any  standing  in  the  entire  South,  and  has  for  36  years  been 
the  acknowledge;!  exponent  and  representative  of  the  commercial  interests  of  Baltimore. 
The  present  publishers  have  given  it  a  wider  field,  and  it  is  their  purpose  to  make  it  a 
paper  that  will  be  indispensable  to  every  merchant  in  the  Southern  States.  It  is  under  the 
same  management  that  has  in  4  years  brought  the  Manufacturers'  Record  to  its  present 
position  as  the  most  widely  known  and  quoted  industrial  pap  -r  in  the  country.  Since 
taking  possession  of  it  the  publishers  have  inaugurated  several  changes,  omitting  some 
features  and  adding  others,  and  we  will  endeavor  to  make  every  issue  an  improvement 
upon  the  last.  There  is  nothing  slow  or  antiquated  about  it.  It  is  live,  vigorous,  enter- 
prising and  wide-awake ;  always  up  with,  or  in  advance  of  the  times,  and  thoroughly 
readable.  In  its  editorial  and  news  columns  it  deals  with  live  topics  in  a  live  manner.  Its 
review  of  the  markets  and  quotations  of  prices  are  exhaustive;  are  compiled  with  the 
utmost  care,  and  present  the  most  satisfactory,  thorough  and  reliable  reflex  of  the 
state  of  the  markets. 

The  attention  given  to  matters  of  general  commercial  interest,  its  General  Jobbing  Quotations, 
and  accurate  review  of  the  markets  in  FOOD  STUFFS,  GRALN,  FLOUR,  TOBACCO, 
LUMBER,  COTTOtf,  NAVAL  STORES,  and  PRODUCE  in  GENERAL,  make  the 
paper  of  special  value  to  Country  Merchants,  and  to  Grocers,  Commission  Houses  and  Shippers  of 
Produce. 

The  Paper  has  now  a  large  circulation  among  this 
class  of  trade  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  &c.,  and  its  advertising  columns  offer  a 
most  valuable  medium  through  which  WHOLESALE 
GROCERS  and  DEALERS  IN  FOOD  SUPPLIES,  MANU- 
FACTURERS OF  SPECIALTIES.  COMMISSION  HOUSES 
and  JOBBEUS  IN  GENERAL  may  reach  the  trade  in 
these  States  and  farther  South, 

Copies  Sent  on  Application. 

MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  Co.,  Publishers, 

BA.LTINIORK,   MID. 


THE  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD. 

•  A  WEEKLY  PflPER  • 

Devoted  to  tine    Manufacturing,  NUning  and    Raif- 
road.    Interests,    and.     General     Indxistria.1 
of  the  Southern.  States. 


HAVING   FOR   ITS  AIM  THE  UPBUILDING  OF  SOUTHERN   MANU- 
FACTURES AND  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  MATERIAL 
RESOURCES    OF   THE    SOUTH. 


A  Live,  Progressive,  Vigorous  Journal,  the  Acknowledged  Exponent 
and  Representative  of  the  Souths  Industrial  Interests. 


PRICK  S3.OO  A  YEAR. 


THE  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  is  more  extensively  quoted  and  more  highly  commended  by  the 
press  than  any  other  industrial  or  trade  paper  in  existence.  It  is  everywhere  commended  for  the 
accuracy  and  thoroughness  of  its  articles  and  statistics  on  Southern  development.  Its  weekly  issues 
constitute  an  authentic  history  of  the  industrial  progress  of  the  Southern  States.  From  no  other 
source  can  so  much  reliable  information  relative  to  Southern  affairs  be  gathered.  To  those  who  have 
not  read  it  regularly  its  weekly  record  of  Southern  material  growth  will  be  a  revelation.  The 
Atlanta  Constitution  says  of  it:  "One  of  the  ablest  industrial  journals  in  the  country."  The 
Augusta  Chronicle  says:  "No  paper  in  the  Union  has  more  entitled  itself  to  Southern  gratitude 
than  this  enterprising  and  reliable  journal.  *  *  It  has  come  to  be  the  standard  of  authority  in  the 
matter  of  Southern  advancement.  *  *  Its  labor  in  this  work  has  been  remarkable,  and  its  care  and 
accuracy  phenomenal.  *  *  It  has  conferred  an  incalculable  benefit  upon  our  section."  The 
Charleston  News  and  Courier  says :  "It  has  in  many  ways  contributed  largely  to  the  material 
development  of  the  South,  and  deserves  a  wide  circulation  throughout  the  Southern  States."  The 
New  Orleans  Times- Democrat  says :  "The  press  of  the  South  would  be  recreant  to  its  mission  if  it 
did  not  recognize  the  excellent  work  being  done  in  the  cause  of  Southern  development  by  the  enter- 
prising MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD,  published  in  Baltimore."  The  Southern  Lumberman,  of 
Nashville,  says :  ''The  Baltimore  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  has  spent  more  money,  time  and 
energy  than  perhaps  any  other  paper  in  America  trying  to  get  at  the  exact  facts  in  regard  to  Southern 
industrial  progress.'' 

It  has  an  extensive  circulation  in  all  the  14  Southern  States,  and  is  widely  read  in  the  North  and 
West  by  capitalists,  manufacturers  and  others  who  desire  to  keep  posted  on  the  industrial  progress  of 
the  South.  As  a  medium  for  manufacturers  of  machinery,  mine  and  mill  supplies,  hardware,  &c., 
desiring  Southern  trade,  its  advertising  column^  possess  unequaled  advantages. 

A  feature  of  special  importance  is  the  CONSTRUCTION  DEPARTMENT.  Under  this  head  is 
published  a  list  of  all  new  enterprises  in  the  South,  with  the  names  of  persons  connected  with  them. 
Its  readers  thus  get  the  earliest  obtainable  info-mation  of  new  mills  or  factories  to  be  erected,  old 
ones  to  be  rebuilt  or  enlarged,  new  furnaces  to  be  started,  mining  companies  organized,  railroads  to 
be  built,  public  buildings  to  be  erected,  etc.,  etc. 

MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  CO. 

F**.! tol  is  tie  rs , 

BALTIMORE,  MD. 


Publishers'  Notice. 


The  publishers  of  this  book,  as  an  effective  method  of  advertising  it,  adopted 
the  novel  and  expensive  plan  of  placing  a  copy  richly  bound  in  Russia  leather, 
with  gilt  title,  in  the  reading  room  of  all  hotels  of  any  standing  in  every 
city  in  the  United  States  having  a  population  of  10,000  or  more;  also  in  all 
public  libraries,  and  in  the  saloon  of  all  the  principal  ocean,  coastwise  and  inland 
steamships  and  steamboats.  On  the  following  pages  will  be  found  a  list  of  the 
hotels,  libraries  and  steamers  in  each  of  which  a  copy  of  the  book  may  be  found. 
We  publish  this  list  here  in  order  that  persons  traveling,  who  may  become 
interested  in  the  book  in  one  city,  may  learn  where  they  can  find  a  copy  of  it 
in  the  place  they  may  next  visit.  The  book  is  for  sale  at  the  following  prices: 
bound  in  Russia,  with  gilt  title,  $6.00 ;  in  cloth,  $2  50 ;  in  paper,  $1.50.  It  will  be 
sent  postage  paid  to  any  part  of  the  United  States  on  receipt  of  price. 

MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  CO. 


HOTELS. 


ALABAMA. 
ANNISTON, 

Anniston  Inn. 

BIRMINGHAM. 

Florence  Hotel, 
Relay  House. 

MOBILE. 

Battle  House, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
Laclede  House. 

MONTGOMERY, 

Exchange  Hotel, 
Railroad  Hotel, 
Central  Hotel. 

ARKANSAS. 
LITTLE  ROCK. 

Capital  Hotel, 
Deming  Hotel, 
Grand  Central. 

ARIZONA. 
TOMBSTONE, 

Aztec  House, 
Russ  House. 

CALIFORNIA. 
Los  ANGELES. 

Pico  House, 

St.  Charles  Hotel 

OAKLAND. 

Tubb's  Hotel. 
Windsor  Hotel. 


SACRAMENTO. 

Capital  Hotel, 
Langham  Hotel, 
Golden  Eagle, 

SAN  FRANCISCO. 

Palace  Hotel, 
Baldwin  Hotel. 
Occidental, 
Lick  House, 
Russ  House. 

SAN  JOSE. 

Auzerais  House. 

STOCKTON, 

Commercial  Hotel. 

COLORADO. 
DENVER. 

American  House, 
Charpiot's  Hotel, 
Grand  Central  Hotel, 
Inter-Ocean  Hotel, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
Windsor  Hotel. 

LEADVILLE, 

Clarendon  Hotel, 
Tabor  Grand  Hotel. 

CONNECTICUT. 
BRIDGEPORT. 

Atlantic  Hotel, 
Elm  House, 
Sterling  House. 


Fifth  Avenue 
Hotel, 

•  MADISON  SQUARE,  * 


HEW 


The  Largest,  Best  Appointed,  and.    Nlost   Liberally 

Managed  Hotel  in  the  City,  A<vith  the  most 

Central    and     Delightful     Location. 


HITCHCOCK,  DARLING  &  CO. 


HIRAM  HITCHCOCK 

Formerly  of 
St.  Cfairks  Hotel, 

New  Orleans. 


A.  B.  DARLING. 

Formerly  of 
Battle  House, 

Mobile,  Ala. 


HOTELS. 


DANBURY. 

New  England  Hotel, 
Turner  Hotel. 

DERBY. 

Mansion  House. 

HARTFORD. 

Allyn  House, 

Rates  $3.5O  Per  Bay. 

American  Hotel, 

Brower  House, 

City  Hotel, 

Park  Central  Hotel, 

United  States  Hotel, 

Rates  $2.5O  and  $3.OO. 

MERIDEN. 

City  Hotel, 
Winthrop  Hotel, 

Rates  $2.5O  to  $4.00. 

GEO.  H.  BOWKER  &  Co.,  Pro's 

NEW  BRITAIN. 

Humphrey's  House, 
Strickland  House. 

NEW  HAVEN. 

Elliott  House, 

$2.50  and  $3.OO  Per  I>ay 

New  Haven  House, 

$3.5O  and  $4.5O  Per  Bay, 

Tremont  Hotel, 
Tontine  Hotel. 

NEW  LONDON. 

Crocker  House, 
Pequot  Hotel. 

NORWICH. 

American  Hotel, 
Wauregan  House, 

STAMFORD. 

Stamford  Hotel, 
Union  Hotel. 

WATERBURY. 

American  Hotel, 
Franklin  Hotel, 
Scovill  Hotel. 


DAKOTA. 

BlSMARK. 

Custer  Hotel, 
Merchants  Hotel, 
Sheridan  House, 
Western  House. 

DEADWOOD. 

Cosmopolitan  Hotel, 
Merchants  Hotel, 
Wentworth  House. 

FARGO. 

European  Hotel, 
Headquarters  Hotel, 
St.  Paul  House, 
Sherman  House, 
Tremont  House, 
Windsor  House. 

YANKTON. 

Jenck's  Hotel, 
Merchant's  Hotel, 
Morrison  Hotel, 

DELAWARE. 
WILMINGTON. 

Clayton  House. 
Dickinson  Hotel, 
Felton  Hotel, 
Grand  Union  Hotel. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 
WASHINGTON. 

Arlington  Hotel. 
Congressional  Hotel, 
Ebbitt  House, 
Metropolitan  Hotel, 
National  Hotel, 
Riggs  House, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
Arno  Hotel, 
Welcker's  Hotel, 
Willard's  Hotel, 
Wormley's  Hotel, 


H^rT^ 
offman. 


O  O  O  O  000000--ZOO 


MADISON  SQUARE,  NEW  YORK- 


A  Favorite  Family  Hotel.     «•     European  Plan. 


FAMOUS  HOTEIv  is  prominently  and  delightfully 
located  in  the  very  centre  of  New  York  City,  fronting  Infth  Avenue 
and  the  Madison  vSquare  Grounds.  Convenient  to  all  principal  Theatres 
and  other  points  of  interest.  The  Broadway  horse  cars  pass  the  door,  and 
within  one  block  of  the  23d  Street  station  of  the  Sixth  Avenue  Elevated 
Railroad. 

Location  unsurpassed  ;  besides  which  no  other  Hotel  can  afford  such 
palatial  accommodations. 

The  HoF^ivrAN  HOUSE}  is  on  the  European  Plan,  containing 
over  four  hundred  elegantly-appointed  rooms,  en-suite  and  single,  at 
prices  ranging  from  $2.00  per  day  and  upwards.  The  Salons  are  fitted  up 
in  an  elegant  and  artistic  manner,  with  a  view  of  affording  every  comfort 
and  accommodation  to  guests.  The  Grand  Banquet  Hall  is  the  most 
elaborately  furnished  room  of  its  kind  in  America.  The  furnitiire  and 
decorations  have  been  selected  in  Europe  at  great  expense,  and  high  art 
is  evidenced  in  all  the  surroundings.  The  Works  of  Art  and  articles  of 
Vertu  in  this  establishment  are  the  choicest  discriminating  judgment 
could  select,  and  no  expense  has  been  spared  to  make  this  Hotel  the  most 
comfortable  and  attractive  in  America. 

The  Cuisine  is  Parisian,  of  peculiar  excellence,  and  a  special  feature. 
The  Restaurant  is  open  daily  from  5.30  A.  M.  until  i  o'clock  A.  M. 

Elegant  Turkish,  Russian,  Sulphur,  Electric  and  Medicated  Baths  are 
also  among  the  Luxuries  to  be  found  on  the  premises. 


C.  H.  READ  &  CO.,  Proprietors. 


HOTELS. 


FLORIDA. 
JACKSONVILLE. 

Everett  Hotel, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
Tremont  House, 

TALLAHASSEE. 

New  Leon  Hotel. 

GEORGIA. 
ATLANTA. 

Markham  House, 

National  Hotel, 

H.  I.  Kimball  House. 

AUGUSTA. 

Globe  Hotel, 
Planters  Hotel, 

COLUMBUS. 

Central  Hotel, 
Planters  Hotel, 
Rankin  House. 

MACON. 

Brown's  Hotel, 
Lanier  House, 
National  Hotel. 

SAVANNAH. 

Pulaski  House, 
Screven  House. 

IDAHO. 
BOISE  CITY. 

Overland  Hotel. 

ILLINOIS 
AURORA. 

Hotel  Evans. 

BELLEVILLE. 

Belleville  House, 
Hickley  House, 
National  Hotel, 
Thomas  House. 


BLOOMINGTON. 

Ashley  House, 
Phoenix  Hotel, 

CHICAGO. 

Atlantic  Hotel, 

Brevoort  House, 

Briggs  House, 

Burk's  European  Hotel, 

Clarendon  House, 

Clifton  House, 

Commercial  Hotel, 

Continental  Hotel, 

Farwell  House, 

Gault  House, 

Grand  Pacific  Hotel, 

Hotel  Brunswick, 

Hotel  Richelieu, 

Leland  Hotel, 

McCoy's  New  European  Hotel, 

Massasoit  House, 

Matteson  House, 

Merchants  Hotel, 

Palmer  House, 

Revere  House, 

Sherman  House, 

Southern  Hotel, 

St.  Caroline  Court  Hotel, 

Tremont  House, 

Woodruff  Hotel. 

GALESBURG. 

Brown's  Hotel, 
Union  Hotel. 

JACKSONVILLE. 

Dunlap  House, 
Southern  Hotel, 

JOLIET. 

Hotel  St.  Nicholas, 
Robertson  House, 
Shurts'  Hotel. 


GRAND  HOTEL 


BROADWAY,; 


OOP.  (Shirty- Hirst  Afreet, 


EW  YORK. 


that  CouU  b 


(Bo Cement    fo    promiaeni"    pface^    of    ©Kmu^emer^f 

points    of 


HENRY  MILFORD  SMITH  &  SON, 


PROPRIETORS. 


HOTELS. 


PEORIA. 

City  Hotel, 
Merchants  Hotel, 
National  Hotel, 
Peoria  House, 
Union  Depot, 


European  Hotel, 

New  Windsor  Hotel. 

St.  James  Hotel, 

ROCKFORD. 

American  House, 
Holland  Hotel, 

Rebuilt  and  Refurnished. 

ROCK  ISLAND. 

Harper  House, 
Rock  Island  House. 

SPRINGFIELD. 

Leland  Hotel, 
Hotel  Palace, 
Revere  House, 
St.  Nicholas. 

INDIANA. 

EVANSVILLE. 

Gait  House, 

St.  George  Hotel, 

Sherwood  House. 

FORT  WAYNE. 

Aveline  House, 
Commercial  House, 
Depot  Hotel, 
Mayer  House, 
Robinson  House, 
Windsor  Hotel. 

INDIANAPOLIS. 

Bates  House. 
Brunswick  Hotel, 
Grand  Hotel, 
New  Denison  Hotel, 
New  Occidental  Hotel, 
Spencer  House. 


LAFAYETTE. 

Lahr  House, 

St.  Nicholas  Hotel. 

LOGANSPORT. 

Johnston's  New  Hotel, 
Murdock  Hotel, 
New  Barnett  House. 

NEW  ALBANY. 

Central  House, 
Occidental  Hotel. 

RICHMOND. 

Arlington  Hotel, 
Huntington  Grand  HoteL 

SOUTH  BEND. 

Grand  Central  Hotel, 
Oliver  House. 
Sherwood  House. 

TERRE  HAUTE. 

National  Hotel, 
Ohmer's  Depot  Hotel, 
Terre  Haute  House. 

IOWA. 
BURLINGTON. 

Grand  Central, 
Hotel  Duncan, 

CEDAR  RAPIDS. 

Grand  Hotel. 
Northwestern  Hotel, 
Pullman  Hotel, 
Southern  Hotel. 

COUNCIL  BLUFFS. 

Metropolitan  Hotel, 
Ogden  House, 
Pacific  Hotel. 

DAVENPORT. 

Ackley  House, 
Kimball  House, 
St.  James. 

DES  MOINES. 

Aborn  House, 
Capital  Hotel, 


421"  AND  41ST-  &TS, 


ist  e:  GO 

HUNTING  AND   HAMMOND. 


Located  on  Park  Avenue,  Fortieth  to  Forty-First  Street,  one  block  from 
Grand  Central  Depot. 


The  only  first-class  Hotel  in  New  York  City  on  both  the 


It  occupies  the   highest  grade  in  New  York,  and  is  the  health- 

iest of  locations. 


FOR  TRANSIENT  GUESTS, 

Tourist  Travelers,  or  as  Residence  for  Families,  no  healthier  or 
pleasanter  place  can  be  found  in  New  York  City. 


Patrons  of  the   MURRAY   HIIX   HOTEX   have   their   Baggage    transferred 
to  and  from  the  Grand  Central  Depot  free  of  charge. 

HUNTING  &  HAMMOND. 


HOTELS. 


Kirkwood  Hotel, 
Morgan  Hotel. 

DUBUQUE. 

European  Hotel, 
Julian  Hotel, 
Key  City  Hotel, 
Lorimer  House, 
Tremont  House. 

KEOKUK. 

Laclede  House, 
Patterson  House, 
Stanleigh  House. 

KANSAS. 
ATCHISON. 

By  ram  House, 
Lindell  Hotel, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
Union  Depot  Hotel. 

LEAVENWORTH. 

Continental  Hotel, 
Planters  Hotel, 

TOPEKA. 

Copeland  Hotel, 
Gordon  House, 
Windsor  Hotel. 

KENTUCKY. 

COVINGTON. 

Arrington  Hotel, 
Ashbrook  House, 
Central  Hotel. 

LEXINGTON. 

Ashland  House, 
Phoenix  Hotel. 

LOUISVILLE. 

Alexander's  Hotel, 
Central  Hotel, 
Commercial  House, 
Fifth  Avenue  Hotel, 
Gait  House, 
Louisville  Hotel. 


NEWPORT. 

Madison  Hotel. 

LOUISIANA. 
NEW  ORLEANS. 

Cassidy  Hotel, 
City  Hotel, 
Gregg  House, 
Hotel  Denechaud, 
Hotel  Royal, 
Hotel  Windsor, 
St.  Charles  Hotel. 

MAINE. 

AUGUSTA. 

Augusta  House, 
Hotel  North. 

BANGOR. 

Bangor  Exchange, 
Baugor  House, 

BlDDEFORD. 

Biddeford  Hotel. 

LEWISTON. 

DeWitt  Hotel, 
Marston  Hotel. 

PORTLAND. 

Falmouth  House, 
Preble  House, 
United  States  Hotel. 

MARYLAND. 

BALTIMORE. 

Barnum's  Hotel, 
Carrollton  Hotel, 
Eutaw  House, 
Guy's  Hotel, 
Hotel  Rennert, 
Howard  House, 
Maltby  House, 
Mansion  House, 
Mount  Yernon  Hotel, 
St.  James  Hotel. 


t    BOSTON. 


Qear  ©y/a/ftiriG'foQ 


(f) 


HENRY  B.  RICE  &  Co. 


h-Location. 
Equally -*- 


for 

Business^ 
or 

<^]  Pleasure, 

Perfect 
Ventilation. 


^ 


iS  $3.00  per  DAY]    According  to 

without  <h  inn     „      „     \         Size 
!  Meals  $I.UU  J  And  Location. 


HOTELS. 


CUMBERLAND. 

Elberon  Hotel, 
Queen  City  Hotel, 
St.  Nicholas  Hotel, 
Windsor  Hotel. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
ATTLEBORO. 

Ryder  Hotel. 

BOSTON. 

Adams  House, 
American  House, 

Brunswick  Hotel, 

Clarendon  Hotel, 
Crawford  House, 
Hotel  Creighton, 
Hotel  Vendoine, 
New  Marlboro  Hotel, 
Parker  House, 
Park  House, 
Quincy  House, 
Revere  House, 
Sherman  House, 
Tremont  House, 
United  States  Hotel, 
Young's  Hotel. 

BROCTON. 

Hotel  Belmont. 

FlTCHBURG. 

American  House, 
Fitchburg  Hotel, 

HAVERHILL. 

Hotel  Webster. 

HOLYOKE. 

Holyoke  House, 
Windsor  Hotel, 

Rates  $2.5O  to  $4.OO 

GEO.  H.  BOWKBR,  Proprietor. 

LAWRENCE. 

American  Hotel, 
Globe  Hotel, 


LOWELL. 

American  House 
Merrimac  House, 
St.  Charles  Hotel. 

LYNN. 

Sagamore  Hotel, 
Hotel  Boscobel. 

NEW  BEDFORD. 

Parker  House. 

NEWBURYPORT. 

Merrimac  House. 

NORTH  ADAMS. 

Mansion  House, 

Wilson  House. 

• 

NORTHAMPTON. 

Mansion  House. 

PlTTSFIELD. 

American  House, 
Berkshire  House. 

QUINCY. 

Robertson  Hotel. 

SALEM. 

Essex  House. 

SPRINGFIELD. 

Cooley's  Hotel, 
Hayne's  Hotel, 
Hotel  Warwick, 
Massasoit  House. 

M.  &  E.  S.  CHAPIN,  Proprietors. 

TAUNTON. 

City  Hotel. 

WEYMOUTH. 

Wey mouth  Hotel. 

WORCESTER. 

Bay  State  House. 

Rates  $3.OO  and  $3.5O. 

Lincoln  House. 

Rates  $2.5O  Per  Day. 

Waldo  House. 


UNION  *  SQUARE  •  HOTEL 


AND 


•  HOTEL    DAM.  • 

European  Plan. 

UNION  SQUARE  AND  ISTH  STREET, 

*    NEW  YORK.    * 


Both  Hotels  (connecting)  are  most  centrally  and  delightfully  located 
in  the  heart  of  the  Metropolis,  possessing  all  modern  and  sanitary 
improvements,  are  elegantly  furnished  throughout,  stric~tly  fire-proof,  and 
furnish  first-class  accommodations  for  400  guests. 

The  Restaurant  and  Dining  Hall,  including  service  and  attention, 
are  unsurpassed  by  any  Hotel  in  the  country. 

Horse  cars  to  and  from  every  section  of  the  city  pass  the  door 
every  few  seconds. 

DAM  &  DeREVERE,  Proprietors. 


HOTELS. 


MICHIGAN. 
ADRIAN. 

Lawrence  House. 

BAY  CITY. 

Campbell  Hotel, 
New  Fraser  House. 

DETROIT. 

Brunswick  Hotel, 
Cass  House, 

Griffin  House, 

Opp.  Mich.  Central  Depot. 
Rates  $2.00  Per  I>ay. 

Griswold  House, 
Michigan  Exchange. 
Russell  House, 
Stanvvix  Hotel. 

EAST  SAGINAW. 

Bancroft  House, 
Everett  House. 

GRAND  RAPIDS. 

Clarendon  House, 
Eagle  Hotel. 

Mortan  House, 
Sweet's  Hotel. 

JACKSON. 

Hibbard  House, 
Hurd  House. 

MUSKEGON. 

Arlington  Hotel, 
Occidental  Hotel. 

SAG  IN  AW. 

Bauman  House, 
Crow  ley  Hotel, 
New  Taylor  House. 


MINNESOTA. 
MINNEAPOLIS. 

Bellevue  House, 
Clark  House, 


Merchants  Hotel, 
National  Hotel, 
Nicollet  House, 
Pauley  House, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
West  Hotel, 

Absolutely  Fire  Proof. 

$3.00  Per  Day  and  upwards. 
C.  W.  SHEPARD,  Manager. 
Windsor  House. 

ST.  PAUL. 

Clarendon  Hotel, 
Exchange  Hotel, 
Grand  Central  Hotel, 
Hotel  Ryan, 
International  Hotel, 
Merchants  Hotel, 
Merritt  House, 
Metropolitan  Hotel, 
St.  James, 
Sherman  House, 
Windsor  Hotel, 
Winslow  House. 

WINONA. 

Huff  House, 
Jewell  House, 
Ludwig's  Hotel. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

VlCKSBURG. 

Lamadrid  Hotel, 
Pacific  Hotel, 
Washington  Hotel*. 

MISSOURI. 
HANNIBAL. 

Kettering's  Hotel, 
Park  Hotel, 
Planters  House. 

KANSAS  CITY. 

Blossom  House, 
Centropohs  Hotel, 


The  SEABOARD  AIR  LINE,  I 

The  Old-Established  Route  Between  the 

NORTH™SOUTH 

via  Baltimore,  Old  Point  and  Norfolk. 

TRAVELERS  leaving  New  York  via  Pennsylvania  Railroad  at  4.30 
P.  M.  and  Philadelphia  at  6.30  P.  M.  arrive  at  Baltimore  in  time 
to  connect  with  BAY  LINE;  STEAMERS  for  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth.     Train 
stops  at  the  wharf,  thus  avoiding  transfer  through  the  city. 

THE  NEW  AND  ELEGANT  STEAMERS  OF 

*  THK    BAY    LINK  « 

Leave  Baltimore  daily  (Sundays  excepted)  at  9.30  P.  M.  from  Canton  Wharf. 
All  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  a  first-class  hotel  are  afforded  the 
traveler.  Spacious  and  elegant  saloons  and  staterooms,  lighted  by 
electricity  and  furnished  with  an  especial  view  to  comfort.  Unsurpassed 
cuisine,  which  is  made  a  specialty  with  this  Line.  Elegant  service  and 
courteous  attention. 

DIRECT  CONNECTIONS  FROM  PORTSMOUTH  VIA 

The  Seaboard  &  Roanoke  Railroad, 
The  Raleigh  &  Gaston, 

Raleigh  &  Augusta  Air  Line, 

And  Carolina  Central  Railroad* 

And  at  Weldon  with  Atlantic  Coast    Line 

• 

AND  THEIR  CONNECTIONS  FOB 

RALEIGH,  CHARLOTTE,  WILMINGTON, 

CHARLESTON,  AIKEN,  SAVANNAH, 

•:•:•  FLORIDA  * 
And  All   Points   South. 

JOHN  M.  ROBINSON,  Baltimore,  President. 

F.  W.  CLARK,  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Gen.  Pass.  Agt~ 


HOTELS. 


Coates  House, 
Hotel  Brunswick, 
Lindell  Hotel, 
Metropolitan  Hotel, 
Pacific  House, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
Union  Depot  Hotel. 

ST  JOSEPH. 

Bacon  House, 
Commercial  House, 
Pacific  House, 
Saunders'  House, 
Union  Depot  Hotel, 
Watson  House. 

ST.  Louis. 

Barnum's  Hotel, 
Laclede  Hotel, 
Lindell  Hotel, 
Planters  House, 
Southern  Hotel, 
St.  James  Hotel, 

Thos.  P.  Miller,  Proprietor. 
Rates  $2.OO  and  $2.5O. 

Lafayette  Hotel, 
Hotel  Brown, 
Hotel  Belvedere, 
Everett  House, 
Hotel  Moser. 

MONTANA. 

BUTTE  CITY. 

Centennial  House, 
St.  Nicholas  Hotel. 

NEBRASKA. 
LINCOLN. 

Arlington  Hotel, 
Commercial  Hotel, 
Grand  Central  Hotel, 
St.  Charles  Hotel, 
Windsor  Hotel. 


OMAHA. 

American  House, 
Canfield  House, 
Causin's  Hotel. 
Creighton  Hotel, 
Millard  Hotel, 
Paxton  Hotel, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
Windsor  Hotel. 

NEVADA. 

VIEGINIA  CITY. 

International  Hotel, 
Molinelli  House. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

CONCORD. 

Eagle  Hotel, 
Phenix  Hotel. 

DOVER. 

American  House, 

Franklin  Hotel, 

Mew  Hampshire  Hotel. 

MANCHESTER. 

City  Hotel, 
Manchester  House, 
Windsor  Hotel. 

NASHUA. 

Tremont  House. 

NEW  JERSEY. 
CAMDEN. 

West  Jersey  House. 

ELIZABETH. 

Sheriden  House. 

HOBOKEN. 

Busch's  Hotel, 
Duke's  House, 
Meyers'  Hotel. 

JERSEY  CITY. 

Taylor's  Hotel. 


Windsor  Hotel 

*    FIFTH  AVENUE,  * 

Between  46th  and  47th  Sts.      j^IEW  YORK. 


One  of  tne  Most  Perfect  and  Comfortable 
Hotels  in  trie  World. 


&  \VETHKRBEB, 


PROPRIETORS. 


On  the  Finest  Avenue  in  the  City  of  New  York 


and 


In  the  Most  Desirable  Part  of  the  City. 


HOTELS. 


NEW  YORK. 

Aberdeen  Hotel, 
Albemarle  Hotel, 
Ashland  House, 
Astor  House, 
Barrett  House, 
Belvidere  Hotel, 
Brevoort  House, 
Buckingham  Hotel, 
Carlton  Hotel, 
Clarendon  Hotel, 
Coleman  House, 
Colonnade  Hotel, 
Continental  Hotel, 
Cosmopolitan  Hotel, 
Earle's  Hotel, 
Everett  House, 
Fifth  Avenue  Hotel. 
French's  Hotel, 
Gedney  House, 
Gilsey  House, 
Hotel  Dam, 
Hotel  Madison, 
Hotel  Normandie, 
Hotel  Royal, 
Hotel  St.  George, 
Hotel  St.  Marc, 
Hotel  St.  Stephen, 
Hotel  Shelburne, 
Hotel  Vendome, 
Kitsell  House, 
Langham  Hotel, 
Madison  Avenue  Hotel, 
Manhattan  Hotel, 
Metropolitan  Hotel, 
Morton  House, 
Murray  Hill  Hotel, 
New  York  Hotel, 
Occidental  Hotel, 
Park  Avenue  Hotel, 
Parker  House, 
Plaza  Hotel, 
Prescott  House, 
Rossmore  Hotel, 


St.  Cloud  Hotel, 
St.  Denis  Hotel, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
St.  Nicholas  Hotel, 
Sherwood  Hotel, 
Sinclair  House, 
Stevens  House, 
Sturtevant  House, 
Tremont  House, 
Union  Square  Hotel, 
United  States  Hotel, 
Victoria  Hotel, 
Westminster  Hotel, 
Windsor  Hotel. 

NIAGARA  FALLS. 

National  Hotel, 
Prospect  House, 
Cataract  House. 

OGDENSBURG. 

National  Hotel, 
Seymour  House, 
"Windsor  House. 

OSWEGO. 

Doolittle  House, 
Lake  Shore  Hotel. 

POUGHKEEPSIE. 

Morgan  House, 
Nelson  House, 

ROCHESTER. 

Brackett  House, 
Congress  Hall, 
National  Hotel, 

New  Osburn  House, 

Commercial  Headquarters. 
$2.0O  and  #2.5O. 

Powers1  Hotel. 

Absolutely  Fire  Proof. 
$3.00  and  #4.0O. 

The  Windsor. 
Whitcomb  House. 


E>LEX>ANT  NK\V  PALACE  HOTEL 

f^LEVELA^D,  ®HIO. 

Beautifully  jgituated  on   Quclid  ©K  venue,    v    @Jine    gurroundings. 

OXLY    THREE   SQUARES    FROM    POST    OFFICE    AND    NEAR    PUBLIC    SQUARE. 

^Tfre  only  Strictly  Fire  Proof  Hotel  in  61eyelanil^-_ 
Incandescent  Glectric  Lcights  throughout,  and  Gveiy  F^oom  Reated  by  Steam. 


SINGLE  AND  EN-SUITE. 

In  IVIodern  Klegance,  Appointments  and.  Cuisine 
STiLLiviAisr  "  is  equal  to  tne  Finest 
Hotels    in    tne   \Vorld. 


TOURISTS,  FOREIGNERS  AND  WEDDING  PARTIES 

Will  fiijd  Perfect  aijd  Luxurious  Accommodations. 
Apartments  can  be  secured  in  advance  by  addressing. 

}.  WARREN  COLEMAN,  JR., 

MANAGER* 


HOTELS. 


HOME. 

Arlington  Hotel, 
Stanwix  Hall. 

SCHENECTADY. 

Carley  House, 
Givens  Hotel. 

SYRACUSE. 

Congress  Hall, 
Empire  House, 
Globe  Hotel, 
Hotel  Burns, 
Vanderbilt  House, 

T.  B.  B  'AYTON,  Proprietor. 
Free  Cabs  to  and  from  trains 
Rates  $2.50  and  $3.OO. 


TROY. 


American  House, 
Mansion  House, 
Revere  House, 
Troy  House. 

UTICA. 

Bagg's  Hotel, 
Butterfield  House. 

WATERTOWN. 

Kirby  House, 
Woodruff  House, 

F.  W.  HAYDON,  Proprietor. 
YONKERS. 

Getty  House, 
Yonkers  Hotel. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

CHARLOTTE. 

Central  Hotel, 
Behnont  Hotel. 

RALEIGH. 

Yarboro  Hotel. 

WILMINGTON. 

Commercial  Hotel, 
Purcell  House. 


OHIO. 
AKRON. 

Empire  Hotel, 
Hotel  Buchtel, 

Windsor  House. 

CANTON, 

American  House, 
Burnett  House, 
Hurford  Hotel. 

CHILLICOTHE. 

Emmitt  House, 
Hotel  Francais, 
New  Warner  House. 

CINCINNATI. 

Burnct  House, 
Crawford  House, 
The  Dennison. 

New.     Modern.      Elegant. 
$3.00  and  $2.50. 

Gibson  House, 
Grand  Hotel, 
Hotel  Emery, 
Palace  Hotel. 

8.T.OO  and  $2.5O  Per  Bay. 

250  ROOMS,  (140  FRONT.) 

St.  Clair  Hotel, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
St.  Nicholas  Hotel. 

CLEVELAND. 

American  House, 
Forest  City  House, 
Hollenden  Hotel, 
Kennard  House, 
The  Stillman. 

New.      Modern.     Elegant. 

Strictly  Fire  Proof. 

FINZST  TABLE  SERVICE. 

Rates  $3.0O  to  $5.OO. 

Weddell  House. 

COLUMBUS. 

American  Hotel, 
Exchange  Hotel, 


PIEDMONT 

AIR    LINK. 

Th.rou.gti   Freight 


Route. 


AGENTS  AT  ALL  PRINCIPAL  POINTS. 


RICHMOND  &  DANVILLE  R.  R.  SYSTEM. 


Virginia  Midland  DiY, 

Tork  River  Line..,, 
Bicl'd&DanYilleDiY. 

florth  Carolina  DiY,.. 

Atlanta  &  Charlotte 
Air  Line  DiY. 

Bortlest'nR.R.ofGa, 
South  Carolina  DiY.  . 

Columbia*  Greenville 
DiY, 

Ist'nH.CarolinaDiY. 

Main  Line     

Alexandria  to  Danville,  Va  
Manassas  to  Strasburg  Jet.  ,  Va. 
Warrenton  Jc.  to  Warrenton,  Va. 
Orange  to  Gordonsville,  Va  
Franklin  Jet.  to  Rocky  Mount. 
Alexandria  to  Round  Hill,Va... 

Baltimore  to  West  Point,Va  
Richmond  to  West  Point,  Va.... 

Richmond  to  Greensboro,  N.  C. 
Keysville  to  Clarksville,  Va.... 

Mn 

^ 

9 
9 

37 
So 

IOO 

_±8 

189 
3i 

JO 

223 

28 

10 

267 

51 

10 
10 

IO 

40 

21 
I9I 

44 
109 

29 

•a 

42 

12 

31 

190 
IOO 

! 

-ES. 

400 
138 

230 
26l 

348 

61 
373 

296 

j9* 

8,397 

Warrenton  Branch  

Washington  &  Ohio  Div.  .  .  . 

Bait.,  Ches.&  Rich.  S.B.Co. 
Rich.,York  Ri.  &  Ches.R.  R 

Main  Line               

Rich.  &  Mecklenburg  R.  R. 
Milton  &  Sutherlin  R.  R.... 

Goldsboro  to  Charlotte,  N.  C  
Greensboro  to  Salem,  N.  C  
University  to  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C. 

Charlotte  to  Atlanta  Ga  .  . 

No  -times  tern  N.  Car.  R.  R. 
State  University  R.  R  

Elberton  Air  Line  
Hartwell  R   R             

W.  Bowersville  to  Hartwell,  Ga. 
Suwannee  to  Lawrenceville,  Ga. 
Roswell  Junction  to  Roswell,  Ga. 

Lula  to  Athens  Ga  

Lawrenceville  Branch  

Tallulah  Falls  Branch  

Char.,  Col.  &  Aug.  R.  R  
Atlantic  Tenn.  &  Ohio  R.R. 
Chester  &  Lenoir  R.  R  
Chester  &  Cheraw  R.  R  .  .  .  . 

Rabun  Gap  Jet.  to  Tallulah,  Ga. 

Charlotte  to  Statesville,  N.  C.  .  . 

Chester  to  Lancaster,  S.  C  

Columbia  to  Greenville,  S.  C  .  .  .  . 
Spartanburg  to  Alston,  S.  C  
Benton  to  Walhalla  S  C 

Spt'g,  Union  &  Col.  R.  R.. 
Blue  Ridge  R   R 

Newberry  to  Laurens,  S.  C  
Hodges  to  Abbeville  S  C  

Abbeville  Branch          

Main  Line 

Salisbury  to  Paint  Rock,  N.  C.. 
Asheville  to  Jarretts,  N.  C  

Murphy  Branch  

Total  Mileaee... 

HOTELS. 


Hotel  Gardner, 
Neil  House, 
Park  House, 

North  of  Union  Depot. 

H.  KAUFFMAN,  Proprietor. 

United  States  Hotel. 

DAYTON. 

Beckle  House, 
Phillips'  House. 

Rebuilt  and  Refurnished. 

A.  B.  RIDQWAY,  Pro' p. 

HAMILTON. 

Straub  Hotel, 
St.  Charles  Hotel, 
Phillips  House. 

PORTSMOUTH. 

Biggs  Hotel, 
Central  House, 
Legler  House, 
Weber  Hotel, 

BANDUSKY. 

Bings  House, 
Colton  House, 
Sloan  House, 
West  Hotel. 

SPRINGFIELD. 

Arcade  Hotel. 

Strictly  First  Class. 

H.  L.  ROCKFIELD,  Pro'p. 

Lagonda  House, 
St.  James  Hotel. 

STEUBENVILLE. 

Hotel  Hinds, 
New  Imperial, 
United  States  Hotel. 

TOLEDO. 

Boody  House, 
Burnet  House, 
Hotel  Madison, 
Merchants  Hotel. 
The  Jefferson. 


YOUNGSTOWN. 

Morton  Hotel, 
Tod  House, 

$2.00  and  #2.50. 

ZANESVILLE. 

Clarendon  Hotel, 
New  Zane  House. 

OREGON. 
PORTLAND. 

Esmond  Hotel, 
Holton  House, 
Merchants  Hotel, 
St.  Charles. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 
ALLEGHEITY. 

Allegheny  House, 
Central  Hotel, 
Girard  Hotel. 

ALLENTOWN. 

Allen  House, 
American  Hotel. 

ALTOONA. 

Arlington  Hotel, 
Globe  Hotel, 
Logan  House. 

CHESTER. 

Beale  House, 
Brown's  Hotel, 
Columbia  House, 
Washington  House. 

EASTON. 

Central  Hotel, 
Franklin  House, 
Swan  Hotel, 
United  States  Hotel 


ERIE. 


Ariington  Hotel, 

New,  Strictly  First  Clast. 
Rates  $2.OO  Per  I>ay. 

ALLEN  &  MOBTON,  Prop's. 

Moore's  Hotel, 
Reed  House. 


Is  the  name  of  one  of  the  prettiest  and  healthiest  towns  in  Florida  (or 
any  other  State).  It  is  situated  on  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Newnan,  a 
beautiful  sheet  of  water  some  nine  miles  in  length,  by  four  in  width, 
abounding  in  fish.  It  is  ten  miles  east  of  Gainesville,  in  the  county 
which  is  known  to  be  the  most  fertile  in.  the  State — Alachua  — three 
miles  from  Rochelle  Station,  on  the  Florida  Southern  Railroad,  and 
four  miles  west  of  Campville,  on  the  F.  R.  &  "N.  Railroad.  In  addition 
to  these  facilities,  the  new  Melrose  and  Mickanopy  Railroad  is  to  run 
through  Windsor,  so  we  shall  be  amply  provided  with  railroad  com- 
munication. 

Windsor  embraces  a  tract  of  about  4,000  acres,  quite  a  portion  of 
which  had  been  cleared  and  cultivated.  The  soil  is  neither  the  white  sand 
of  so  large  a  portion  of  Florida,  or  the  red  clay  of  Georgia,  but  a  dark 
rich  loam,  producing  excellent  crops  of  all  varieties  of  vegetables,  and 
oranges,  peaches,  pears  and  all  the  small  fruits  thrive  remarkably  well 
here;  a  large  proportion  of  the  land  lays  some  forty  to  fifty  feet  higher 
than  the  lake.  The  lots  offered  for  sale  run  from  one  to  twenty  acres ; 
several  beautiful  lake  fronts.  The  place  is  remarkable  for  its  health- 
fulness,  and  has  been  noted  for  health  for  forty  years,  being  located  on 
the  ridge  midway  between  Ocean  and  Gulf,  giving  it  a  steady,  even 
climate,  no  hot  nights  and  few  insects.  There  are  already  some  sixty 
dwellings,  four  stores,  three  churches,  schools,  two  saw  and  planing 
mills.  No  place  in  Florida  where  so  much  money  has  been  laid  out  in 
beautifying  the  streets.  There  are  some  twenty  miles  of  shade  trees 
set,  boxed  with  latticed  boxes,  and  whitewashed;  streets  nicely  graded, 
and  as  no  liquor  is  allowed  to  be  sold  we  have  no  rowdyism.  Our 
society  is  very  good.  If  you  are  looking  for  a  location  send  to  us  for  a 
more  full  description  of  Windsor,  and  we  will  guarantee  our  descrip- 
tion to  be  correct  and  not  exaggerated,  and  we  will  agree  to  refund 
expenses  if  you  do  not  find  it  so  on  making  us  a  visit.  Send  for  circu- 
lar. Also  lands  in  various  parts  of  the  State  for  sale.  We  make  a 
specialty  of  Alachua  and  Hernando  Counties  lands.  Town  lots  at 
Inverness. 

Our  principal  office  is  at  75  West  Bay  Street,  JACKSONVILLE,  where 
you  will  find  a  list  of  CITY  and  SUBURBAN"  PROPERTY  for  sale. 

G.  B.  GRIFFIN  &  SON, 
Jj^state   and  J^oan^, 

75   WEST    BAY    STREET, 

(YELLOW  FRONT,) 

JACKSONVILLE,   FLA.,   OR   WINDSOR. 


HOTELS. 


HARRISBURG. 

Bolton   House. 

Largest  Hotel.    First  Class. 

Jones  Hotel, 
Lochiel  Hotel. 

United  States  Hotel 

LANCASTER. 

City  Hotel, 
Cooper  House, 
Michael's  Grape  Hotel, 
Stevens  House. 

$2.5O.    Commercial  Rate  $2.OO 
NORRISTOWN. 

Hartranft  House. 
Windsor  House. 

PHILADELPHIA. 

Aldine  Hotel, 
American  Hotel, 
Bingham  House, 
Colonnade  Hotel, 
Continental  Hotel, 
Girard  House, 
Guy's  Hotel, 
Hotel  Bellevuc, 
Hotel  Lafayette, 
St.  Cloud  Hotel, 
St.  George  Hotel, 
West  End  Hotel. 

PITTSBURGH. 

Albemarle  Hotel. 
Central  Hotel, 
Hotel  Anderson, 
Hotel  Bayer. 

Monongahela  House. 

Strictly  First  Class. 
KATES  f  3.CO  to  $4.00. 
Geo.  S.  Griscom,  Proprietor. 
J.  E.  H.  Kelley,  Manager. 

Robinson  Hotel, 
St.  Charles  Hotel, 
Seventh  Avenue  Hotel. 


POTTSVILLE. 

Merchants  Hotel, 
Pennsylvania  Hall  Hotel. 

READING. 

American  House, 
Central  Hotel, 
Keystone  House, 
Mansion  House, 
Ninth  Avenue  House. 

SCRANTON. 

Commercial  Hotel, 
Forest  House, 
Lackawanna  Valley  House, 
Parker  House, 
St.  Charles  Hotel, 
Scranton  House, 
Wyoming  House, 

SHENANDOAII. 

Ferguson  House, 
Globe  Hotel, 
Merchants  Hotel. 

WlLKESBARRE. 

Bristol  House, 
Exchange  Hotel, 
Luzerne  House, 
Wyoming  Valley  House. 

WlLLIAMSPORT. 

City  Hotel, 

Hepburn  House. 
Park  Hotel, 
Porter  House. 

YORK. 

Central  House, 
National  Hotel, 
Washington  House. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

LINCOLN. 

Union  Hotel 


The  Baltimore 


JOURNAL  OF  COMMERCE, 


^jjeekly    (Commercial    JcDaper, 


Devoted  to  the  Geueral  Trade  Interests  of  Baltimore  and  the  South. 


It  has  a  Large  Circulation  among  the  Business  Houses  of  Baltimore, 
.and  among  Grocers,  General  Dealers,  Shippers  of  Produce,  &c. ,  in  the  South. 

It  is  a  full  and  reliable  source  of  information  on  all  topics  pertaining 
to  the  Trade  and  Commerce  of  the  seclion  it  represents. 

SUBSCRIPTION  $3.00  A  YEAR. 

Published  by  the  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  CO. 

S.  E.  Cor.  Exchange  Place  and  Commerce  Street, 

,  Nlo. 


HOTELS. 


NEWPORT. 

Aquidneck  Hotel, 
Ocean  House, 
Perry  House. 

PROVIDENCE 

Hotel  Dorrance, 
Narragansett  Hotel. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

CHARLESTON. 

Charleston  Hotel, 
Pavilion  Hotel, 
Victoria  Hotel, 
Waverly  House. 

COLUMBIA. 

Columbia  House, 
Grand  Central  Hotel, 
Wright's  Hotel. 

TENNESSEE. 

CHATTANOOGA. 

Chattanooga  Hotel, 
Read  House, 
Stanton  House. 

MEMPHIS. 

Clarendon  Hotel, 
Gayoso  Hotel, 
Peabody  Hotel. 

NASHVILLE. 

Gilchrist's  Hotel, 
Maxwell  House, 
Nicholson  House. 

TEXAS. 

AUSTIN. 

Avenue  House, 
Brunswick  Hotel, 
Raymond  Hotel, 
Southern  Hotel. 

DALLAS. 

Grand  Windsor  Hotel, 
St.  George's  Hotel. 


FORT  WORTH. 

El  Paso  Hotel, 
Grand  Central  Hotel, 
Lindell  Hotel, 
Mansion  Hotel, 
Metropolitan  Hotel, 
Planters  Hotel, 
Waterman  Hotel. 

GALVESTON. 

Beach  Hotel, 
Girardin  Hotel, 
Tremont  House, 
Washington  House. 

HOUSTON. 

Capital  Hotel, 
Hutchins  House, 
Tremont  House. 

SAN  ANTONIO. 

Central  Hotel, 
Herd's  Hotel, 
Hotel  Maverick, 
Menger  Hotel, 
St.  Leonard  Hotel. 

UTAH. 

SALT  LAKE  CITY. 
Clift  House, 
Continental  Hotel, 
Walker  House, 
White  Hotel. 

VERMONT. 

BURLINGTON. 

City  Hotel. 

Van  Ness  and  American  Hotel. 

RUTLAND. 

Bard  well  House, 
Bates  House, 
Berwick  House. 


~  JLjL^L*^  I  y  I  y 

J)uplex  * '  gteam  Y  pumps 


Send  for  Catalogue. 


PUMPS 


FOR  ALL  DUTIES,  AND  GUARANTEED. 


PARTS  MADE  TO  GAUGE  AND  ALL 
INTERCHANGEABLH. 


Compactniessss,  Sim- 
plicity, 


liability  ^  Ptjirability, 
F'uimp^    Ha.^re    ISTo    Equal 
No   SHORT  STROKE. 


HALL  STEAM  PUMP  COMPANY, 


Ol  Liberty  Street, 


YORK. 


HOTELS. 


VIRGINIA. 

ALEXANDRIA. 

Braddock  House, 
Green  Mansion  House. 

LYNCHBURG. 

Arlington  Hotel, 
Norvell  House. 

NORFOLK. 

New  Atlantic  Hotel, 
Purcell  House. 

OLD  POINT. 

Hygeia  Hotel. 

PETERSBURG. 

Bollingbrook  Hotel, 
City  Hotel, 
.Tarrett'a  Hotel. 

PORTSMOUTH. 

Ocean  House. 

RICHMOND. 

American  Hotel, 
Exchange  and  Ballard  Hotel, 
Ford's  Hotel, 
St.  Clair  Hotel. 

WASHINGTON  TERRITORY. 

OLYMPIA. 

Carlton  House. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

WHEELING. 

Grant  House, 
New  McClure  House, 
St.  James  Hotel, 
Stamm  House. 


WISCONSIN. 

EAU  CLAIR. 

Eau  Clair  House. 
Galloway  House. 

FOND-DU-LAC. 

American  House, 
Northwestern  Hotel, 
Palmer  House. 

LA  CROSSE. 

Cameron  House, 
International  Hotel. 

MADISON. 

Park  Hotel, 
Ton-ya-wa-tha  Hotel, 

Vilas  Hotel. 

MILWAUKEE. 

Grand  Avenue  Hotel, 
Kirby  House, 
Metropolitan  Hotel, 
Plankiuton  House, 
Republican  House, 
St.  Charles  Hotel. 

OSHKOSH. 

Revere  House, 
Tremont  House 

RACINE. 

Blake  Hotel, 
Iluggins  House. 

WYOMING  TERRITORY 
CHEYENNE. 

Inter-Ocean  Hotel. 
M.  P  Railroad  Hotel. 


The  Vendome, 

POMMONWEALTH  AVENUE  AND  PARTMOUTH 

•*• BOSTON- •*• 


on  Ol  GL  V/Cn©lOrn0  is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  hotel  structures  in  this  country. 
Its  elegance,  spaciousness,  sanitary  excellence  and  unequalled  location  make  it  most  desirable  for 
transient  visitors  and  tourists.  It  is  also  peculiarly  attractive  as  a  residence  for  ladies  and  families. 

It  is  situated  in  the  Back  Bay  District,  one  of  the  grandest  architectural  sections  to  be  found  in 
any  country,  and  surrounded  by  noteworthy  public  buildings, — the  Art  Museum,  Public  Library, 
Trinity,  New  Old  South,  First  Baptist  and  other  prominent  churches,  and  schools,  both  public  and 
private. 

Commonwealth  Avenue  (extending  from  the  Public  Garden  to  the  new  Park,)  upon  which  THE 
VENDOME  has  its  main  front,  is  acknowledged  to  be  the  finest  boulevard  in  America.  It  is  two  hundred 
and  forty  feet  wide,  and,  through  its  centre,  is  an  improved  Park  one  hundred  feet  wide,  lined  with 
trees  and  shrubs,  while  facing  it  are  the  most  costly  and  beautiful  residences  in  the  city. 

AMOS  BARNES,    \of  Hotel  Brunswick,  C.     H.     GREENLEAF     &     CO. 

J.  \V.  DUNKLEE,  \  Boston. 

C.  H.  GREENLEAF,  of  Profile  House.  * Proprietors. 


P 


rofile  House, 

PRANOONIA  NOTCH, 
\VHITK 


One  of  the  Largest  and  Best  of  Leading  First-  Class  Summer  Resorts. 


GREENLEAF, 
oj  Vendotite,  Boston, 


TAFT  &  GREENLEAF, 

PROPRIETORS. 


LIBRARIES. 


ALBANY,  N.  Y. 

State  Library, 
Y.  M.  C.  A. 

ALTON,  ILL. 

Free  Public  Library. 

BALTIMORE,  MD. 

Peabody  Institute, 

Mercantile  Library, 

Maryland  Institute, 

Y.  M.  C.  A, 

Enoch  Pratt  Free  Library. 

BOSTON,  MASS. 

Public  Library, 

Young  Men's  Christian  Union, 

Y.  M.  C.  A. 

BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 
Y.  M.  C.  A. 

BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 
Y.  M.  C.  A., 
Young  Men's  Association. 

BURLINGTON,  VT. 

Billings  Library. 

CHARLESTON,  S.  C. 

Charleston  Library. 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 

Public  Library, 
Chicago  Athenaeum, 
Y.  M.  C.  A. 


CINCINNATI,  O. 

Public  Library, 

Young  Men's  Mercantile  Library, 

Mechanics'  Institute  Library. 

CLEVELAND,  O. 
Y.  M.  C.  A. 

COLUMBUS,  O. 

State  Library, 
City  Library. 

COUNCIL  BLUFFS,  IOWA* 
Y.  M.  C.  A. 

DETROIT,  MICH. 

Public  Library. 

GREENVILLE,  S.  C. 

Young  Men's  Library. 

HARRISBURG,  PA. 
State  Library. 

HARTFORD,  CONN. 
State  Library, 
Wadsworth  Athenaeum. 

INDIANAPOLIS,  IND. 

Free  City  Library. 

LAFAYETTE,  IND. 
Y.  M.  C.  A. 

LOUISVILLE,  KY. 

Public  Library, 

Louisville  Library  Association. 

MADISON,  Wis. 

City  Library. 


OBT   THE   BEST. 

THE  HERCULES 

WATER  WHEELS 

Are  the  Best  Water  Wheels  ever  made. 


oooooooooooooooo 


A  Good  Water  "Wheel  Increases 

The  Value  of  Your 

Whole  Plant, 

Get  the  Best  at  First,  and  Avoid  the 
Expense  and  Delay  of  Chang- 
ing the  Wheels. 


A  Good  Wheel  will  serve  you  well 
for  Twenty  Years. 


The  Best   is   the   Cheapest.     It  Does 

More  "Work,  Lasts  Longer,  and 

Costs  no  more  for  Gears 

and    Setting    than    a 

Common  Wheel. 

The  Hercules  Gives  the  Most  Power  for  its  Size 

and  the  Highest  Average  Percentage 

from  Full  to  One-Half  Gate  of 

any  Wheel  Ever  Made. 

o  o  o  o  oooopooooooooo  O~Q~Q~Q 


If  you  want  to  buy  a  new  Water  Wheel,  if  your  old  wheel  does  not 
give  absolute  satisfaction,  if  you  would  like  to  know  just  how  perfect  a 
a  Water  Wheel  can  be  made,  or  if  you  are  in  any  way  interested  in  Water 
Wheels  it  will  pay  you  to  write  for  Catalogue  No.  3  to  the 

liOLYOKE  MACHINE  CO. 

WORCESTER,  MASS. 


LIBRAEIES. 


NEW  HAVEV,  UONN. 
Y.  M.  C   A., 
Young  Men's  Institute. 

NEWPORT,  R.  I. 

Redwood  Library. 

NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 

Astor  Library, 
Cooper  Institute, 
City  Library, 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  4th  ave.,  cor.  23cl, 
"         "      161  5th  ave., 

cor.  Cdav.  &122dst., 
285  Hudson  st., 
"      69  Ludlow  st, 
"      97  Wooster  st., 
Mercantile  Library. 

PEOBIA,  ILL. 

Mercantile  Library. 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

Mercantile  Library, 
Philadelphia  Library, 
Y.  M.  C.  A., 
Franklin  Institute. 

PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

Mercantile  Library, 
Y.  M.  C.  A. 

PORTLAND,  ME. 
Y.  M.  C.  A. 

PROVIDENCE,  R.  I. 

Providence  Public  Library, 
Athenaeum. 


RICHMOND,  VA. 

State  Library. 

ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 
Athena3um. 

SACRAMENTO,  CAL. 
State  Library. 

ST.  Louis,  Mo. 

Mercantile  Library, 
Public  School  Library. 

ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

Library  Association. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 
Free  Library, 
Mercantile  Library, 
Mechanics'  Institute  Library, 
Y.  M.  C.  A, 

SPRINGFIELD,  MASS. 
City  Library. 

SYRACUSE,  N.  Y. 
Y.  M.  C.  A. 

TOLEDO,  O. 

Public  Library. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

Library  of  Congress, 
Y.  M.  C.  A 

WILMINGTON,  DEL. 

Wilmington  Ins  &  Pub  Library, 

WORCESTER,  MASS. 

Free  Public  Library. 


The  Hotel  Brunswick, 

SITUATED  ON  BOYLSTOH  AND 
©LAI^BNDON  SHEETS,  IN  THE  BAG^  BAY  DI 

•  BOSTON,  MASS.  • 


This  is  one  of  the  finest  hotel  structures  in  the  world,  and  its  surroun- 
dings include  many  of  the  most  noted  structures  in 
New  England,  including 

TRINITY  (PHILIPS  BROOKS'  CHURCH),  NEW  OLD  SOUTH,  INSTITUTE  OF 

TECHNOLOGY,  CHAUNCEY  HALL  SCHOOL,  BOSTON  SOCIETY  OF 

NATURAL   HISTORY,    HARVARD    MEDICAL    SCHOOL, 

PUBLIC    LIBRARY    AND    BOSTON    ART    CLUB. 

.Dartmouth,  Huntington  Avenue,  Beacon  Street,  and  all  Back  Bay  Cars  pass  every  three  minutes, 
a  facility  afforded  by  no  other  hotel. 


BARNES  &  DUNKLEE,  Proprietors. 


VICTORIA. 


Dartmouth  Street,  Corner  Newbury. 
EUROPEAN  PLAN. 

This  new  and  elegantly  appointed   Hotel  is  now  open  for  transient  or  permanent  guests.     The 
Restaurant  is  of  the  highest  order.     Back  Bay  Cars  marked  Veiidome  pass  the  door. 

CHAS,  A,  GLEASON,  Manager.  BARNES  &  DUNKLEE,  Proprietors, 


STEAMERS. 


OCEAN  LINES. 

ALLAN  LINE — To  Liverpool. 
Austrian, 
Caspian, 
Circassian, 
Hibernian, 
Nova  Scotian, 
Parisian, 
Persian, 
Peruvian, 
Polynesian, 
Prussian, 
Sardinian, 
Saraiatian, 
Siberian, 
Waldensian. 

ANCHOR  LINE — To  Glasgow  and  Liver- 
pool. 

Anchoria, 
Circassia, 
City  of  Rome, 
Devonia, 
Furnessia, 
Ethiopia. 

ALEXANDRE'S  LINE — N.  Y.  to  Havana. 

(N.  Y.,  Havana  and  Mexican  S.  S.  Line. 

F.  Alexandre  &  Sons.) 

Alpes, 

City  of  Alexandria, 

Manhattan. 

ATLAS  LINE — New  York  to  Central  and 

South  America. 
.Etna, 
Ailsa 


Alene, 

Alps,' 

Alvena, 

Andes, 

Antillas, 

Athos, 

Avila. 

BORDEAUX  LINE — N.  Y.  to  Bordeaux. 
Chateau  Lafite, 
Chateau  Leoville, 
Chateau  Margaux, 
Chateau  Yquem. 

BOOTH  S.  S.  Co.— New  York  to  Brazil. 
Ambrose, 
Anselm, 
Augustine, 
Lanfranc. 

CUNARD  LINE — To  Liverpool. 
Aurania, 
Bothnia, 
Catalonia, 
Cephalonia, 
Etruria, 
Gallia, 
Pavonia, 
Scythia, 
Servia, 
Unibria. 

ATLANTIC  AND  WEST  INDIA  LINE— 

Boston  to  West  Indies. 
Barracanta, 
Mornca. 


ROLLER  DETACHABLE 

CHAIN  BELTING 

$-  Designed  for  0 

Elevators,  Conveyors, 
Drive  Belts, 

For  Handling 

Grain,  Seeds,  Coal,  Ores,  Phosphates, 
Sawdust,  Clay,  Tan  Bark,  &c. 


CHAIN  ELEVATORS  WILL  NOT  SLIP  OR  CLOG. 


Send  for  Illustrated  Catalogue. 

ROLLER  CHAIN  BELTING  Co. 

COLUMBUS,  O.,  U.S.A. 

x  THE  LEGG  x 

Coal  Mining  Machine 

The  Greatest  Labor-Saving  Invention  of  the  Age, 


W: 


4 

ILL    undercut   from 
8OO  to  1,OOO  square 
feet    of    floor    per   day 
of  ten   hours,  with   two 
men. 


Position  of  Machine  at  Work. 

Also  Manufacture  the 

Legg  Rotary  Power  Coal  Drills, 

Capable  of  drilling  a  hole  IK  in.  to  2  in.  in  diameter  to  a  depth  of  6  ft.  in  4  minutes. 

Machines  furnished  subject  to  sale  after  having  worked  on  b  sis  of  estimate. 

•   MarvLiffcietured  and.  Sold  toy  • 

The  LECHNER  H]ANUFACTURING  So. 

Correspondence  Solicited.  X          COLUMBUS,  OHIO,   U.  S.  A. 


STEAMERS. 


AMERICAN  LINE— Philadelphia  to  Liver- 
pool. 

British  King, 
British  Prince, 
British  Princess, 
Illinois, 
Indiana, 
Lord  Olive, 
Lord  Gaugh, 
Ohio. 

FABRE  LINE—  To  Genoa,  Marseilles  and 

Naples. 
Alesia, 

Britannia, 

Burgundia, 

Neustria, 

Scotia, 

Gergovia. 

FRENCH  LINE —  To  Havre. 
(Compagnie  Generale  Transatlantique.) 

Amerique, 

Canada, 

France, 

La  Bretagne, 

La  Gascogne, 

Labrador, 

La  Bourgogne, 

La  Champagne, 

La  Normandie, 

Saint  Germain, 

Saint  Laurent, 

GUION  LINE — To  Liverpool. 
Alaska, 
Arizona, 
Nevada, 
Wisconsin, 
Wyoming. 

HAMBURG -AMERICAN  LINE — New  York 

to  Hamburg. 
Bohemia, 
Frisia, 
Gellert, 
H  ammonia, 


Lessing, 

Moravia, 

Rhsetia, 

Rugia, 

Suevia, 

Westphalia, 

Wieland. 

INMAN  LINE—  To  Liverpool. 
City  of  Berlin, 
City  of  Chester, 
City  of  Chicago, 
City  of  Montreal, 
City  of  Richmond. 

ITALIAN  LINE— New  York  to  Marseilles, 

Naples  and  Palermo. 
(Florio-Rubattino  Line.) 
Indipendente, 
Washington, 
Vincenzo  Florio, 
Archimede, 
Gottardo. 

MONARCH  LINE — New  York  to  London. 
Assyrian  Monarch, 
Egyptian  Monarch, 
Grecian  Monarch, 
Lydian  Monarch, 
Persian  Monarch. 

NATIONAL  LINE — New  York  to  Liver- 
pool and  London. 
America, 
Canada, 
Denmark, 
Egypt, 
England, 
Erin, 
France, 
Greece, 
Helvetia, 
Holland, 
Italy, 
Spain. 


AUTOMATIC*  STEAM*  HEATER. 


BURNS  EITHER 


Hard  or  Soft  Coal, 


ALWAYS 


GIVES 
SATISFACTION. 

I 

-a  Perfect  &~ 

Low  Press^tre•4• 


|j  Steam  Heating 

•:    FOR    :• 
DWELLINGS, 

BANKS, 
PUBLIC  :• 


I  BUILDINGS 


STORES. 


Duplex    Steam    Heater    Co. 


1O  Ba^rclay  St.., 

&GENTS  WANTED  EVERYWHERE.  SEND  FOR  NEW  ILLUSTRATED  CATALOGUE. 


STEAMERS. 


NORTH  GERMAN  LLOYD — To  Bremen 
Aller, 
America, 
Eider, 
Elbe, 
Ems, 
Fulda, 
Habsburg, 
Leipzig, 
Main, 
Neckar, 
Oder, 
Rhein, 
Saale, 
Salier, 
Werra, 
Weser. 

RED  STAB  LINE — To  Antwerp. 
Belgenland, 
Noordland, 
Pennland, 
Rhynland, 
Waesland, 
Westernland. 

PACIFIC  MAIL  S.  S.  Co.— San  Francisco 
to  YokoJiama  and  Hongkong. 
City  of  New  York, 
City  of  Peking, 
San  Pablo, 
City  of  Sydney, 
City  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

ROYAL  MAIL  LINE—  To  Rotterdam  and 

Amsterdam. 
Edam, 

Leerdam, 

P.  Caland, 

Schiedam, 

W.  A.  Scholten, 

Laandam. 

STATE  LINE— To  Glasgow  and  Belfast. 
State  of  Alabama, 
State  of  Georgia, 


State  of  Indiana, 
State  of  Nebraska, 
.   State  of  Nevada, 
State  of  Pennsylvania. 

THINGVALLA  LINE —  To  Copeiihagen. 
Geiser, 
Hekla, 
Island, 
Thingvalla. 

WHITE  STAB  LINE — To  Liverpool. 
Adriatic, 
Baltic, 
Britannic, 
Celtic, 
Germanic, 
Republic. 

WABD'S  LINE—  To  Cuba. 
(N.  Y.  and  Cuba  Mail  S.  S.  Co.— James 
E.  Ward  &  Co.) 

Cienfuengos, 

Niagara, 

Santiago, 

Saratoga. 

RED  "D"  LINE— JV.  T.  to  West  Indies. 
Caracas, 
Philadelphia, 
Valencia. 

LIVEBPOOL,  BBAZIL  &  RIVEB  PLATE 
STEAM  NAVIGATION  Co. 
Biela, 
Buffon, 
Cuvier, 
Galileo, 
Hevelius, 
Leibnitz, 
Maskelyne, 
Orion, 
Pleiades, 
Sirius. 

U.  S.  AND  BBAZIL  MAIL  S.  S.  Co. 
Advance, 
Finance. 


Established  184O. 


Incorporated  188S. 


B AGN ALL  &  LOUD  BLOCK  CO. 

$•  BOSTON,  MASS.  # 

* 
The  Largest  and  Most  Reliable  Manufacturers  of 

#  TACKLE  *  BLOCKS  » 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Our  Specialties  are: 

Improved    Self-Adjusting    Five-Roll 

Roller  Bush  Blocks. 
Improved    Self-Lubricating  Metaline 

Bush  Blocks. 
Improved    Wrought  Iron  Blocks,  with 

Rolled  Edges. 
Improved    Self-Locking  Link  Snatch 

Blocks. 

Improved  Diaphragm  Pumps,  for  ves- 
sel and  contractor's  use,  being  non- 
chokeable  and  will  pump  sand  or 
gravel  without  injury  to  the  pump. 


Improved  Self-Lock- 
ing Link  Snatch 
Block. 


Improved  Harcourt 
Patent  Block. 


Improved  Self- Adjusting  five-roll  Roller  Eush  Sheave. 

Gives  Twice  the  Purchase  of  an  Iron  Bushed 


Ask  your  dealer  for  the 

STAR  BRAND 

Self-AdJnsting 

Five-Roll  Eoller  Bnsl  Blocks. 


IllustratedCatalogue  on  Application. 

Solid  Roll,  with  shoulder.  Cage  to  h6^e  rollg. 

New  York  Branch,  33  South  Street. 


STEAMERS. 


RED  CROSS  LINE — New  York  to  Brazil  \     N.  O.  &  BELIZE  ROYAL  MAIL  S.  S.  Co. 


Amazonense, 

Cearense, 

Lisbonense, 

Manauense 

Maranhense, 

Paraense, 

Portuense, 

Sobralense, 

Therisina. 

SOUTHERN  PACIFIC  Co. — New  Orleans 
to  Havana,  Vera  Cruz,  &c. 

Aranzas, 
Chalmette, 
Eureka, 
Hutchinson, 
I.  C.  Harris. 

N,  O.  TO  VERA  CRUZ  VIA  GALVESTON. 
Harlan. 

NEW  ORLEANS  TO  COSTA  RICA,  &c. 
Foxhall, 
Maria  P. 

OTERI  PIONEER  LINE — New  Orleans  to 
points  in  Central  America. 
E.  B.  Ward,  Jr., 
Professor  Morse, 
S.  Oteri. 

FRENCH  COMMERCIAL  LINE — New  Or- 
leans to  Havre,  France. 
Marseilles. 

NEW  ORLEANS  AND  CENTRAL  AMER- 
ICAN S.  S.  Co. 
Lucy  P.  Miller. 

WEST  INDIA  AND  PACIFIC  S.  S.  Co. — 
New  Orleans  to  Liverpool. 
Floridian, 
Haytain, 
Texas. 


City  of  Dallas, 
Kate  Carroll, 
Wanderer. 

OCCIDENTAL  AND  ORIENTAL  S.  S.  Co. 
San  Francisco  to  China  and  Japan. 
Belgic, 
Gaelic, 
Oceanic, 

TAMPA,  FLA.,  TO  HAVANA. 
Mascotte. 

MILLER  &  HENDERSON  GULF   S.    S. 
LINES — New  Orleans  to  Jamaica,  Cen- 
tral America,  &c. 
Alabama, 

Blanche  Henderson, 
Capt.  Miller, 
C.  J.  Cocbran, 
Lizzie  Henderson, 
Lucy  P.  Miller. 

CLYDE'S  NEW  YORK,  SANTO  DOMINGO 
HAYTI  AND  TURK'S  ISLAND  LINE 
STEAMERS. 

Geo.  W.  Clyde. 
Ozama. 

COASTWISE  LINES. 

MERCHANTS'  AND  MINERS'  TRANS.  Co. 
Between  Boston,  Providence,  Baltimore 
and  Savannah. 

Allegheny, 

Chatham, 

Decatur  H.  Miller, 

Geo.  Appold, 

Win.  Crane, 

Wm.  Lawrence. 

BOSTON  AND  SAVANNAH    S.  S.  Co. — 
Boston  to  Savannah. 

City  of  Macon, 
Gate  City. 


4  STEEL 


BIRMINGHAM,  ALA. 


HIGH  CLASS     * 

oc_ooooooooooooooooooooo 


ooocoocoooo 


AND 


Irons. 


STEAMERS. 


BOSTON  AND  BANGOR  S.  S.  Co. — Boston 
to  Bangor  and  Maine  Resorts. 

Cambridge, 
Henry  Morrison, 
Katahdin, 
Mount  Desert, 
Penobscot, 
Rockland. 

INTERNATIONAL  S.  S.  Co.— Boston  to 

St.  Johns,  N.  B. 
Cumberland, 
State  of  Maine. 

KENNEBEC  STEAMBOAT  Co. — Boston  to 

Augusta. 
Star  of  the  East. 

:NOYA    SCOTIA    S.   S.   Co.— Boston    to 

Eastern  Ports. 
Dominion, 
Secret, 
Empress. 

BOSTON,  HALIFAX  &  PRINCE  EDWARD 
ISLAND  S.  S.  LINE— Boston  to  Halifax. 
Carroll, 
Merrimack, 
Worcester. 

MT.  DESERT  LINE — From  Boston. 
City  of  Richmond, 
Lewiston. 

PORTLAND  STEAM  PACKET  Co. — Boston 

and  Portland. 
John  Brooks, 
Tremont. 

NEW  YORK  AND  WILMINGTON  S.  S.  Co. 
New  York  to  Wilmington,  N.  C. 
Benefactor, 
Regulator. 


OLD  DOMINION  S.  S.  Co. — New  York  to 
Norfolk,  Old  Point,  Newport  News  and 
Richmond. 

Breakwater, 

Guyandotte, 

Manhattan, 

Old  Dominion, 

Richmond, 

Roanoke, 

Seneca, 

Wyanoke. 

NEW  YORK  AND  CHARLESTON  S.  S.  Co. 
New  York  to  Charleston,  S.  C. 
City  of  Atlanta, 
City  of  Columbia. 

EMPREZA  INSULANA  NAVAGACAO,  LIS- 
BON— Madeira,  Azores  to  Boston. 
S.  S.  Benguella. 

CLYDE  LINES— New  York  to  Charleston, 
Florida,Wilmington ;    Philadelphia  to 
Richmond,  Norfolk  and  Charleston. 
Ashland, 
Benefactor, 
Cherokee, 
City  of  Atlanta, 
City  of  Columbia, 
Delaware, 
Equator. 
Pioneer, 
Regulator, 
Seminole, 
Virginia, 
Wyoming, 
Yemassee. 

OCEAN  S.  S.  Co.—  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia to  Savannah. 
Chattahoochee, 
City  of  Augusta, 
City  of  Savannah, 
Dessoug, 
Juniata, 
Nacoochee, 
Tallahassee. 


ESTABLISHED    1859. 


A    COMPLETE     RECORD 


Business  and  Industrial  Interests 

of    the  UNITED    STATES 


Is  Given  Every  Week  in 


THE  *  BOSTON 

COMMERCIAL  BULLLETI, 


Hints  and  Points  to  Make  Money 


MERCHANDISE,  MINES  AND  MACHINERY; 

MILLS,  MANUFACTURING  AND  METALS; 
PRODUCE  AND  PROVISIONS; 

WOOL,  HIDES  AND  LEATHER; 
BOOTS  AND  SHOES; 

DRY  GOODS  AND  GROCERIES 

MOSEY  MATTERS  IN  HEW  YORK  AHD  BOSTON, 

Manufacturing  News  of  the  United  States, 

New  Mills,  Manufactories  and  Machine  Shops, 
Inventions  and  Improvements. 

SPECIAL    ARTICLES    BY    SKILLED    ARTISANS. 
Price,  Four  Dollars  a  Year.  Send  for  Sample. 

CURTIS  GUILD  &  CO. 

BOSTON,  -  N1ASS. 


STEAMEES. 


HED  CROSS  LINE— New  York  to  Halifax 

and  St.  John,  N.  F. 
Miranda, 
Portia. 

MALLOHY  S.  S.  LINES—  To  Texas,  Flor- 
ida, and  Georgia. 
Alamo, 
Carondelet, 
City  of  San  Antonio, 
Colorado, 
Comal, 
Lampasas, 
Rio  Grande, 
San  Marcos, 
State  of  Texas. 

CROMWELL  LINK — New  York  to  New 

Orleans. 
Hudson, 
Knickerbocker, 
Louisiana, 
New  Orleans. 

OREGON  RAILWAY  AND  NAVIGATION 
Co. — San  Francisco,  California,  and 
Portland,  Oregon. 

Columbia. 
'    Oregon, 

State  of  California. 

PACIFIC  COAST   S.  S.  Co. — From  San 
Francisco  to  points  on  Pacific  Coast. 
Ancon, 
Eureka, 
Idaho, 

Los  Angeles, 
Orizaba, 
Santa  Rosa, 
Yaquina. 

CHARLESTON  AND  FLORIDA  S.  S.  Co. 
Jacksonville  and  Charleston. 
City  of  Palatka. 

SEA     ISLAND     ROUTE — Savannah     to  ( 
Brunswick,  Fernandina,  &c. 
St.  Nicholas. 


INLAND  LINES. 
NEW  YORK. 

Bristol— Fall  River  Line. 
Pilgrim, 

Old  Colony—  To  Newport,  R.  1. 
Providence,  "  " 

Narragansett — Stonington  Line. 
Stonington,  "  " 

Massachusetts — To  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  "      R.  I. 

City  of  Boston—  To  New  London, 
City  of  Lawrence,  "    Conn. 

City  of  New  York,         "        " 
City  of  Worcester,          «        " 
City  of  Troy—  To  Troy. 
Saratoga,  " 

Dean  Richmond — To  Albany. 
Drew,  " 

Albany — Day  Line  to  Albany. 
Daniel  Drew,  "  " 

City  of  Kingston—  To  Rondout, 
James  W.  Baldwin,          "        &c. 

BALTIMORE. 

Carolina—  Old  Bay  Line  to    Old 

Point  and  Norfolk. 
Florida,  "  " 

Virginia,  "  " 

Baltimore— R.  &  Y.  R.  Line  to 

Richmond  ( West  Pt.) 
Danville,  " 

AvaloH — To  points  on  Chesapeake 

Bay  and  Tributaries. 
Enoch  Pratt,      " 
Ida,  "  ,    " 

Joppa — To  points  on  CJiesapeake 

Bay  and  Tributaries. 
S.  J.  Pent/,        "  " 

Mason  L.  Wcems,  " 

Theodore  Weeins,  " 

Westmoreland, "  " 

Corsica,  "  " 

Emma  A.  Ford,  " 

RICHMOND,  YA. 

Ariel—  To  Norfolk  and  Old  Point. 


THE  NEW  YORK 
am  me  rc  i,i  I 

•  the  • 

LEADING  BUSINESS  PAPER 

•  of  the  • 
UNITED  STATES. 

INDEPENDENT^^.  RELIABLE, 


Merchants  in  all  branches  of  trade  will  find  the  market  reports  of 
the  COMMERCIAL  BULLETIN  the  latest,  the  most  trustworthy,  and  the 
most  valuable  of  any  issued. 

To  buy  with  advantage  in  ANY  "market,  every  jobber  and  every 
retailer  should  be  well  informed  of  the  condition  of  the  New  York 
markets. 

The  BULLETIN  has  an  established  reputation  of  25  years  standing  as  an 
authority  upon  markets  and  business  affairs,  and  buyers  of  Dry  Goods,  Gro- 
ceries, Breadstuffs,  Provisions,  Produce,  Cotton,  Wool  and 
all  Staple  Products  will  invariably  consult  its  columns  to  their  advantage 
before  purchasing. 

No  other  journal  is  at  such  effort  or  expense  in  furnishing  late  and  trust- 
worthy business  news,  and  no  other  journal  endeavors  to  more  faithfully  report 
prices  and  markets  in  the  interests  Of  its  subscribers.  Many  trade 
papers  are  run  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  in  the  interests  of  one  or  more  large  distrib- 
utors, and  are  consequently  used  by  such  parties  to  their  own  advantage.  The 
BULLETIN  is  absolutely  independent  and  free  of  all  such  entanglements. 

The  BULLETIN  is  mailed  by  the  evening  mails,  and  reaches  its  destination 
several  hours  in  advance  of  any  New  York  morning  papers. 

Sample  copies  sent  free,  one  week,  on  application. 

Subscription  Price,  $12. OO  one  year. 

6.50       # 


Bails  Bulletin 

32  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

NOTICE. 

As  an  advertising  medium  it  has  proved  itself  to  be  one  (if  not  the  best)  of  the  most  valuable 
cf  all  mediums.  It  is  a  welcome  visitor  to  all  merchants,  consequently  of  greater  value  to  the 
advertiser.  It  reaches  more  business  centres,  and  has  a  circulation  far  in  excess  of  any  business 
paper  in  the  United  States. 


J?  A  7^77  C    J  SPccial  Notices, 
•A.-^  -L  -C"->.   \prdinary,     -         -         - 


2jc.  per  line,  Agate  measurement. 
YEARLY     RATKS     OX     APFTvI  CATION, 


STEAMERS. 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

Lady  of  the  Lake—  To  Norfolk,&c. 
George  Leary,  " 

JACKSONVILLE,  FLA. 

Fred'k  DeBarry — St.  John's  River 

H.  T.  Baya,  "         "  Strs. 

City  of  Jacksonville,"         " 

Magnolia,  " 

Everglades,  "         " 

Rosa, 

Anita, 

Pastime, 

Sylvan  Glen, 

Water  Lily,  "          " 

H.  B.  Plant,  "         " 

CEDAR  KEY,  FLA. 

Governor  Safford™«/  8.  B.  Co. 

MOBILE,  ALA. 

Annie — Forpts.  on  Mobile  Bay,&c. 
Lotus,  No.  2, "  "  " 

W.  H.  Gardner, 

NEW  ORLEANS. 

Alvin—  For  points  on  Red  River 

and  Gulf  Coast. 
Assumption,       "  " 

Danube,  " 

Jewell,  "  " 

Keokuk,  "  " 

Lura — For  points  on  Red  River 

and  Gulf  Coast. 
Neptune,  "  " 

Clinton — For    points   on    Upper 

Gulf  Coast. 

Edward  J.  Gay,     "          " 
John    H.    Hanna — Landings    on 

Ouachita  and  Black  Rivers. 
E.   W.   Fuller— For  Bayou   La- 

fourche. 
Josie  AY. — For  Buyout  Macon  and 

Tensas. 
New  Iberia— For  Bayou  Teclie,  &c. 


Pargoud  —  For  Vicksburg. 

Paris  C.  Brown  —  For  Cincinnati. 

Golden  Rule,  " 

MEMPHIS,  TENN. 

Kate  Adams  —  For  Vicksburg. 
Will  S.  Hays, 

Andy  Baum  —  For  Cincinnati. 

James  W.  Gaff,  " 

Cons.  Miller,  " 

Granite  State,  " 

Buckeye  State,  " 

Ohio,  u 

NASHVILLE,  TENN. 

J.  P.  Drouillard, 
B.  S.  Rhea, 
W.  H.  Cherry. 

EVANSVILLE,  IND. 
Clyde, 

W.  T.  Nisbet, 
John  Gilbert, 
Silver  Cloud, 
W.  A.  Johnson. 

NATCHEZ,  Miss. 

Carneal  Goldman  —  ForVickstfrg. 

Prince—  For  Bayou  Sava. 

T  P.  Leathers—  For  N.  Orleans. 


Del.  &  Cleve- 
land  Steam 

Nm;  Co'f™ 
portion  Lake 
Erie  &  Lake 

Huron. 


DETROIT,  MICH. 

City  of  Detroit,        ] 
City  of  Cleveland,     I 

City  of  Mackinac,    J 

J  '      ! 

City  of  Alpena.       - 

Northwest.  } 

Idle  wild,          "J      Star  Line  of 
Northwest,       }  Stmrs.  for  points 
Evening  Star.  J      on  tJie  Lakes. 

BISMARK,  DAKOTA. 
Helena,       ] 

Beriton,  Benton  Trans. 

Batchelor,   }-    Co.  for  points  on 
Rosebud,  Missouri  River. 

Judith. 


GEO.  F.  BLAKE  MF'G  CO. 

BUILDERS    OB* 

pingle  aqd  Duplex  Dumping  MacJineriJ, 


SertcL  for  TllustrcLted  Ca,ta2ogu.e. 

BOSTON,  44  Washington  St.  NEW  YORK,  95  &  9]  Liberty  St. 

Knowles  •  Steam  •  Pump  •  Works, 


*    BUILDERS  OF    * 


#   PUCDPING 


OFFICES    AXD    SALESROOJvlS : 

BOSTON,  44  Washington  Street,       NEW  YORK,  93  Liberty  Street. 

SEND  FOR  CATALOGUE. 


.  STEAMERS. 


ST.  Louis,  Mo. 

Mary  Morton— For  Upper  Missis- 
Sidney,  "  sippi- 

Josephine, 

Wyoming — For     Kama*      City, 
LeavenwortK,  &c. 

Gen.    Meade— For  Landings   on 

Missouri  River. 

New  Hudson— For  Ohio,  Cumber- 
land and  Tennessee  Rivers. 
Clyde, 

Henry  A.  Tyler—  For  Tenn.  Riv. 
Calhoun— For  Illinois  River. 
City  of  New  Orleans, 
City  of  Natchez, 
City  of  Baton  Rouge, 
City  of  St.  Louis, 
Arkansas  City, 
E.  G.  Elliott. 

Gem  City— For  St.  Paul,  &c. 
War  Eagle,  "      " 

St.  Paul,  "      " 

Centennial— For  St.  Paul,  &e. 
White  Eagle,      "         "       " 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 

Continental — For  New  York. 
Elm  City,          "  «« 

New  Haven,     "  « 


Anchor 
Line  for 

New 
Orleans. 


CINCINNATI,  OHIO. 

Bostona — For  pts.  on  Ohio  River. 

Big  Sandy,          "  " 

Telegraph, 

Bonanza, 

St.  Lawrence,      " 

Ingoinar, 

Fleetwood — For  Louisville. 

City  of  Madison         " 

Ohio — For  Memphis. 

MILWAUKEE,  Wis. 

Champlain — For  points  on  Lake 
Lawrence,        "         "    Michigan. 

TOLEDO,  OHIO. 

Chief  Justice  Waite— For  Put- 
in-Bay, &c. 

Mascotte — For  Point  Place,  &c. 
Saginaw — For  Detroit,  &c. 


BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 
Nyack, 
India, 
China, 
Japan, 
Winslow, 
Empire  State, 
Badger  State, 
Idaho, 

Fountain  City, 
St.  Louis, 
Arctic. 


Lake  Superior 

Transit  Cols 

Steamers 

for 

-  Erie,  Cleveland, 

Detroit,  Port 

Huron,   Duluth, 

and  other  Lake 

Ports. 


THE     BALTIMORE 


MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD 

Is  the  acknowledged  exponent  and  representative  of 
Southern  progress  and  development.  On  this  and  the 
following  page  are  given  a  few  extracts  from  newspapers 
and  from  letters  received  from  subscribers,  showing  the 
estimation  in  which  the  paper  is  held  by  those  who  have 
become  familiar  with  it  and  are  best  capable  of  judging 
of  the  value  of  its  work: 


THIS  magnificent  industrial  paper,  which 
has  done  so  much  for  the  South,  deserves 
the  kindest  consideration  at  the  hands  of 
the  people  of  the  South.  It  has  done  more 
than  all  other  newspaper  agencies  combin- 
ed to  bring  to  the  attention  of  capitalists 
and  emigrants  the  splendid  and  various  re- 
sources of  the  South.  It  has  made  a  speci- 
alty of  this  matter  as  a  labor  of  love.  The 
MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  has  a  large  cir- 
culation over  the  whole  Urion.  It  is  the 
leader  of  the  industrial  papers  of  the  coun- 
try. It  is  run  \v  ith  ability  and  enterprise.— 
The  Evening  Capitol,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

THE  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD,  which 
has  just  entered  upon  its  ninth  volume,  is  a 
paper  of  which  not  only  its  proprietors  may 
well  be  proud,  but  the  city  also  and  the 
South.  Its  success,  from  a  business  point 
of  view,  has  been  remarkable,  and— an  even 
better  thing  in  many  respects— it  has  by  en- 
ergy, enterprise  and  a  close  adherence  to 
sound  economic  principles,  made  for  itself 
a  strongly  established  reputation  and  a  posi- 
tion i-n  the  front  rank  of  the  best  trade  jour- 
nals of  the  country ;  and  that  its  efforts  in 
behalf  of  Southern  development  have  con- 
siderably benefited  the  growing  industries 
of  the  South  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted.— 
Baltimore  American. 

THE  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  is  ac- 
cepted everywhere  as  undoubtedly  the  best 
authority  on  Southern  affairs.  The  statis- 
tics and  facts  furnished  and  circulated 
among  capitalists  in  the  North  and  West 
are  to  be  relied  upon,  and  have  successfully 
drawn  help  to  the  South  in  the  development 
of  her  material  resources.— Greenville  (Ala.) 
Advocate. 

THE  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  is  a  paper 
that  is  doing  more  for  building  up  manu- 
factures in  the  South  than  any  other  paper 
has  thus  far  ever  done.  It  has  the  most  cor- 
rect and  minute  information  from  all  points 
in  the  South  in  regard  to  every  manufactur- 
ing interest,  and  gives  from  week  to  week 
a  statement  of  every  new  industry  that 
springs  up  in  the  South.  The  industrial 
progress  of  the  country  has  its  special  at- 


tention, and  from  its  columns  a  better  idea 
of  the  industrial  advance  of  this  section 
of  the  Union  can  be  obtained  than  from 
any  other  source.— Natchez  ( Miss.)  Democrat. 

FROM  F.  J.  Cridland,  British  Consul,  Mo- 
bile, Ala. :  "It  gives  me  much  pleasure  to 
renew  my  subscription  to  your  valuable 
journal  for  the  present  year,  for  ever  since 
I  have  been  a  sabscriber  it  has  opened  out 
to  me  a  vast  amount  of  accurate  informa- 
tion in  reference  to  the  agricultural,  manu- 
facturing and  the  great  mineral  resources 
of  the  South,  with  a  variety  of  other  valua- 
ble reports,  which  have  afforded  me  the 
means  of  giving  to  my  government  a  truth- 
ful account  of  the  present  condition  of  the 
district,  in  reference  to  which  I  am  request- 
ed to  report  to  them  yearly.  Every  one 
who  feels  an  interest  in  the  advancement  of 
the  Southern  States  must  read  your  journal 
with  pleasure,  and  those  who  are  not  so  f  or- 
tunato  as  to  see  it  do  not  know  what  an  im- 
mense amount  of  information  they  are  de- 
prived of  yearly  in  consequence." 

FROM  St.  Clair  Coal  Co.,  Trout  Creek,  St. 
Clair  Co.,  Ala.:  "The  last  issue  of  your 
paper  failed  to  reach  us.  "We  value  it  too 
highly  to  lose  even  one  number,  and  will  be 
glad  if  you  will  supply  the  deficiency.  The 
MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  is  certainly  in- 
valuable to  persons  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly interested  in  any  industrial  enter- 
prise, or  even  generally  interested  in  the 
material  development  of  the  country.  The 
variety  and  correctness  of  its  information 
is  wonderful,  and  it  contains  much  to  be  ob- 
tained from  no  other  source.  We  consider 
the  amount  paid  for  a  year's  subscription 
the  best  investment  we  have  made.  The 
MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  is  doing  a  great 
work  for  the  South,  and  deserves  the  confi- 
dence and  support  of  all  enterprising  citi- 
zens." 

FROM  Eugene  Morehead  &  Co.,  Bankers, 
Durham,  N.  C. :  "  We  enclose  our  third  an- 
nual subscription.  Your  laudable  object 
and  your  marked  success  should  place  on 
your  subscription  list  the  name  of  every 
progressive  business  firm  in  the  South." 


PROM  Akron  Iran.  (70.,  Akron,  Ohio  :  "  We 
•consider  the  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  the 
best  paper  of  its  kind  that  there  is  in  the  country. 
It  is  a  very  readable  and  interesting  paper, 
and  from  it  we  Ret  a  large  amount  of  valu- 
able information.  As  an  exponent  of  the 
progress  that  is  being  made  by  the  '  New- 
South,'  it  is  certainly  doing  the  subject  full 
and  entire  justice." 

FROM  W.  Duke,  Sons  &  Co.,  Manufacturers 
of  Smok.'ng  Tobacco  and  Cigarettes,  Dur- 
ham, N.  C. :  "Allow  us  to  congraulate  you 
upon  the  great  success  of  the  MANUFAC- 
TURERS' RECORD.  As  an  exppnent  of  South- 
ern industries  especially  we  have  never 
seen  its  equal,  and  every  manufacturer  of 
the  South  should  be  numbered  amcng  its 
subscribers.  As  we  are  one  of  the  largest 
advertisers  in  the  country,  we  are,  of  course, 
the  recipients  of  great  quantities  of  papers, 
pamphlets,  etc. ;  yet  we  give  precedence  to 
the  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  for  matters 
of  interest  and  information." 

FROM  F.  C.  &  E.  H.  Buffum,  Bankers, 
Brokers  and  Real  Estate  Dealers,  Stanton, 
Fla. :  "  We  desire  to  thank  you  for  the  very 
valuable  matter  relative  to  the  increase  of 
Southern  progress  which  you  have  so  freely 
furnished  us.  We  do  not  know  of  any 
other  source  from  which  we  could  have 
.gained  information  so  reliable  and  abund- 
ant. We  look  upon  the  MANUFACTURERS' 
RECORD  as  the  most  valuable  paper  of  its 
kind  published.  It  has  been  and  is  of  great 
worth  to  us  in  our  business,  and  we  should 
not  now  feel  that  we  could  afford  to  do  with- 
out it.  It  deserves  liberal  support  from  all 
who  are  interested  in  the  advancement  of 
the  South." 

FROM  Adams  Cotton  Mills,  Montgomery, 
Ala. :  "  It  gives  us  pleasure  to  express  our 
appreciation  of  your  valuable  journal.  The 
information  it  contains  as  to  the  general  in- 
dustries of  our  growing  country,  and  its 
advertising  columns,  filled  with  every  want 
of  a  manufacturer,  showing  up  all  the  latest 
improvements  in  machinery,  &c.,  renders  it 
indispensable  to  us.  We  believe  you  have 
done  more  to  encourage  manufacturing  in 
the  South  than  all  other  journals  combined. 
The  South  owes  you  a  debt  for  your  noble 
efforts,  and  we  trust  you  will  be  richly  re- 
warded by  an  appreciative  public." 

THE  Southern  Lumberman,  of  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  says :  "  The  Baltimore  MANUFAC- 
TURERS' RECORD  has  spent  more  money, 
time  and  energy  than  perhaps  any  other 
paper  in  America  trying  to  get  at  the  exact 
facts  m  regard  to  Southern  industrial  pro- 
gress." 

FROM  Loomis,  Hart  &  Co.,  Manufacturers 
and  Dealers  in  Lumber  and  Furniture,  &c., 
Chattanooga,  Tenn.:  "We  take  no  paper 
that  furnishes  more  valuable  information 
in  regard  to  the  manufacturing  interests  of 
the  Southern  States  tnan  can  be  found  in 


your  columns,  and  w  i  consider  it  one  of  the 
best  and  most  reliable  journals  now  laboring- 
to  bring  the  great  advantages  of  the  South 
to  the  notice  of  those  seeking  business  loca- 
tions or  homes  in  one  of  the  most  desirable 
sections  of  the  United  States." 

FROM  L.  H.  Lee  &  Bro.,  General  Agents 
Chamr.ion  Binders,  Reapers  and  Mowers, 
Baltimore :  "The  MAXUFACCRELS'  RECORD 
we  have  taken  from  its  first  issue.  It  is  the 
only  paper  that  we  read  through  from  first 
to  last  page,  advertisements  and  all.  Its 
devotion  to  the  development  of  manufac- 
turing interests  and  the  general  good  of  the 
Gout"^  is  only  equalled  by  the  ability  of  its 
management  and  editorials.  Its  sound  logi- 
cal opposition  to  *  free  trade '  is  worthy  of 
most  hearty  commendation  from  every 
manufacturer,  mechanic,  merchant  and 
farmer  of  the  South,  as  well  as  from  any 
American  citizen  loving  his  own  country 
best.  We  are  surprised  to  note  the  large 
j  and  varied  amount  of  information  in  each 
;  issue  re^ariing  the  progress  of  the  South 
as  to  manufacturing  enterprises." 

FROM  Millburn  Gin  &  Machine  Co.,  Mem- 
phis, Tenn. :     "  We  take  great  pleasure  in 
frankly  saying   that  your  paper  has,  we 
1    think,  done  more  for  the  development  of 
j    manufacturing  interests  in  the  South  than 
i    any  paper  published  in  the  entire  section. 
I    The  general  information  which  you  give  to 
your  subscribers  we  consider  of  the  highest 
value  to  all  mechanics  and  manufacturers. 
Your  papar  always  has  a  hearty  welcome  in 
our  office,  and  it  is  our  purpose  to  not  only 
continue  as  a  subscriber,  but  also  an  adver- 
tiser.   It  pays  well.' ' 

FROM  Salem  Stone  &  Lime  Co.,  Louisville, 
Ky.:  "  It  gives  us  pleasure  to  bear  witness  to 
the  high  value  we  place  upon  your  paper  in 
the  great  amount  of  detailed  information 
given  from  week  to  week  as  to  manufactur- 
ing and  industrial  interests  in  the  Southern 
States.  You  certainly  are  doing  a  mighty 
work  in  advancing  the  material  interests  of 
this  section  of  the  country.  In  your  good 
i  work  we  wish  you  abundant  success." 

FROM  W.  J.  Pollard,  Proprietor  of  Atwood 
j  Gin  Factory,  Koiciusko,  Miss. :  "  You  are 
|  doing  a  noble  work  in  calling  the  attention 
of  moneyed  men  to  the  South,  where  capi- 
tal is  so  much  needed.  If  we  had  more 
papers  like  yours,  and  less  political  claptrap 
stuff,  it  would  be  a  Godsend  to  both  sections. 
Your  paper  is  doing  a  deal  of  good  in  bring- 
ing the  two  sections  into  close  business  and 
friendly  relations,  and  aiding  the  develop- 
ment ol  the  resources  of  the  South." 

FROM  Thomas  McSpeiden,  Supt.  Emily 
Mining  Co.,  Emily,  P.  O.,  Va. :  "  To  say 
that  i  consider  your  paper  a  valuable  one 
would  be  putting  it  very  light ;  for,  in  con- 
sideration of  what  it  is  doing  for  the  New 
South,  its  worth  cannot  be  too  highly  ex- 
toiied." 


THE  business  of  the  type  founder  and  electrotyper  is  one  of  considerable- 
mystery  to  many,  and  a  source  of  much  interest.  Prominent  among  those 
engaged  in  this  business  is  the  well-known  house  of  John  Ryan  &  Co.v 
•located  at  the  southwest  corner  of  South  and  German  streets,  Baltimore,  Md. 
This  house  was  founded  by  the  above  firm  32  years  ago  upon  a  scale,  in  compari- 
son with  the  present  facilities  and  proportions,  exceedingly  small  and  contracted. 
Integrity  and  honor  in  all  business  transactions  was  placed  at  the  foundation  as 
the  corner-stone  of  the  structure,  and  the  trade  was  increased  and  reared  through 
this  commendable  medium.  The  foundry  for  the  manufacture  of  type  is  70x200 
feet  in  dimensions,  and  well  equipped  with  the  many  improved  appliances  for  the 
proper  conduct  of  the  business.  They  manufacture  type  of  all  kinds,  and  their 
make  and  faces  are  the  equal  of  any  produced.  The  firm  carry  a  stock  of 
printers'  supplies,  such  as  type,  cases,  rule,  galleys,  furniture,  sticks,  presses, 
paper  cutters,  etc.,  amounting  to  about  $30,000.  They  are  also  general  electro- 
typers,  and  execute  work  of  a  most  excellent  character  in  this  department.  The 
annual  business  will  reach  about  $100,000,  and  extends  throughout  Maryland, 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Southern  and  Western  States.  A  large  catalogue  is  mailed 
on  application,  giving  the  many  styles  of  type  and  border  produced  by  the  firm. 


LAND  AND    LIVE  STOCK   COMMISSION   MERCHANT. 

WR.  STUART,  Land   Agent,  Live   Stock    Commission   Merchant,  and 
Importer  of  Jersey  Cattle,  62  Carondelet  street,  New  Orleans,  La. 
*     Has  for  sale  timber,  mineral  and  farming  lands  in  large  tracts;  farms,, 
ranches,  etc.,  in  all  Southern  States;  haciendas,  ranches,  timber  and  mineral  hinds 
in  Mexico ;  also  receives  and  sells  on  commission  all  kinds  of  live  stock,  and 
handles  stock  of  all  kinds.    "W.  H.  Howcott. 


ELIAS   EDMONDS, 
ATTORNEY  AND   COUNSELOR  AT  LAW, 

SAN  ANTONIO,  TEXAS. 
— Practices  in  all  tlie  State  and  Federal  Courts. — 


Price  25  Cents,  $3.00  a  Year. 


SCRI 
MAGAZINE 


PUBLISHED  HONTHLY 
WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Sample  Copy  25  Cents 

-ADDRESS 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS,  Publishers, 
743  &  745  Broadway,  NEW  YORK. 


"How  TO  KEEP  BOILERS  CLEAN" 

•    AND  PREVENT    - 

EXPLOSION  •  AND  *  CORROSION, 

•    AS  WELL  AS    • 

Scaling,  Foaming  and  Burning, 

•    BY  THE    • 


HOTCHKISS  BOILER  CLEANER. 


Removes 

Lime, 

Magnesia,  Oil, 
Mud,  Salt, 

Iron, 
All  Impurities 

In  River, 
Pond,  Spring, 

Lake,  Well,  City 

or 
Mine  Water. 

Patented  1875, 1877. 1883.     Price  $75. 

STRICTLY  A  MECHANICAL  DEVICE 

(NO   COMPOUND.) 
SIMPLE.  INEXPENSIVE  AND  DURABLE. 

DESCRIPTION. — The  Funnel  constantly  skims  the  surface  water  of  all  impurities  thrown  to  the- 
surface  by  ebullition,  and  conducts  them  to  the  Reservoir,  where  they  all  settle,  the  purified  water 
continuously  returning  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows  to  the  Boiler.  This  operation  never  ceases  so« 
long  as  the  steam  is  up,  and  a  clean  boiler  is  insured  on  opening  day. 


Brooklyn,  E.D.,  December  15,  1886. 
I.  F.  HOTCHKISS,  Esq.,  New  York. 

Dear  Sir:  We  have  been  troubled  for  some  years  by  a  muddy  deposit  in  boilers 
that  was  comparatively  easy  to  wssh  from  body  of  boilers,  but  was  gradually  baked  fast 
to  a  hard  scale  on  the  outside  of  the  tubes,  so  that  it  was  necessary  to  scrape  them  as  well 
as  we  could  once  a  year.  After  scraping-  the  boilers  your  cleaners  were  put  on  and  have 
given  excellent  satisfaction  and  the  sixty  boilers  having  cleaners  on,  after  a  run  of  from, 
six  to  eight  months,  are  as  clean  as  new  boilers.  Yours  truly, 

HAVEMEYERS  &  ELDER, 

"HOW  TO  KEEP  BOILERS  CLEAN" 

Is  the  title  of  an  eighty-eight-page  book,  which  will  be  sent  free  to  any  address,  by 

I.  F.  HOTCHKISS,  86  John  Street,  New  York. 


NEW  .YOR.KJJ.SA: 

SERGEANT'S  'TRIUMPH'  ROCK  DRILL 

IS  MORE  STMPLE  IN  CONSTRUCTION, 
MORE      EFFECTIVE     IN     OPERATION.     AND 

RKQUIRKS     LKSS     RKFAIR 

Than  the  Best-Known  Rock  Drills  in  the  Market. 
O^E     ARE      I^REPARED     TO      15*10  VE     THE     ^BOVE     STATEMENT. 

AGENTS  FOR  THE  NORWALK  AIR  COMPRESSOR. 

Correspondence   Solicited  and   Estimates  Furnished  for  all  kinds   of 
Machinery  required  in 

Mining,  Quarrying  or  Contract  foit- 

Address,    SERGEANT  DRILL    CO. 

16  Dey  Street,  New  York. 


NOVELTY  WORKS. 


ESTABLISHED  183Z. 


JAMES  MURRAY  &  SON, 

ach  i  nlsts     and     ^/j[  ill  wrigb/ts, 


Marine  and  Stationary  Engines  and  Boilers, 

MARINE  RAILWAYS,  &c. 

Phosphate  Machinery,  Srusljers, 
Little  Giant  (Roller  Mill, 

MIXERS,  &.G. 

David's  Disintegraiers  and  Bone  Millsj 

Owner  of  Patents  and  Sole  Builders 

IMPROVED 

Clay   Jumpering  Machinery  , 

STKAM    OR    HORSE    POWER. 

#      AGENTS  FOR  VAN  DUZEN'S  STEAM  JET  PUMPS.      % 

102,  104,  106  and  108  East  York  Street,  near  Li^ht,  Baltimore. 

4®=-REPAIRING    OF    ALL    KINDS    PROMPTLY    DONE.1SJI 


THE  BECKETT  Sc  McDOWELL  MFC  CO. 

Iron  Founders  and  Machinists. 

MANUFACTURERS  OF 


Steam  Engines  and 


120  LIBERTY  STREET,  N.  Y.  ARLINGTON,  N.  J. 


ining  Machinery, 


We  refer  to  the   following  parties   using  our  machinery: 

Arminius  Copper  Company,  Tolersville,  Va.,  Hoisting  and  Crushing  Machinery,  with  capacity 
of  loo  tons  a  day.  Southern  Pacific  Railway  Co.,  Texas,  Hoisting  Machinery.  Portis  Gold  Mining 
Co.,  Macon,  N.  C.,  10  Stamp  Mill.  T.  C.  Basshor  &  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md.,  Hoisting  Machinery.  J. 
Schlitz  Brewing  Co.,  Memphis,  Tenn.,  6x12  Refrigerating  Machine.  Piedmont  Manganese  &  Iron 
Ore  Co.,  Piedmont,  Va.,  Hoisting  Engine.  Vein  Mt.  Mining  Co.,  Marion,  N.  C.,  10  Stamp  Mill.  E. 
J.  Codd  &  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md.,  Engines,  Cornish  Pumps,  &c.  Gold  Hill  Mines  Co.,  Salisbury,  N. 
C.,  20  Stamp  Mill  Complete.  Haile  Gold  Mining  Co.,  Lancaster,  S.  C.,  Double  Cylinder  Hoist,  20 
Stamp  Mill,  Engines  and  Cornish  Pumps.  Wythe  Lead  &  Zinc  Co.,  Max  Meadows,  Va.,  Cornish 
Rolls,  Hartz  Jigs,  Rittinger  Tables.  Hoover  Hill  Gold  Mining  Co.,  Hoover  Hill,  N.  C.,  20  Stamp 
Gold  Mill.  Barazarts  &  Castro,  Valparaiso,  Chili,  S.  A.,  Hoisting  Machinery,  Complete  Mining 
Plant  and  Copper  Smelting  Furnace  aggregating  over  100  tons.  De  La  Vergne  Refrigerating  Machine 
Co.,  Bank  Street,  N.  Y.,  20  Engines.  Royal  Silver  Mines,  of  Potosi,  Bolivia,  Limited,  75  tons  of 
Machinery.  Conception  &  Anexis  Mining  Co.,  Tlalpujahua,  Mexico,  20  Stamp  Mill  and  Mining  Ma- 
chinery, aggregating  over  150  tons. 


Pioneer  Company. 


Organized   1866. 


INSURE  YOUR  • 

Rollers 

J     J 


Against   Explosion.  ^  — 


ESTABLISHED   FOR  THE 
oj?    d)team  Si>oifer    G^ 

X      BY  EFFICIENT  INSPECTION,       X 

to  Ingitfe  against  Lo$  or1  Damage  fiij 


J.  3.  PIERCE, 


Secretary. 


J.  M.  ALLEN,  W.  B. 

President.     .  Vice- President. 

DIRECTORS: 

J.  M.  ALLEN,  President.  LUCIUS  J.  HENDEE,  Pres.  ^Etna  Fire  Ins.  Co. 

PRANK  W.  CHENEY,  of  Cheney  Bros.,  Hart-    CHARLES  M.  BEACH,  of  Beach  &  Co. 

ford  and  New  York.  DANIEL  PHILLIPS,  of  Adams  Express  Co. 

RICHARD  W.  H.  JARVIS,  Prest.  Colt's  Pat.     THOMAS  O.  ENDERS,  of  ^Etna  Life  Ins.  Co. 

Fire  Arms  Manufacturing  Co  LEVERETT   BRAINARD,  of  the  Case,  Lock- 

GEN  WM.  B.  FRANKLIN,  Vice-President  Colt's          wood  &  Brainard  Co. 

Pat.  Fire  Arms  Manufacturing  Co.  NEWTON    CASE,   of    the    Case,    Lockwood    & 

NELSON    HOLLISTER,  of   the  State   Bank,  Brainard  Co 

Hartford.  CHARLES  T.  PARRY,  of  Baldwin  Locomotive 

HON.  H.  C.  ROBINSON,  Atty.  at  Law,  Hartford.          Works,  Philadelphia. 

Home  Office,  218  Main  Street,  Hartford,  Charter  Oak  Life  Building, 


United  j&atBgLife  IngitfancE  Go. 


IPHB  dlBY  OR 

(ORGANIZED  IN  I860.) 

261,  262  &  263  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK. 


GKO.  H.  BURKOR.D,  President, 

C.  P.  FRALEIGH,  Sec.       A.  WHEELWRIGHT,  Asst.  Sec.       WM.  T.  STANDEN,  Actuary, 


All  the  profits  belong  to  the  Policy-holders  exclusively. 

All  Policies  issued  by  this  Company  are  INDISPUTABLE  after  three  years. 

All  Death  Claims  paid  WITHOUT  DISCOUNT  as  soon  as  satisfactory  proofs- 
have  been  received. 

This  Company  issues  all  forms  of  Insurance,  including  Tontine  and 
Limited  (Non-Forfeiting)  Tontine. 

Absolute  security,  combined  with  the  largest  liberality,  assures  the 
popularity  and  success  of  this  Company. 


New  York  and  New  England  Railroad 

The  traveling  public  will  consult  their  comfort  by  taking 

THB  FAVORITE  LINE 

BOSTON,  PHILADELPHIA  &  WASHINGTON. 

Solid  Trains  are  transferred  between  Harlem  River  and  Jersey  City, 
around  New  York  City  on  the 

Transfer  Steamer  Maryland. 

The  trains  run  via  Penna.  Railroad,  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  and   New  York  &  New 

England  Railroads. 

F'tJ.llrrian  Palace  Sleeping  Cars, 

run  between  Boston  and  Washington  without  change.     Connections  are  made  at  Philadelphia  with 

trains  to  and  from  the  West,  via  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 
The  CONVENIENCE  of  this  Line  is  apparent,  as  it 

AVOIDS  VEXATIOUS  TRANSFER 

By  Stages  through  New  York  City,  and  no  other  route  between  New  England  and  the  South  affords- 

li^e  facilities  for  comfort  and  despatch. 
Information  with  reference  to  these  trains  can  be  obtained  at  Offices, 

2O5  and.  322  \Vasnington  Street, 
At  Depot  foot  of  Summer  Street,  Boston,  or  at  Penna.  R.  R.  Offices  South  and  West, 

A.  C  .  KENDALL,  Gen'l  Passenger  Agt.     W.  H.  TURNER,   Gen'l  Superintendent. 

New  York  &  New  England  Kailroad,  Boston. 


Binding  of  tnis  Book:  \va.s  clone  t>y 


J.   F.   TAPLE-Y,    » 

BOOKBINDER, 

,  51  &  53  Lafayette  Place, 


JVlvir  5/A  Street  &•  B  roadway. 


\Vtiom  tine  pu.t>lis  tiers  takze  pleasure  in  commen- 
ding to  tnose  ^vtio  vv^arit  v^ork:  of  tine  Iniglnest 
class,     and.     at    reasonable    prices. 


*  THE  MEDART  PATENT  $ 

WROUGHT  RIM  PULLEY. 

OVER  300,000  NOW  IN  USE. 

The  Lightest,  Strongest,  Best  Balanced  and  Cheapest 

IN  THE  WORLD. 

Shafting,  Hangers,  Couplings,  &c, 
MED/IRT  P/ITENT  PULLEY  CO. 

1206  to  1214  N.  Main  Street,  St.  Louis,  Mo, 
Stores:  99  to  101  W.  Second  St.,  Gin.         24  &  26  S.  Canal  St.,  Chicago. 

The  "DAISY"  Pillow  Sham  Holder 

Sent  by  mail  or  express,  free, 
on  receipt  of  $1.5O. 

Liberal  Discount  to  the  Trade. 

HDLSAPPLE  &  CO. 

W.  C.  OBCUTT,  Manager. 

795  Broadway,  N.  Y. 

AGENTS  WANTED. 


ATLANTIC   COAST    LINE 

O  Through  Freight  and  Passenger  Route.  * 


to  c? 

AGENTS  AT  ALL  PRINCIPAL  POINTS. 


Bichmond  &  Petersburg  R.  R, 

Richmond  to  Petersburg  
Petersburg  to  Weldon,  X.  C.  .  . 

MILES. 

162 
*9 
74 
33 

22 
17 

23 
64 

327 
I92 

102 

40 
25 
40 

8n 

Petersburg  Rail  Road 

Mmington&IeldonR.  R.Main  nne 

Weldon  to  Wilmington  . 

Scotland  NCCK  Branch.  .  .  . 
Wilson    &    Fayet'le   Bch.. 
Albemarle&  Raleigh  R.R. 
Midland  N.  Carolina  R.R. 

Halifax  to  Scotland  Neck  
Wilson  to  Fayetteville  

Goldsboro  to  Smithfield  

Rocky  Mt    to  Tarboro     

lilmington,  Cola.  &  Augusta  R,  R,  

northeastern  R,  R.  of  So.  Carolina 

Cheraw  &  Darlington  R.  R,  
Cheraw&  Salisbury  R,  R,  
Central  R.  R,  of  S,  Carolina 

Florence  to  Cheraw  
Cheraw  to  Wadesboro  

TOTAL  MILEAGE... 

SUMMERTOURS 

o    on  the    o 

•  GREAT  *  LAKES * 


c    via    » 

PICTURESQUE   MACKINAC. 

Palace  Sidewheel  Steamers.  Low  Rates. 

The  Sportsman's  Line  to  the  Sportsman's  Paradise. 
DETROIT  &  CLEVELAND  STEAM  NAVIGATION  COMPANY. 

E.  B.  n':iITC0.1fB,  G.  P.  A.,  DETROrT,  MICH. 


Forwarders  Between  all  the  Principal  Cities  in  the 

Jiew  England,  Middle  and  Western  States. 

Exclusive  Occupants  for  the  Express  Business  of  37,000  Miles  of  Railroad, 
with  over  5,000  Agencies. 

MONEY  ORDERS!  Cheap,  Safe  and  Convenient.  Issued  for  ANY  AMOUNT. 

Payable  at  10,000  places,  or  from  the  "extreme  East  to  the  Pacific  Coast"  and  Canada. 
Receipts  Given.  Money  Refunded  if  Orders  are  Lost.         Orders  Received  by  B_;nks. 

RATES:   $5,  5  cts. ;  f  10,  8  cts. ;  $30, 10  cts. ;  $30, 13  cts.;   $40, 15  cts. ;  $50,  20  cts. 
Over  $50,  Proportionate  Rates.    Orders  also  issued  payab'e  in  EUROPE,  at  favorable  rates. 

Money  Transferred  by  Telegraph 


Between  all  its  important  City  and 
Village  Agencies. 

Low  Rates  &  Prompt  Service. 

Payment  of  Money  made,  when 
Requested,   at    Local  Addresses. 

RATES:   In  addition  to  the  cost  of  Telegraph 

service,   for  sums   of  $100  or  less,  one 

per  cent,   or   joe.   to  $1.00. 

Over   S1OO  to  $2OO,  $1.25 

"          2OO  to      3OO,     1.5O 

300  to     4OO,      1.75 

40O  to     50O,     2.OO 

Bates  for  larger  amounts,  apply  to  Agents. 

AMERICAN  EXPRESS  CO, 

FILLS  OKDEBS  FOR 

Goods  or   Household    Supplies, 

To  be  returned  by  Express. 

Prompt  attention  and  no  extra  charge 

for  the  service. 


Purchases  not  exceeding  $5  each  will  be  ad- 
vanced by  the  Company,  without  charge,  pro- 
vided deposit  is  made  with  the  Agent. 

E5P""Orders  can  be  given  to  Agents  or  to 
Messengers  on  trains.  Orders  by  Te  egraph, 
through  the  Company's  Agent,  sender  prepaying 
same,  will  receive  prompt  attention.  Blanks  for 
orders,  free,  on  application  to  Agents. 


MERCHANDISE  PARCEL  RATES. 

The  attention  of  shippers  is  respectfully  called 
to  the  following  table  of  approximate  rates  for 
the  carriage  of  small  packages  of  merchandise. 
These  rates  are  the  lowest  and  highest  charges 
made,  according  to  the  distance  packages  are  car- 
ried, and  apply  between  over  5,000  places  rf  ached 
direct  by  this  Company  in  the  United  States. 


1  Pound, 

2  Pounds, 

3  Pounds, 

4  Pounds, 

5  Pounds, 
7  Pounds, 


25  Cents. 

25  Cents  to  30  Cents. 
25  Cents  to  45  Cents. 
25  Cents  to  60  Cents. 
25  Cents  to  75  Cents. 
25  Cents  to  $1.00. 


By  Through  Way  Billing  arrangements  the 
above  rates  also  apply  to  places  reached  by 
nearly  every  connecting  Express  in  the  U.  S. 


SPECIAL  RATES  for  Printed  Matter;  less  than  by  mail; 
absolute  security  against  loss  or  damage. 


PRICE  $3.00  A  YEAR.  BALTIMORE,  MD.  SINGLE  COPIES  10  CENTS. 

TITHE  Manufacturers'  Record  is  a  weekly  paper  devoted 
-L     to  the  manufacturing,  mining  and  railroad  interests, 
and    to    the    general     development    and     progress    in    all 
lines  of  industry  of  the  Southern  States. 

Information  about  the  South. 

The  marvelous  mineral  and  timber  wealth  of  the  Southern  States,  their 
unrivalled  capabilities  as  a  manufacturing  area,  and  the  astonishing  progress  they 
are  making  in  developing  their  natural  resources  and  in  utilizing  their  facilities 
for  manufacture,  are  attracting  the  attention  of  the  whole  world.  The  extent  of 


authority  on  Southern  affiiirs,  and  its  statistics  and  statements  are  drawn  upon  by 
almost  every  writer  or  speaker  on  any  Southern  topic. 

Its  weekly  issues  constitute  an  authentic  history  of  the  industrial  progress 
of  the  Southern  States.  It  furnishes  every  week  a  vast  variety  of  information 
on  Southern  affairs  that  can  be  gained  from  no  other  source.  It  discusses  in  its 
editorial  columns  and  in  its  correspondence  every  tropic  of  Southern  interest. 
It  presents  the  resources  and  the  development  of  the  South  in  all  their  phases. 
To  all  who  are  in  any  way  interested  or  concerned  in  the  prosperity  of  the  South, 
or  who  care  to  keep  posted  as  to  the  industrial  and  commercial  progress  of  that 
section,  the  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  is  indispensable. 

It  has  a  constantly  increasing  circulation  among  capitalists  and  others  in  the 
North  and  West,  who  desire  to  keep  informed  as  to  Southern  affairs. 

Southern  Trade. 

The  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD  is  a  paper  that  has  identified  itself  with  the 
development  of  the  Southern  States;  it  is  the  recognized  exponent  of  the 
South's  industrial  interests.  It  has  from  the  beginning  made  that  its  special 
field  of  labor,  and  in  it  it  has  practically  no  rival;  it  stands  pre-eminent.  In 
the  South  it  has  widespread  influence.  It  is  read  and  quoted  and  commended 
in  every  section  of  the  fourteen  Southern  States.  It  numbers  among  its  sub- 
scribers the  most  prominent  houses  and  the  officers  of  the  largest  corporations  in 
the  Southern  States;  the  proprietors  of  mills  and  factories  in  every  line  of 
manufacture,  leading  contractors,  hardware  dealers,  the  presidents  and  managers 
of  railroads,  mining  companies,  pig-iron  furnaces,  cotton  mills,  banks, 
etc.  It  is  not  a  mere  advertising  sheet ;  it  is  a  pushing,  live,  enterprising  vigorous 
paper.  Its  matter  is  fresh,  interesting  and  original.  It  differs  from  all  other  in- 
dustrial papers  in  that  it  has  a  specialty — a  mission — viz :  the  advancement  of  the 
South.  It  is  a  paper  that  is  not  thrown  aside,  but  is  read.  Its  utterances  are  con- 
sidered of  value,  and  eveiy  issue  is  looked  for  with  interest  by  its  subscribers. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  the  special  field  of  the  MANUFACTURERS'  RECORD 
— the  South— and  its  standing  and  influence  in  that  field,  it  offers  to  manufacturers 
of  machinery  of  all  kinds,  mill,  factory,  mine  and  railroad  supplies,  hardware,  roof- 
ing, builders'  material,  etc  ,  unequalled  advantages  as  an  aid  in  securing  a  share  of 
the  trade  of  the  South,  which  is  assuming  such  enormous  proportions,  and  which 
must  continue  to  grow  indefinitely. 

Sample  Copies  will  be  sent  free  on  application. 

MANUFACTURERS'   RECORD    CO.,  Publishers,   Baltimore,   Md. 


FROM  THE  LAKES  TO  THE  GULF. 

ILLINOIS*  CENTRAL 

->  RAILROAD.  -> 

-  I  H  I-  1  I  -H--M-  -H-m-m-M-H-  - 

©y/ir^ter   GgcurAion  HiciCetx^  fo 

NEW  ORLEANS,  HOUSTON, 

GALVESTON,  AUSTIN, 

And  SAN  ANTONIO,  TEXAS, 

And  JACKSONVILLE,  FLORIDA, 
Via  NEW  ORLEANS, 

AT  Ht  LOWEST  «•  RATKS. 


j?Jan  Krancisco,  Cal., 

Via  New  Orleans  and  Southern  Pacific  Railway. 


NO   SNOW —  -•  «-»  » NO   ICE 


ILLINOIS  6ETO7IL 


Being  the  SHORT  LINE  between  Chicago,  the  Lake  Region,  the  SUMMER  RESORTS  of  Wis- 
consin, Minnesota  and  the  great  Northwest,  and 


and  the  WINTER  RESORTS»of  the  charming  Gulf  Coast,  the  traveler  for  pleasure  as  well  as  the 
business  man  will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  avail  himself  of  this  route. 

OUR  NEW  FLORIDA  ROUTE,  via  New  Orleans. 

The  completion  of  the  Pensacola  &  Atlantic  Ry.  from  Pensacola  to  the  Chattahpochee 
River,  where  connection  is  made  with  the  Florida  Central  &  Western  By.,  together  with  the 
Pensacola  and  New  Orleans  Divisions  of  the  L.  &  N.  R.  R.,  forms  a  THROUGH  All-Rail  Line  from 
New  Orleans  to  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  86  miles  shorter  than  by  any  other  route.  This  line 
has  been  handsomely  equipped  with  Pullman  Buffet  Sleeping  Cars  of  the  latest  pattern,  which  run 
through  from  New  Orleans  to  Jacksonville  daily,  in  connection  with  trains  of  the 


ILLINOIS  <§ENTE>AL 


The  advantages  of  this  route  for  Florida  will  be  readily  appreciated  by  the  INVALID  and  intelli- 
gent tourist.  With  through  sleepers  from  Ch'cago  to  New  Orleans  without  change,  and  through 
sleepers  from  New  Orleans  to  Jacksonville  without  change,  passing  along  the  charming  Gulf  Coast 
through  Bay  St.  Louis,  Biloxi,  Ocean  Springs,  Mobile,  Pensacola  and  Tallahassee  (the  Capital  of 
Florida*,  with  stop-over  privileges  at  New  Orleans  and  at  anv  of  the  above  points,  and  with  rates  as 
LOW  as  by  any  other  route,  make  this  the  MOST  DESIRABLE  LINE  for  the  Florida  Tourist. 

Our  TEXAS  AND  CALIFORNIA  LINE,  via  New  Orleans, 

Offers  Superior  Advantages  for  winter  travel.     Solid  Trains  of  Palace  Sleepers  and  Day  Coaches  are 
now  run  from  NEW  ORLEANS  over  the  Great  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  via  Houston,  San  Antonio, 
El  Paso,  Tucson  and  Los  Angeles  to  San  Francisco  without  change.     The  fare  by  this  route  is  as  low 
as  by  any  other,  and  this  line  can  always  be  relied  on  as  being  FREE  FROM  SNOW  AND  ICE. 
Stop-over  privileges  are  allowed  at  New  Orleans  or  any  of  the  above  points. 

J&sT  Through  Sleeping  Cars  from  Chicago  to  New  Orleans  and  New  Orleans  to  San  Antonio 
.and  San  Francisco  without  change,  and  only  one  change  from  New  Orleans  to  Galveston  and  Austin. 

For  more  particular  Information  regarding  above  Routes,  also  time  of  placing  Tickets  on  Sale,  and  Limitation, 

Rates,  etc,,  etc,,  address 
A.  H.  HANSON,  General  Passenger  Agent,  CHICAGO. 


1811. 


ALEXANDER  BROWN  &  SONS, 


BALTIMORE, 


TRANSACT  A  GENERAL 


Buy  and  Sell  Bills  of  Exchange  on  Great  Britain,  Ireland 
and  other  Foreign  points. 


ISSUE     COMMERCIAL    and     TRAVELERS'    CREDITS 
IN  STERLING,  FRANCS,  or  DOLLARS, 

AVAILABLE  IN  ANY  PART  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Make  Telegraphic   Transfers  of  Money  between  this  and  other  countries. 
Make   Collections   of   Drafts. 

RAILROAD,  MUNICIPAL  and  other  LOANS  NEGOTIATED, 

And  ADVANCES  MADE  ON 

Cotton,  Grain  and  other  Approved  Securities, . 

Interest  Allowed  on  Deposits  of  Banks,  Bankers,  Corporations  and  Individuals. 

MEMBERS   OF   BALTIMORE   STOCK   EXCHANGE. 
BUT  and  SELL  STOCKS  and  BONDS  IN  THIS  AND   OTHER   CITIES. 


Private  Wire  to  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 


BROWN  BROTH  EPS  &  CO,  BROWN,  SHIPLEY  &  CO. 

New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Boston.  |  London  and  Liverpool. 


M272159 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


